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Module-4: BASICS OF READING AND WRITING SKILLS

4.1:Reading Skill: Types of reading, Sub-skills of reading: Skimming, Scanning

Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man, and writing an exact man- Francis Bacon,
the famous essayist, has rightly observed in his well known essay “Of Studies”. It is true that out
of the four skills- listening, speaking, reading and writing- reading is probably the most crucial
one. It is so because a good reader can rise above the disadvantage of limited opportunity received
in terms of listening, speaking, and writing a language. By all means, effective reading skills are
vital to achieve success not only in academic but also professional life. Usually, it is observed that
only good readers are good communicators. It is a skill that cannot be ignored. It is advisable to
acquire efficient reading skills as early as possible.

Benefits of Effective Reading:

Here are the benefits of effective reading:

1. It can provide you with a ‘comprehensive input’ from the book or document that you read.
2. It can enhance your general ability to use other language skills such as listening, speaking,
and writing.
3. It can enhance your vocabulary, that is, you can always learn new words, phrases, and
expressions.
4. It also helps you keep your mind focused on the material and prevents it from unnecessary
distractions.
5. Moreover, it enables you to extract useful information much more efficiently within the
limited time.
6. It can help you consolidate both previously learned language and knowledge.
7. It helps in building confidence as you start reading longer, and later, voluminous texts.
8. It gives you pleasure and relaxation as books are the best and most reliable friends.
9. It facilitates the development of various other skills, such as making predictions, comparing
and contrasting facts, creating samples, hypothesizing, reorganizing the message as
transmitted by the text, improving your critical thinking, and hence developing a sharp
acumen with passage of time.

Speed of reading:

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There is a difference in the rate of reading for different purposes:

Purpose of Reading No. of Words (words per minute/wpm)

Reading for memorization Fewer than 100

Reading for learning 100-200

Reading for comprehension 200-400

Skimming 400-700

Actually, most adults are able to increase their reading rate significantly and rather rapidly without
lowering their comprehension. Merely reading more rapidly, without actual improvement in basic
reading habits, however, usually results in lowered comprehension. Broadly categorized, there are
three main factors involved in improving reading speed:

1. The desire to improve

2. Conscious efforts in using newly acquired techniques
3. A motivation to practice

With these, almost anyone can double his/her speed of reading while maintaining equal or even
better comprehension. The differences between an efficient and inefficient reader are as follows:

An Efficient Reader An Inefficient Reader

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● Always reads for ideas or information ● Tries to read words

● Reads group of words/multi-phrases ● Reads word by word
● Quickly adjusts his/her speed of ● Reads the text from the beginning till
reading to the nature of the text the end.
● Sets the purpose of reading right in the ● Reads everything and deliberately
beginning goes slow while reading
● Reads smoothly ● Reads the information again and again
● Visualizes ideas to figure out a clear understanding of
● Has a good vocabulary in that subject the text.
● Continuously keeps improving ● Vocalizes or sub-vocalizes words
his/her pace of reading while reading
● Properly tries to sort out the material ● Has limited vocabulary
as critical, interesting, analytical, etc. ● Rarely attempts speed reading
● Reads everything indiscriminately.

Four basic steps to effective reading:

While reading a text to learn something, you need to follow the following four basic steps:

1. Figure out the purpose of reading a particular text. You can identify suitable reading
strategies and use your background knowledge of the topic in order to anticipate the
contents.
2. Spot the parts of the text relevant to the identified purpose and ignore the rest. This
selectivity enables you to focus on particular elements of information from the text. So,
you are able to shift through the information, which in turn reduces the amount of
information you have to hold in short-term memory.
3. Choose the appropriate reading strategy that suits your purpose. Select the strategy
that is suited to the reading task in that particular context and use that strategy in an
interactive manner. This will develop your understanding as well as confidence.

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4. Test or assess your comprehension during reading and also when the reading task is
completed. Monitoring comprehension helps you make out the inconsistencies and
discrepancies in total comprehension of the text. At this step, you can also learn to use
alternative strategies.

Common obstacles and strategies to overcome them:

Let us now learn the major hurdles in developing efficient reading. The problem are as discussed
below:

1. Lack of concentration: Poor concentration directly emanates from poor reading habits. If
we are not used to reading, it often appears to be an unpleasant task when we are forced to
do it. In such circumstances the mind begins to drift. However, since we know that there is
no escape from reading, we need to cultivate an active interest in our reading assignments.
Gradually, our concentration begins to improve if we consciously start taking an interest
in the reading activity.
2. Eye fixation: While reading, when one is unable to progress well beyond a thought,
expression, or word, it is regarded as eye fixation. This is often caused because of lack of
training, and cripples our reading efficiency. To overcome this, try to divide a sentence into
certain thought units, and don’t fixate on a particular word or sentence for long.
3. Regression: Just like eye fixation, regression too creeps into our reading habits because of
lack of training. When we are unable to understand an idea, we habitually go back to the
part where it occurs in a passage. It clearly suggests incompetence in reading and
comprehension skills. Enhanced reading habit with enthusiasm and interest can help you
overcome this problem. For efficient and artful reading, you should make your eye move
over at least 2-3 words in one go and let it glide over the text in a rhythm. Since reading is
an impressive process, if trained well, the eye quickly moves to assimilate text.
4. Reading aloud or turning the head from side to side: Often we see mothers telling their
kids to read aloud from their books to them, so that they can also finidh their kitchen work
while they help their kids improve their reading skills! This, however, sometimes lead to
poor concentration while reading, as their primary objective in such reading becomes
proper articulation of certain words and expressions. Similarly, moving head from side to
side, or gliding a pen, pencil, or a scale through the texts are also not worth imbibing, as

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any added activity besides reading and comprehension tends to affect your understanding
of the concept. Ideally, our eyes should see and our mind should read the text before us.
5. Indiscriminate use of dictionary: Some damage to the reading habits is also done because
of lack of guidance about the proper utilization of the dictionary. Some students are even
misled into cramming the dictionary they possess. Remember, a dictionary is not meant for
this purpose, and you don’t learn words by cramming them. For picking up more words,
work conscientiously at least on some parts of your reading material every day. Observe
carefully how the words and expressions are used in the dictionary to understand their
specific usage, and the words similar and dissimilar to them. It has to be followed by using
all such words and expressions frequently in your speaking and writing tasks.

Another misuse of the dictionary is the tendency to refer to it the moment one come across
with one find it difficult to understand. However, when we rush to look for the meaning of
a word in the dictionary, the moment we confront it, we lose our spontaneity in reading.
Moreover, most of us start with a modest vocabulary; hence, the numbers of words which
appear unfamiliar to us are many in number. Therefore, go through your reading
assignments without taking such breaks; encircle the words and expressions you are unable
to understand. Once you have finished the entire assignment, or at least some sizable chunk
of it, turn to the dictionary to understand the words. Even as you do so, try to scan the
target word from different perspectives. Try to learn its pronunciation, identify its class, its
singular and plural forms, its different meanings and usages, and the words which are
similar to it and those that are dissimilar.

Given below are a few more obstacles that you need to overcome while reading:

● Reading becomes a cumbersome activity when you skip a major part of the text and in a
hurry to finish it.
● When you don’t read a longer text for at least an hour to allow yourself to develop an
interest in it, you cannot enjoy reading.
● When your mind is preoccupied with other thoughts rather than the message that you are
reading, the time spent is just wasted.

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● Sometimes students have the tendency to read aloud, which is called vocalization. They do
so because they feel they should not get distracted while reading. However, this kind of
reading not only mars their speed of reading but also their comprehension of the text.
● Reading becomes an uphill task when you have an unfriendly approach towards it.
● Reading becomes boring when you do not select a book or text for reading to your linguistic
and cognitive level.
● One can’t read faster in an effort to remember everything rather than to remember
selectively.

Types of reading:

Now, for learning the art of reading, you should know the four basic types of reading skills that a
reader may use in any language.

1. Skimming: It is used to quickly gather the most important information or ‘gist’ from the
document or novel that you read. For this, you have to make your eyes run over the text,
noting important information. You may also go through the contents of the chapters
rapidly, picking out the key words and concepts. For example, while reading the
newspaper, you quickly try to get the general news of the day and discover which articles
you would like to read in more detail.
2. Scanning: It is used to find a particular piece of information. In this type of reading, you
allow your eyes to run over the text, looking for the specific piece of information that you
need. You use scanning when you go through your schedule or meeting plans, look for
specific advertisements, or some specific information in a book, etc. this is the most
effective way of getting information from magazines- scan the table of contents or indexes
and turn directly to interesting articles to arrive at the specific information.
3. Extensive reading: It is used to obtain a general understanding of a subject. It includes
reading longer texts for pleasure, and business reports to know about the general trends. In
this type of reading, you should not worry if you do not understand each and every word.
You can use this type of reading to improve your general knowledge on business
procedures, or to know the latest marketing strategies. Also, while you read a novel before
going to bed, or magazine articles that interest you, you use your extensive reading skills.

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4. Intensive reading: It is used on shorter texts in order to extract detailed information. It

includes very close and accurate reading for more details. You use this skill to grasp the
details of a specific situation. In this case, it is important for you to understand each word,
information, or fact. When you read your text for understanding the concepts or various
theories, you have to read intensively. You also require reading every single detail when
you want to go for an insurance claim or want to sign a contract. Intensive reading skills
help you understand and interpret the text, infer its central idea, observe the common thread
that runs through it, and intuit its overall purpose and significance.

Methods of reading:

There are seven methods of reading, with different rates, for different kinds of material and
purposes.

1. Subvocalized reading: It combines sight reading with internal sounding of the words as if
spoken. It is a bad habit that slows down the pace of reading and comprehension. However,
some studies show that it helps the readers better, particularly while reading complex texts.
2. Speed reading: It is a method for increasing reading speed without a reduction in
comprehension or retention. With effort, you can acquire a speed of as much as 1000 words
per minute.
3. Photoreading: It is different from “regular reading” or “speed reading”. It is a way to
process and understand information rather than to read it. It claims to process and store the
information merely by looking at the page by use, the whole mind rather than only the left
or right side of our brain. In this method, you use speed reading techniques with an
additional technique of photo reading to increase your reading speed, comprehension, and
retention.
4. Proofreading: it is a kind of reading for detecting typographical errors in a printed text.
One can learn to do it rapidly, and professional proofreaders typically acquire the ability to
do so at high rates, faster for some kinds of material than for others.

Approaches to Efficient Reading:

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You should know that forced acceleration may destroy confidence in one’s ability to read. The
obvious solution, then, is to increase your reading pace as a part of the total improvement of the
whole reading process. In general, decrease your speed when you experience certain difficulties.

Type of Difficulty Suggested Approach

Unfamiliar Terminology Try to understand it in context at that point; otherwise, read

on and return to it later.

Difficult sentence and paragraph Slow down enough to enable you to untangle them and get
Structure the accurate context for the passage.

Unfamiliar or abstract concepts Look for applications or examples of your own

Detailed, technical material Since it includes complicated directions, statements of

difficult principles, technical information be patient and
approach the text critically.

Material on which you want Since you want to remember them for a longer duration,
detailed retention read such material with intensity, observation and
painstaking efforts.

It’s not always needed to decrease your speed when you come across with certain difficulties. In
some instances, you need to accelerate your pace as given below.

Type of Difficulty Suggested Approach

Simple material with few ideas Move rapidly over the familiar ones; spend most of
which are new to you. your time on the unfamiliar ideas.

Unnecessary examples and Since these are included to clarify ideas, move over
illustrations them rapidly when they are not needed.

Detailed explanation and idea Since you do not need them, you can rapidly move
elaboration which you don’t need over them.

Broad, generalised ideas and ideas These can be easily grasped, even with scan
which are restatements of previous techniques.
ones

4.2: Reading comprehension

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Reading comprehension is one of the most commonly assessed skills in many a reputed test meant
to select people for further studies or professional positions. In the recent past, in fact, reading
comprehension has emerged as one of the most authentic tools to judge a person’s sustainability
for a job or further studies. Lack of reading habits, emanating mainly due to a young mind’s overt
obsession with technology driven devices such as computers, mobile phones, and television, makes
it all the more difficult for a large number of students to combat reading comprehension passages
which occur almost inevitably in most competitive exams now. That is why, though many brilliant
minds around us do very well in other parts of their test, they struggle to answer the questions
based on the reading comprehension passages.

What goes wrong and where?

The question arises – what goes wrong and where? The answer is that many things go wrong at
many places. Based on our interaction with students, we have tried to look into the main worries
that students have when they confront a reading comprehension passage. We list below all such
worries and inquiries, and follow each of those with our suggestion. Read further and understand
how many of these worries and enquiries of several students are yours as well.

Employing different reading skills

There are four different skills, namely skimming, scanning, intensive and extensive reading skills,
all of which help you attempt a reading comprehension passage. Detailed discussion and elaborate
tips on how to judiciously employ these skills have been provided in the previous chapter. Let’s
now develop some other strategies to gain further insight into a given passage as enumerated
below.

Understanding the author’s point of view:

While approaching a passage, it is also important for us to identify its nature. Broadly speaking,
the passage can be information based or point of view based. There are passages in which the
author intends to inform the reader about some phenomenon. In such passages, the author does not
really have a point of view to ignore. Understanding the author’s point of view helps you answer
various point-of-view based questions worded in different ways such as:

1. The author’s primary purpose in this passage is to…

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2. With which of the following statements would the author of the passage be most likely to
agree?
3. The author’s argument would be most weakened by the discovery of which of the
following?
4. Which of the following examples would be best substituted for the author’s examples of…
5. The author’s tone is best described as…
6. The author views his subject with…
7. The author’s presentation is best characterized as…

Therefore, understanding the author’s point of view really helps in understanding a lot about a
given passage. Now the question arises—how do we understand the author’s view? Let us go
through the following small passage and figure out the author’s view or perspective:

Leadership is often confused with managerial skills. It is commonly perceived that a leader leads
while a manager just manages. The distinction, however, is not all that easy to maintain all the
time…

Observe how the author broaches the topic and prepares to contend the existing view that lends to
demarcate leadership from management.

Given below are some of the linkers which serve to connect the author’s perspective to a given
situation:

1. It may not seem worthwhile, however, to singularly ignore the advantages of patriarchy…
2. Regardless of the controversy that surrounds a celebrity status, it is a drive that is likely to
goad a million to its glitter…
3. Despite/In spite of the leader’s claim to cut/check the price hike, there seems no let up in
the trend…
4. We simply can’t afford to just wait for many more years for the signs of global warming
to come out more conspicuously. In order to reverse the trend, action must start even
before the trend itself is firmly established.

Besides these connectives, other linking words such as but, in fact, in view of, as much as, since,
because, for, regarding, with regard to, in the context of, thus, hence, therefore, yet, moreover,
further, as, so that, since that, as far as, besides, apart from, with, along with, as well as, together

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with, coupled with, etc, are to be marked carefully. Whatever may thus be the purpose of the
author, connectives play a crucial role in revealing that to us. Hence, while attempting to decode a
passage for reading comprehension, we must try to understand what such a linker suggests in
overall tapestry of the author’s strategy, style, and scheme in letting his/her reader figure out the
point of view.

Sometimes, clues may present themselves not through connectives but through other linguistic
cues which may require a subtle and deft understanding to figure out the author’s view. Look at
the examples given below and try to establish what the author is trying to suggest:

1. Regrettably, the Kashmir problem has been allowed to feed on itself for far too long.
2. Not surprisingly, children achieve through parenting what they can never achieve through
tutoring.
3. To the shock of every conscious citizen, the drainage system of many a city in India is
crumbling.

In all the above examples, there are expressions such as regrettably, not surprisingly, to the shock
of every.., which help the reader establish the author’s view. As a reader of passages, therefore, we
have to be quite alert to such expressions, other than the linkers, to be able to answer the questions
based on the author’s opinions regarding the issue under the scanner.

Identifying the central idea:

All passages have a central or main idea which becomes very important for us to understand. It is
so because out of the questions asked in a reading comprehension exercise, most of these relate to
the central idea of the passage. Therefore, attempting a passage without understanding the main
idea or central idea is like fighting a battle without knowing with whom or for what it is being
fought. Let us see how questions related to the central idea of a passage abound in reading
comprehension exercise and are posed to the reader in a variety of ways:

1. The passage is primarily concerned with…

2. Which of the following statements best expresses the main idea of the passage?
3. The author’s primary purpose is to…
4. The author in the passage implies that…
5. It can be inferred from the following passage that…

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6. With which of the following statements would the author of the passage be most likely to
agree?
7. The author’s argument would be most weakened by the discovery of which of the
following?
8. Which of the following examples could be best substituted for the author’s example of…?
9. Which of the following statements best summarizes the main idea of the passage?

Tips for identifying the Central Idea:

Following are some important tips for identifying the central idea of any passage:

1. Never read a passage in a laid-back manner: Always attack it vigorously so as to scavenge

it thoroughly. When you read a passage, keep asking yourself the question-what could be
the reason for the author to have written this passage? What is it that the author is trying to
tell me here? What could be the main concern of the author in writing the passage? When
you keep probing a passage thus, you are likely to the core of the argument sooner or later.
2. A passage- particularly a longer one- is often divided into several paragraphs. Now each
of these paragraphs has a topic sentence which expresses the main content of that particular
paragraph. Many a time, a topic sentence comes right in the beginning of a paragraph and
hence introduces the core issues. A topic sentence or an introducer is generally followed
by some other sentences which are meant to substantiate the topical idea of the paragraph.
All such sentences are known as developers as they augment, substantiate, compare,
contrast, argue, contest, exemplify, or bear out the topical idea already introduced to the
reader. A well constructed passage is also likely to have some terminators following such
introducers and developers. The terminators are likely to summarize and conclude the
idea of a paragraph.
3. Carefully read the beginning of each paragraph. As authors frequently present their core
concerns in the beginning of a paragraph, beginnings of each of the paragraphs often give
us vital clues about the overall idea expressed in the passage.
4. Also carefully follow the ending of each paragraph, since the author is most likely to wind
up his/her main concern in this part of the paragraph. In fact, it is both the beginning and
the ending that need to be pursued with intensive reading skills, because most commonly
these are the places where the authors intend to share their core concern with the readers.

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5. Predicting and anticipating certain views to come up and express them also helps us move
with the central thread of an argument. When you read a passage and look forward to a
particular line of thought, it helps you participate in the dialogue that the author needs to
establish. This certainly not only enhances your comprehension of the passage but also
helps you focus better on it. This is what is also termed as active, participative reading, as
when you read a passage thus, you do not approach it as a dead text but as a living entity
which develops along a particular thought line.
6. Paying careful attention to each of the linkers and establishing their function in the overall
tapestry also helps you figure out the movement of ideas. Generally, a passage will have
one main idea which will be followed by some subsidiary ideas which are linked through
various linkers already discussed. Therefore, if you pay special attention to them, you can
connect with not just the following and subsidiary idea but also with the preceding and
principal argument.
7. We can also understand the central idea of passage by thinking about a suitable title for the
passage and making an effort to determine its tone as we read it. If we keep urging
ourselves on with ‘The author is trying to denounce/establish/mock at/criticize/
appreciate/satirize/justify/explain/instruct/preach/propagate…’, we are likely to keep
ourselves always in the hunt for the central idea. Similarly, telling yourself, while reading
the passage, something like ‘The suitable title for this could be…’always helps you in
searching for the main ideas in a passage.

Understanding the central idea in a passage is, therefore, a culmination of various approaches and
strategies which need to be pursued simultaneously by the reader. Though the process may sound
a bit complex and demanding, it is both rewarding and enriching.

Inferring lexical and contextual meaning: While reading a comprehension passage, it is quite
important for us to understand the given text both lexically and contextually. Interpreting a text
lexically suggests understanding its meaning, while inferring it contextually suggests discovering
its underlying meaning in the context. It is important for us to understand not just the lexical but
also the contextual meaning of the text. In this context, it becomes important for us to take a look
at the variety of discourse features employed by the writer while communicating his/her idea to
the reader. Employing discourse analysis, in fact, plays an important part in the overall
understanding of a given passage.

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Employing Discourse Analysis: It refers to study the language in use. As we all know, writers
employ various techniques in articulating their ideas to the reader. To be able to understand a given
text and answer the questions based on it, hence, requires discovering all such associated features
of the text, some of which are discussed here.

● Style: Writers tend to structure their texts in a particular style or at times mix a couple of
them together while writing. Some of the basic styles of writing are informative,
descriptive, analytical, narrative and abstract. When a writer presents the idea as they are
and not as they should be, the style adopted is generally informative or descriptive. In
choosing to write in such a style, the author focuses more on the factual presentation of a
situation rather than on the interpretation of it. Comparatively, however, when the author
presents a fact or also interprets it, the style becomes analytical or interpretive. At times,
the passages that you confront in exam are far too abstruse. Many a time, it is so because
the author chooses to write in an abstract manner. The passages that deal with
metaphysical, spiritual, or existential issues are at times written in such manner. By keeping
in view the style adopted by the author, we can come close to deciphering his/her overall
purpose and scheme.
● Tone: Just writing in a particular style helps an author structure his/her ideas appropriately.

4.2: Writing Skill: Steps to writing, Describing, Defining, Classifying and Providing
examples or evidence, Empathetic and Result Oriented Writing.

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Module-5: PROFESSIONAL WRITING

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GOOD WRITING

1. Brevity: It is bad manners to waste [the reader's] time. Therefore brevity first, then, clarity.

2. Clarity: It is bad manners to give [readers] needless trouble. Therefore clarity. . . . And
how is clarity to be achieved? Mainly by taking trouble and by writing to serve people
rather than to impress them.

3. Communication: The social purpose of language is communication--to inform,

misinform, or otherwise influence our fellows. . . . Communication [is] more difficult than
we may think. We are all serving life sentences of solitary confinement within our bodies;
like prisoners, we have, as it were, to tap in awkward code to our fellow men in their
neighboring cells. . . . In some modern literature there has appeared a tendency to replace
communication by a private maundering to oneself which shall inspire one's audience to
maunder privately to themselves--rather as if the author handed round a box of drugged
cigarettes.

4. Emphasis: Just as the art of war largely consists of deploying the strongest forces at the
most important points, so the art of writing depends a good deal on putting the strongest
words in the most important places. One of the most important things, to my mind, in
English style is word-order. For us, the most emphatic place in a clause or sentence is the
end. This is the climax; and, during the momentary pause that follows, that last word
continues, as it were, to reverberate in the reader’s mind. It has, in fact, the last word.

5. Honesty: As the police put it; anything you say may be used as evidence against you. If
handwriting reveals character, writing reveals it still more. You cannot fool all your judges
all the time. . . . Most styles are not honest enough. Easy to say, but hard to practice. A
writer may take too long words, as young men to beards--to impress. But long words, like
long beards, are often the badge of charlatans. Or a writer may cultivate the obscure, to
seem profound. But even carefully muddied puddles are soon fathomed. Or he may
cultivate eccentricity, to seem original. But really original people do not have to think about
being original--they can no more help it than they can help breathing. They do not need to
dye their hair green.

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6. Passion and Control: This, indeed, is one of the eternal paradoxes of both life and
literature--that without passion little gets done; yet, without control of that passion, its
effects are largely ill or null.

7. Reading: One learns to write by reading good books, as one learns to talk by hearing good
talkers.

8. Revision: Every author's fairy godmother should provide him not only with a pen but also
with a blue pencil.

9. Sophistication and Simplicity: My point is merely that the sophisticated (ready though
they may be to suppose so) do not necessarily express themselves better than the simple--
in fact, may often have much to learn from them.

10. Sound and Rhythm: Apart from a few simple principles, the sound and rhythm of English
prose seem to me matters where both writers and readers should trust not so much to rules
as to their ears.

5.1: Paragraph Writing

Definition and Structure of Paragraph

● Definition: Paragraph is a group of logically related sentences that present s or develops

ONE main idea. Whatever the length or width of a paragraph may be, there is ONLY ONE
main idea in the paragraph.

● Paragraph Structure:

1. Topic sentence

2. Supporting sentences (details)

3. Concluding sentence

1. Topic Sentence:

● Topic Sentence is the sentence that states the main idea of a paragraph.

● Topic Sentence is the most important sentence in a paragraph (back bone of

paragraph).

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● It has two parts: topic and controlling idea

e.g. Hawassa is one of the most beautiful cities of the country.

↓ ↓

topic controlling idea

2. Supporting sentences (details):

Supporting sentences are sentences that support or explain the topic sentence(the main idea).
There might be major and minor supporting sentences in a paragraph. Supporting sentences
could be examples, facts, reasons, sensory details, events and experts’ opinions that the writer
uses to support the main idea.

3. Concluding sentence

● Concluding Sentence displays the end of the paragraph

● It concludes the main idea of the paragraph raised in the topic sentence.

● Generally needed in a stand-alone paragraph.

● Usually begins with a transition such as; In general, In summary, In short,

To sum up, In conclusion, All in all,

Locations of Topic Sentence:

● At the beginning of a paragraph (the most common location)

● In the middle of the paragraph

● At the end of a paragraph

Beginner writers are advised to begin writing a paragraph with a topic sentence because it guides
(controls) them not to include irrelevant ideas.

Qualities of a Good Paragraph

A good paragraph possesses the following qualities:

● Unity: all sentences in a paragraph should say about only one main idea (raised in
the Topic Sentence)

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● Coherence: all supporting sentences should be logically arranged so that the reader
can understand them easily. There are different techniques to establish coherence
in a paragraph.

■ Repeating key (content) words

■ Using synonyms

■ Using pronouns

■ Using transitions (cohesive words)

● Completeness: the supporting sentences should adequately state the main idea
(controlling idea of the Topic Sentence)

● Sentence variety: using a variety of sentences in a paragraph

Ways of establishing sentence variety:

● Varying sentence beginning (pronouns, participial phrases,

infinitive phrases, main clause, subordinate clauses, etc.)

● Varying sentence type (simple, compound, complex, compound

complex)

● Varying sentence length (short, long)

A Model Paragraph

An Expensive Holiday

Valentine's day is a very expensive holiday. Typically, people who are in love with each other
exchange gifts. The gifts often cost a lot of money, sometimes as much as $100. If you don’t spend
that much, your sweetheart might think you don’t care. For example, one of the most popular gifts
is chocolate. One box of nice chocolates may cost $20 or more, which adds up to million dollars
or more spent in the United States on chocolate for a single day! Flowers are also a common gift,
and they cost more than a chocolate, so sales of flowers may amount to $5 million in one day! In
addition, it is often expected that you and your sweetheart will go out to dinner that evening. A

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romantic dinner at a nice restaurant may cost $100 or more per person. In conclusion, if you plan
to celebrate Valentine's Day, make sure that you have a lot of money.

STEPS OF PARAGRAPH WRITING

There are four main stages in which we have categorized paragraph writing so as to make it a lot
easier for you to learn the art. The four stages of writing are:

1. Prewriting

2. Writing the First Draft

3. Editing and Proofreading

4. Writing the Final Copy (Publishing)

1. Prewriting: The prewriting stage is when you think carefully and organize your ideas for your
paragraph before you begin writing. It consists of 5 stages:

● Think carefully about what you are going to write (Select a topic and specify it.)

● Collect facts related to your paragraph topic.

● Outline your main ideas.

● Organize your facts and ideas in a way that develops your main idea.

● Think carefully about what you are going to write.

Ask yourself the following questions:

● What question am I going to answer in this paragraph?

● How can I best answer this question? What is the most important part of my answer?

● How can I make an introductory sentence from the most important part of my answer?

● What facts or ideas can I use to support my introductory sentence?

● How can I make this paragraph interesting?

● Do I need more facts on this topic? Where can I find more facts on this topic?

2. Draft Writing: The writing stage is when you turn your ideas into sentences. Five Writing
Steps:

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● Open your notebook or word processor.

● Write the topic sentence, supporting sentences and closing sentence.

● Write clear and simple sentences to express your meaning.

● Focus on the main idea of your paragraph.

● Use a dictionary to help you find additional words to express your ideas.

3. Editing and Proofreading: The editing stage is when you check your paragraph for mistakes
and correct them. You check for grammar and spelling, style and organization and proofread after
making all necessary corrections.

● Grammar and Spelling

1. Check your spelling.

2. Check your grammar.

3. Read your Paragraph (assignment) again.

4. Make sure each sentence has a subject and predicate.

5. See if your subjects and verbs agree with each other.

6. Check the verb tenses of each sentence.

7. Make sure that each sentence makes sense.

● Style and Organization

1. Make sure your paragraph has a topic sentence.

2. Make sure your supporting sentences focus on the main idea.

3. Make sure you have a closing sentence.

4. Check that all your sentences focus on the main idea.

5. See if your paragraph is interesting.

● Read your entire paragraph again as if it were written by someone else.

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4. Writing the Final Copy (Publishing): The publishing stage is when you produce a final copy
of your paragraph (assignment) to hand in. The six most vital publishing steps are:

1. Make a paper copy of your paragraph.

2. Show your work to your peers, parents or tutor.

3. Ask them for hints on how to improve your writing.

4. Write again incorporating all constructive suggestions.

5. Read your work as if you are a reader and correct if there are any problems.

6. Finally write the final copy or publish without a mess.

5.2: Letter Writing

Objective: Business letter will illustrate your commitment to the objective at hand, as you
demonstrate the proper techniques of writing a skillful business letter. A letter must be in the
desired format, showing a dedication to the requirements, and an understanding that words and
letters can make a difference in the lives of others. Your words have meaning, and you need to
choose them wisely. Business letters can be informational, persuasive, motivational, or
promotional.

Introduction: Now-a-days business operations are not restricted to any locality, state or nation.
Today production takes place in one area but consumption takes place everywhere. Since the
businessmen as well as customers live in far off places they don’t have sufficient time to contact
each other personally. Thus, there arises the need for writing letters. In the past the situation was
not so. Business letters were not essential in olden days. But now the importance of letters has
increased because of the vast expansion of business, increase in demand as well as supply of goods.

Essentials of effective correspondence

● Help in maintaining proper relationship: Now-a-days business activities are not

confined to any one area or locality. The businessmen as well as customers are scattered
throughout the country. Thus, there is a need to maintain proper relationship among them
by using appropriate means of communication. Here business letters play an important role.
The customers can write letters to the businessman seeking information about products and

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businessmen also supply various information to customers. This helps them to carry on
business on national and international basis.
● Create and maintain goodwill: Sometimes business letters are written to create and
enhance goodwill. Businessmen at times send letters to enquire about complaints and
suggestions of their customers. They also send letters to inform the customers about the
availability of a new product, clearance sale etc. All this results in cordial relations with
the customers, which enhances the goodwill of the business.
● Help in expansion of business: Business requires information regarding competing
products, prevailing prices, promotion, market activities, etc. If the trader has to run from
place to place to get information, he will end up doing nothing. It will simply result in loss
of time. But through business letters, he can make all enquiries about the products and the
markets. He can also receive orders from different countries and thus enhance sales.

Elements of good letter

The most important element of writing a good letter is your ability to identify and write to your
audience. If you are addressing your letter to the department of human resources, avoid using
highly technical terms that only engineers would understand. Even if your letter is addressed to an
engineering company, chances are that the personnel in human resources does not have an
engineering background.

The next element is to make sure you present your objective in a clear and concise manner. Don't
be vague about your objective; most people will not have the patience to sit there and guess at the
meaning of your letter. Most don’t have the time to read a long-winded letter either, so stick to one
page and just get to the point without going into unnecessary details.

Another important element to remember is to remain professional. Even if you are writing a letter
of complaint, remain polite and courteous. Simply state the problem(s) along with any other
relevant information and be sure to avoid threats and slander.

Remember to introduce yourself if your audience is unaware of who you are. In most cases, the
business letter will be the first impression that you make on someone. Though business writing
has become less formal over time, you should still take great care that your letter's content is clear
and that you have proofread it carefully.

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Business writing should be clear and concise. Take care, however, that your document does not
turn out as an endless series of short, choppy sentences. Keep in mind also that "concise" does not
have to mean "blunt"—you still need to think about your tone and the audience for whom you are
writing.

Strive to be exact and specific, avoiding vagueness, ambiguity, and platitudes. If there are industry-
or field-specific concepts or terminology that are relevant to the task at hand, use them in a manner
that will convey your competence and experience. Avoid any language that your audience may not
understand. Your finished piece of writing should indicate how you meet the requirements you've
listed and answer any questions raised in the description or prompt.

Layout of a business letter

The essential parts of a business letter are as follows:

1. Heading -The heading of a business letter usually contains the name and postal address of the
business, E-mail address, Web-site address, Telephone Number, Fax Number, Trade Mark or logo
of the business (if any)

2. Date - The date is normally written on the right hand side corner after the heading as the day,
month and year. Some examples are 28thFeb., 2003 or Feb. 28, 2003.

3. Reference- It indicates letter number and the department from where the letter is being sent and
the year. It helps in future reference. This reference number is given on the left hand corner after
the heading. For example, we can write reference numbers as AB/FADept./2003/27.

4. Inside address - This includes the name and full address of the person or firm to whom the
letter is to be sent. This is written on the left hand side of the sheet below the reference number.
Letters should be addressed to the responsible head e.g., the Secretary, the Principal, the Chairman,
the Manager etc.

Example:

M/S Bharat Fans

Bharat Complex
Hyderabad Industrial Complex

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Hyderabad
Andhra Pradesh - 500032
5. Subject - It is a statement in brief, that indicates the matter to which the letter relates. It attracts
the attention of the receiver immediately and helps him to know quickly what the letter is about.
For example,

Subject: Your order No. C317/8 dated 12thMarch 2003.

Subject: Enquiry about Samsung television

Subject: Fire Insurance policy

6. Salutation - This is placed below the inside address. It is usually followed by a comma (,).

Various forms of salutation are:

Sir/Madam: For official and formal correspondence

Dear Sir/Madam: For addressing an individual

Dear Sir/Dear Madam: For addressing a firm or company.

7. Body of the letter- This comes after salutation. This is the main part of the letter and it contains
the actual message of the sender. It is divided into three parts.

1. Opening part - It is the introductory part of the letter. In this part, the attention of
the reader should be drawn to the previous correspondence, if any. For example-
with reference to your letter no. 326 dated. 12thMarch 2003, I would like to draw
your attention towards the new brand of television.
2. Main part - This part usually contains the subject matter of the letter. It should be
precise and written in clear words.
3. Concluding Part - It contains a statement of the sender’s intentions, hopes or
expectations concerning the next step to be taken. Further, the sender should always
look forward to getting a positive response. At the end, terms like Thanking you,
With regards, With warm regards may be used.

8. Complimentary close - It is merely a polite way of ending a letter. It must be in accordance

with the salutation. For example:

Salutation Complementary close

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i. Dear Sir/Dear Madam Yours faithfully

ii. Dear Mr. Raj Yours sincerely

iii. My Dear Akbar Yours very sincerely (express very informal relations.)

9. Signature - It is written in ink, immediately below the complimentary close. As far as possible,
the signature should be legible. The name of the writer should be typed immediately below the
signature. The designation is given below the typed name. Where no letterhead is in use, the name
of the company too could be included below the designation of the writer. For example:

Yours faithfully
For M/S Acron Electricals
(Signature)
SUNIL KUMAR
Partner

Type of Business Letters

Business letters are written for the fulfillment of several purposes. The purpose may be to enquire
about a product to know its price and quality, availability, etc. This purpose is served if you write
a letter of enquiry to the supplier. After receiving your letter the supplier may send you details
about the product as per your query. If satisfied, you may give order for the supply of goods as per
your requirement. After receiving the items, if you find that the product is defective or damaged,
you may lodge a complaint. These are the few instances in which business correspondence takes
place. Let us learn the details about some important business letters.

i. Business Enquiry Letter: Sometimes prospective buyers want to know the details of the goods
which they want to buy, like quality, quantity, price, mode of delivery and payment, etc. They may
also ask for a sample. The letter written to sellers with one or more of the above purposes is known
as enquiry letter.

Points to be kept in mind while writing letters of enquiry-

● Letters of enquiry should clearly state the information required, which may be asking for a
price list or a sample.

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● Write specifically about the design, size, quantity, quality, etc. about the product or service
in which the buyer is interested.
● The period or the date, till which information is required, may also be mentioned.

ii. Quotation Letter: After receiving the letter of enquiry from a prospective buyer, the sellers
supply the relevant information by writing a letter that is called quotation letter. These letters are
written keeping in view the information asked for like price list, mode of payment, discount to be
allowed etc. Businessmen should reply to the inquiries carefully and promptly.

iii. Order Letter: We have studied letters of enquiry and reply to enquiry i.e., quotation letter.
The prospective buyer after receiving the reply to his enquiry letter may decide to place on order
with that business house which offers goods at minimum price and at favourable terms and
conditions. Letters written by a buyer to the seller giving the order to purchase the goods is called
order letter.

iv. Complaint Letter: A complaint letter is written when the purchaser does not find the goods
up to his satisfaction. It is normally written by the purchaser when he receives wrong, defective or
damaged goods or receives incorrect quantity of goods. It can also be written directly to the transit
authority when the goods are damaged in transit. Thus, we may define a letter of complaint as the
letter that draws the attention of the supplier or any other party on account of supply of defective
or damaged goods.

Points to be considered while writing a complaint letter:

● Complaint letters should be written immediately after receiving the defective goods.
● Mistakes as well as difficulty due to mistake should be mentioned clearly
● Proposal to correct the mistakes should be made
● Suggestions on how the complaint should be dealt with, i.e., mention of compensation,
replacement, discount, cancellation etc, should be made.
● Mention period in which the corrective action should be taken
● Request to be careful in future.

v. Recovery Letter

The letter written by the seller for collection of money for the goods supplied to the buyer is called
recovery letter. The aim of the recovery letter is to collect money without annoying the customers.

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The letter should include information regarding the amount of arrears argument for payment, and
last date for payment. The language of recovery letter should be polite, so that the customer is not
offended and future transactions with him are not adversely affected.

5.3: Memo Writing

A short message or record used for internal communication in a business. Once the primary form
of internal written communication, memorandums (or memos) have declined in use since the
introduction of email and other forms of electronic messaging. A memo (or memorandum,
meaning “reminder”) is normally used for communicating policies, procedures, or related official
business within an organization. It is often written from a one-to all perspective (like mass
communication), broadcasting a message to an audience, rather than a one-on-one, interpersonal
communication. It may also be used to update a team on activities for a given project, or to inform
a specific group within a company of an event, action, or observance. A short message or record
used for internal communication in a business.

Examples and Observations:

● Abide by this one main rule in every memo-writing situation: Be clear, brief, and tactful.

Because many activities are competing for their time, readers expect information to be related as
quickly and clearly as possible. Yet be sure not to sacrifice tact and sensitivity as you strive to
achieve conciseness."

● How to Organize a Memo

"The following guidelines will help you structure a memo:

❏ Use a clear subject line.

❏ State your purpose in the first paragraph.

❏ Summarize any potential objections.

❏ Keep the paragraphs short.

❏ Use subheads between paragraph groups.

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❏ Use bulleted and numbered lists.

❏ Request action."

Purpose of Memos

Memos are used within organizations to report results, instruct employees, announce policies,
disseminate information, and delegate responsibilities. Whether sent on paper, as emails, or as
attachments to emails, memos provide a record of decisions made and actions taken. They also can
play a key role in the management of many organizations because managers use memos to inform
and motivate employees. . . .

Adequate development of your thoughts is crucial to the clarity of your message, as the following
example indicates:

● ABRUPT Be more careful on the loading dock.

● DEVELOPED To prevent accidents on the loading dock, follow these procedures:

1. Check . . .

2. Load only . . .

3. Replace . . .

Although the abrupt version is concise, it is not as clear and specific as the developed version. Do
not assume that your readers will know what you mean. Readers who are in a hurry may
misinterpret a vague memo.
Example of memo

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MEMO
To: Katherine Chu, Regional Manager

From: Stephen Yu, Sales

Date: 13 September 2014

Subject: Notification of My Resignation

I am writing to inform you of my intention to resign from G & S Holdings.

I have appreciated very much my four years working for the company. The training has been
excellent and I have gained valuable experience working within an efficient and professional
team environment. In particular, I have appreciated your personal guidance during these first
years of my career.
I feel now that it is time to further develop my knowledge and skills base in a different
environment.
I would like to leave, if possible, in a month's time on Saturday, 11 October. This will allow
me to complete my current workload. I hope that this suggested arrangement is acceptable to
the company.
Once again, thank you for your support.

5.4: Circular Writing

Circular: It is a written formal document used for inter departmental communication. It serves the
same purpose as a notice and may be written for the same reason. The only difference between the
two is that the Notice is displayed at one place, whereas the Circular is widely circulated among
the members concerned. Usually the signature of the reader is taken as a proof to ensure that the
information has been transmitted.

Salient feature of a Circular Letter

A circular letter is a type of letter that is written to share a particular piece of information with a
very large audience. The purpose of a circular letter is very different from a personal letter, which
is only used to send a piece of information to one or maybe two people. The main purpose of a

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circular letter is to announce or reveal new information or perhaps to clarify certain policies in a
political situation. Below are some steps on how to write a circular letter.

Step 1. The first thing to do when you are trying to write a circular letter is to make sure that you
know your target audience well. For this type of letter, the readership is going to be very broad so
it can be quite difficult to figure out what level of knowledge your audience has. For this situation,
you should think about the majority of your readers, and tailor your letter towards them.

Step 2. You then need to think about the difference between external and internal circular letters.
An external letter would be circulated amongst clients or the general public. Whereas an internal
circular letter would be circulated amongst a larger group, however it is limited to that group.

Step 3. When it comes to actually writing the letter, you should think about the exact tone and
voice that is suitable for the letter that you are writing. For example, only use a stern tone when
entirely necessary such as addressing tardiness but not appropriate for a letter to clients.

Step 4. Be careful with the content of your letter. Make sure that you only write about information
that has been authorized to be distributed. Because some circular letters will be distributed to a
large audience, it would not be wise to disclose confidential contact information.

Situations requiring Circular letter

Circular letter is written for the following business objectives:

● Launching a new business

● Expansion of existing business in any new field
● Changing the nature of business
● Opening or closing branches of the business
● Changing the name of the business
● Shifting the address of the business
● Discharging any officer, executive, agent or representative of the business
● Employing any new business executive or agent
● Admission of new partner
● Retirement or death of any existing partner
● Cancellation of any business deal or contract
● Entering into any new business contract

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● News regarding increase or decrease of price

● News regarding trademarks, registered brands etc.
● Amalgamation of some business units and
● Winding up of business partly or wholly

Sample Circular Letter

To : All Employees
From : Dinesh Paresh, MD
Date : October 3, 2013
Our success to become a part of Altair Industries last year is something that we need to review
in the hope that we can enthuse ourselves in setting our next goals in future. I herewith
would like to share with you my thoughts and plans about the area I believe are important to
all of us in the years ahead.
Productivity
I am sure that you are all aware of the effort throughout our country to improve productivity.
Over the past year, we have made heavy capital investment to improve our position.
Productivity, however, depends not only on the acquisition of more efficient equipment but also
on the commitment of each employee to see creative ways using resources most efficiently.
Marketing and Sales
You may be aware that our Target Sales program has helped us improve our sales by over 15
percent. Although the result is gratifying, it is not large enough to offset the week’s position in
which we found ourselves two years ago. Therefore, I am setting a goal of 25 percent increase in
sales for this next year.
I hope you share the excitement I feel as we implement these plans. Indeed, you must actively
participate if they are to have a chance for success.

5.5: Report Writing

A report is a factual and systematic account of a specific business or professional activity. It may
contain facts of a situation, project, or process; analysis and interpretation of data, events, and

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records; inferences or conclusions drawn from objective data; or suggestions and

recommendations. Although reports may include a variety of topics and objectives, they all help
in the process of decision making by answering questions and determining ways to improve certain
situations. As a common type of communication used during work, reports reinforce, prompt,
motivate, and persuade the readers to act. Reports normally move in an upward direction and are
used to communicate to the senior levels in an organisation.
The importance of the report for any professional lies in the fact that a number of business
decisions and research conclusions are made on the basis of information presented or
recommendations made in reports. By helping in the dissemination of ideas, views and
suggestions, reports develop information and understanding essential for effective decision
making.
Purpose: Reports serve several purposes, which may include:
● Presenting data
● Describing problems and suggesting solutions
● Discussing and analysing data
● Recording events and happenings
● Analysing a situation or a condition
● Giving feedback, suggestions or recommendations

Types of Reports:

Criteria Types Description Examples

Informational Objective presentation of data without Conference reports, seminar
Function analysis or interpretation reports, trip reports

Analytical Presentation of data with analysis and Project reports, feasibility

interpretation reports, market research reports

Daily production reports,

Routine Presentation of routine information monthly sales reports, annual
reports
Periodicity
Presentation of specific information related Inquiry reports, research
Special to a single condition, situation, problem or reports, thesis, dissertation
occasion

Accident reports, sales reports,

Oral Face-to-face presentation of information joining reports, conference

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Communicative reports
form
Written Presentation of information in written form Project reports, progress
reports, research reports

Formal Long reports with elaborate description and Annual reports, thesis, project
Nature, Scope discussion reports, technical reports
and Length
Informal Short reports Laboratory reports, daily
production reports, trip reports

Formats of Reports:
There are four formats of reports: printed forms, letter format, memo format, and manuscript
format.

Format Description

Printed forms Forms prepared to record for repetitive and routine data

Letter format Short informal reports to be communicated to someone outside an organisation

Memo format Short informal reports to be communicated to someone within an organisation

Manuscript format Formal reports printed on plain paper

Structure of Formal Reports:

When writing a formal report, the choice of format as well as the parts of the report must be
carefully planned. Although the circumstances in which a report is written may determine its
structure, the content of the report has to be organised in a logical way to help the readers
understand the message clearly.
Parts of a Report
A formal report may include the following parts or elements:
1. Title page: A formal report usually begins with a title page. It contains the title report, the
name of the person or organisation to whom the report is being submitted, the name of the
report writer(s), and the date.

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2. Preface: The preface is an optional element in a formal report. It includes the report by
mentioning its salient features and scope.
3. Letter of Transmittal: The letter of transmittal is a brief covering letter from the report
writer explaining the causes for writing the report. It may contain the objectives, scope,
and other highlights of the report. It may also contain acknowledgements if the report does
not include an acknowledgement.
4. Acknowledgement: The acknowledgement section contains the names of persons who
contributed to the production of the report and made the report possible. It is just a ‘thank
you note’.
5. Table of Contents: The ‘table of contents’ provides the reader an overall view of the report
and shows its organisation. This section lists the main headings and subheadings in the
report with page numbers.
6. List of Illustrations: It gives systematic information about tables, graphs, figures, and
charts used in the report. It is usually included if the number of these illustrations are more
than ten.
7. Abstract or Executive Summary: An abstract or executive summary summarises the
essential information in the report, focusing on key facts, findings, observations, results,
conclusions, and recommendations.
8. Introduction: It introduces the readers to the report and prepares them for discussion that
follows by providing background information, defining its aims and objectives, and
discussing the scope and limitations of the report. It helps the readers in understanding and
analysing the report as it includes facts that the reader must know in order to understand
the discussion and the analysis that follows.
9. Methodology: While writing a report, information may have to be gathered from library
and archival sources or through Internet surfing, interviews, surveys, and formal/informal
discussions. The section on methodology summarises the methods of data collection, the
procedures for investigating the situation/problem, and criteria of survey.
10. Discussion/Description/Analysis: This is the main part of the report as it presents the data
that has been collected in an organised form. It focuses on facts and findings of the report
and may include an objective description and discussion of the problem, an analysis of the

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situation, and findings of the investigation. It is usually divided into sections and
subsections with well structured and clear headings and subheadings.
11. Conclusions: This section conveys the significance and meaning of the report to readers
by presenting a summary of discussions and findings, results and conclusions, implications
of the conclusions presented, and inferences.
12. Recommendations: It contains recommendations that are based on results and
conclusions. As they propose a course of action to improve a situation or condition, they
may present several ways to solve a problem or improve a situation. It may also indicate
the need and nature for further work in the concerned area.
13. Appendices: An appendix contains supporting material or data, which is kept separate
from the main body of the report to avoid interrupting the line of development of the report.
14. References and Bibliography: It contains references to books, journals, reports,
dissertations, or/and published government documents, and other sources used in the
report. It may also consist of a list of materials for further reference.
Writing strategies:
Whether one has to write a short informal report or a long formal report, one needs to adopt
effective writing strategies. As reports are systematic attempts to discuss problems, situations, or
conditions and stimulate thinking or action in individuals and groups, a systematic plan of writing
should be followed.
The following steps will help in organising and presenting the report systematically.
1. Analyse the problem and purpose
2. Determine the scope of the report
3. Determine the needs of the audience
4. Gather all the information
5. Analyse and organise the information
6. Write the first draft
7. Revise, review and edit
8. Write the final draft
5.6: Proposals Writing
Proposals initiate new projects, provide fresh ideas, solve problems, or reinforce and prompt
innovative strategies. A proposal is a method of persuading people to agree with the writer’s view

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or accept his suggestions. It is a systematic, factual, formal, and persuasive description of a course
of action or det of recommendations and suggestions. It is written for a specific audience to meet
a specific need. As the main objective of a proposal is to persuade the reader to accept the proposed
course of action, it explains and justifies what it proposes.
Types of Proposals:

Criteria Types Description

Non-formal Short proposals involving small projects

Content and format
Formal Long proposals with elaborate description and discussion

Internal Addressed to the readers within an organisation

Nature of audience
External Communicated to people outside an organisation

Solicited Written in response to a request for proposal

Source of Origin
Unsolicited Written without any request for proposal

Parts of a Formal Proposal:

A formal proposal may include some or all of the following parts:
1. Title Page: The title page of a proposal contains the title of the proposal, the name of the
person or organisation to whom the proposal is being submitted, the name of the proposal
writer, and the date.
2. Table of Contents: It provides the reader an overall view of the proposal by listing the
main headings and subheadings in the proposal, with their page numbers.
3. List of Figures: It includes a list of tables, graphs, and charts used in the proposal, with
their page numbers.
4. Abstract or Summary: It is a condensed version of the proposal as it summarises and
highlights its major points. However, an abstract is more specialised and technical than an
executive summary.
5. Methodology: It summarises the proposed methods of data collection and the procedure
for investigating the situation or problem.

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6. Introduction: It introduces the readers to the proposal. It gives the background

information, states the purpose and discusses the scope. It may also try to persuade readers
by highlighting the major advantages and justifying the proposed course of action.
7. Statement of the problem: It contains an objective description of the problem or situation
that the proposal intends to address. As it links the proposed course of action to the needs
of the reader and the requirements of the situation, it gives credibility to the proposal and
makes it convincing and acceptable.
8. Proposed Plan and Schedule: It presents a schedule of activities highlighting the main
course of action.
9. Advantages/Disadvantages: It reinforces that the proposal has more advantages than
disadvantages by making realistic comparisons. It links benefits to the needs of the
situation.
10. Recommendations/Proposed Solutions: This is the main section of a proposal as it
discusses the plan to solve the problem. It is the most persuasive section of a proposal. It
is usually the longest section of a proposal, and is logically structured into self manageable
sub-sections with suitable headings.
11. Conclusion: It presents the final summary of the proposal and focuses on main points, and
the key benefits and advantages. It influences readers with a final appeal.
12. Appendices: Secondary materials are put as appendices in a proposal. This maintains
continuity of logical progression and avoids distractions.
Writing Tips:
Apart from using the correct format and structure for the proposal, the proposal should be readable,
attractive, and convincing. In order to take any action, the reader should be able to understand the
proposal. Make the proposal attractive and convincing so that the reader can take a positive
decision after reading it. In order to achieve these objectives, a systematic plan of writing should
be followed and strategies of good writing should be adopted.
Proposal writing is persuasive writing that should involve prewriting, writing and post-writing.
● Pre-writing: It involves purpose identification, audience analysis, project analysis, scope
determination, an analysis of the action desired, and data collection. The writing process
should begin with the following questions:
1. Why is the proposal being written? What are its objectives?

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2. Who is the audience/

3. Does the proposal involve any project? What is the project?
4. How much information should be included in the proposal?
5. What should the reader do?
● Writing : It involves organising the data that has been collected, outlining what will be
presented in the proposal, and writing the first draft. The information may be organised as
per the structure of the proposal. A good outline will give the writer a clear picture of
his/her proposal and will help him/her to prepare the first draft.
● Post-writing: Once the draft has been written, it is ready to be revised, edited, and
evaluated in order to improve its content, layout and structure. The proposal needs to be
edited for grammatical and lexical accuracy. The first draft should be evaluated and
critically examined to ensure that the proposal can achieve its purpose. Finally, the final
draft is preapred.

5.7: Email Writing

The abbreviated form of electronic mail is 'email'. Email is a system used for creating,
sending/receiving and storing data in a digital format over a network of computers. Today's email
technology uses the store-and-forward model. In this model, users send and receive information
on their computer terminals. However, the computer is used only to connect to the email
architecture. The creation, transmission and storage of email take place only when connection with
email architecture is established. Email is one of the important technological developments which
have greatly influenced the way we communicate with each other. It would be interesting to study
the benefits and limitations of this popular mailing tool.
Advantages of emails
● Emails are easy to use. You can organize your daily correspondence, send and receive
electronic messages and save them on computers.
● Emails are fast. They are delivered at once around the world. No other form of written
communication is as fast as an email.
● The language used in emails is simple and informal.

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● When you reply to an email you can attach the original message so that when you answer
the recipient knows what you are talking about. This is important if you get hundreds of
emails a day.
● It is possible to send automated emails with a certain text. In such a way it is possible to
tell the sender that you are on vacation. These emails are called auto responders.
● Emails do not use paper. They are environment friendly and save a lot of trees from being
cut down.
● Emails can also have pictures in them. You can send birthday cards or newsletters as
emails.
● Products can be advertised with emails. Companies can reach a lot of people and inform
them in a short time.
Limitation of Email
1. Emotional responses. Some emails cause upset or anger. A reply in the heat of the moment
can’t be easily retracted.
2. Information overload. Too many people send too much information. They often cite
‘need to know’ as the justification. Learn how to use email effectively and you’ll reduce
the time wasted on this.
3. Lacks the personal touch. Some things are best left untyped. Email will never beat a
handwritten card or letter when it comes to relationships.
4. Misunderstandings. Emails from people who don’t take the time to read what they write
before clicking ‘send’. Time is wasted, either to clarify or, worse, acting on a
misinterpretation of the message.
5. Pressure to reply. Once it’s in your inbox, you feel an ever increasing obligation to act on
it.
6. Spam. Having to deal with spam and spoofs is one of the worst avoidable time wasters
online.
7. Sucks up your time. Over checking messages is so common, but it is time wasted on low
value, passive activity.
8. Too long. How long is too long? It’s hard to say exactly, but the longer it goes on, the
harder it is to take in. Email is suited to brevity.

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9. Viruses. A virus could seriously affect your computer. If you want to know how to use
email effectively, it's worth learning how to deal with these.
Structure and Content
1. Structure: An email includes at least the following three headers:
● From: The sender's email address
● To: recipient's email address
● Date: The date when the email was sent
It may contain the following optional fields:
● Received: Various information about the intermediary servers and the date when
the message was processed.
● Reply-To: A reply address.
● Subject: The message's subject
● Message-ID: A unique identification for the message.
Style
● Always fill in the subject line with a topic that means something to your reader.
● Put your main point in the opening sentence. Most readers won't stick around for a
surprise ending.
● Never begin a message with a vague "This"--as in "This needs to be done by 5:00."
Always specify what you're writing about.
● Don't use ALL CAPITALS (no shouting!), or all LOWERCASE letters either
● As a general rule, PLZ avoid text speak (abbreviations and acronyms): you may be
ROFLOL (rolling on the floor laughing out loud), but your reader may be left
wondering WUWT (what's up with that).
● Be brief and polite. If your message runs longer than two or three short paragraphs,
consider (a) reducing the message, or (b) providing an attachment. But in any case,
don't snap, growl, or bark.
● Remember to say "please" and "thank you." And mean it. "Thank you for
understanding why afternoon breaks have been eliminated" is prissy and petty. It's
not polite.
● Add a signature block with appropriate contact information (in most cases, your
name, business address, and phone number, along with a legal disclaimer if required

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by your company). Do you need to clutter the signature block with a clever
quotation and artwork? Probably not.
● Edit and proofread before hitting "send." You may think you're too busy to sweat
the small stuff, but unfortunately your reader may think you're a careless dolt.
● Finally, reply promptly to serious messages. If you need more than 24 hours to
collect information or make a decision, send a brief response explaining the delay.

E-mail Etiquette: There are certain professional standards expected for email use. Here are some
things to keep in mind regarding professional email conduct:
1. Be informal, not sloppy. Your colleagues may use commonly accepted abbreviations in
email, but when communicating with external customers, everyone should follow standard
writing protocol. Your e-mail message reflects you and your company, so traditional
spelling, grammar, and punctuation rules apply.
2. Keep messages brief and to the point. Just because your writing is grammatically correct
does not mean that it has to be long. Nothing is more frustrating than wading through an e-
mail message that is twice as long as necessary. Concentrate on one subject per message
whenever possible.
3. Use sentence case. USING ALL CAPITAL LETTERS LOOKS AS IF YOU'RE
SHOUTING. Using all lowercase letters looks lazy. For emphasis, use asterisks or bold
formatting to emphasize important words. Do not, however, use a lot of colors or graphics
embedded in your message.
4. Use the blind copy and courtesy copy appropriately. Don't use BCC to keep others from
seeing who you copied; it shows confidence when you directly CC anyone receiving a
copy. Do use BCC, however, when sending to a large distribution list, so recipients won't
have to see a huge list of names. Be cautious with your use of CC; overuse simply clutters
inboxes. Copy only people who are directly involved.
5. Don't use email as an excuse to avoid personal contact. Don't forget the value of face-
to-face or even voice-to-voice communication. E-mail communication isn't appropriate
when sending confusing or emotional messages. Think of the times you've heard someone
in the office indignantly say, "Well, I sent you e-mail." If you have a problem with

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someone, speak with that person directly. Don't use e-mail to avoid an uncomfortable
situation or to cover up a mistake.
6. Remember that e-mail isn't private. I've seen people fired for using e-mail
inappropriately. E-mail is considered company property and can be retrieved, examined,
and used in a court of law. Unless you are using an encryption device (hardware or
software), you should assume that e-mail over the Internet is not secure. Never put in an e-
mail message anything that you wouldn't put on a postcard. Remember that e-mail can be
forwarded, so unintended audiences may see what you've written. You might also
inadvertently send something to the wrong party, so always keep the content professional
to avoid embarrassment.
7. Be sparing with group e-mail. Send group e-mail only when it's useful to every recipient.
Use the "reply all" button only when compiling results requiring collective input and only
if you have something to add. Recipients get quite annoyed to open an email that says only
"Me too!"
8. Use the subject field to indicate content and purpose. Don't just say, "Hi!" or "From
Laura." Agree on acronyms to use that quickly identify actions. For example, your team
could use <AR> to mean "Action Required" or <MSR> for the Monthly Status Report. It's
also a good practice to include the word "Long" in the subject field, if necessary, so that
the recipient knows that the message will take time to read.
9. Don't send chain letters, virus warnings, or junk mail. Always check a reputable
antivirus Web site or your IT department before sending out an alarm. If a constant stream
of jokes from a friend annoys you, be honest and ask to be removed from the list. Direct
personal e-mail to your home e-mail account.
10. Remember that your tone can't be heard in e-mail. Have you ever attempted sarcasm
in an e-mail, and the recipient took it the wrong way? E-mail communication can't convey
the nuances of verbal communication. In an attempt to infer tone of voice, some people use
emoticons, but use them sparingly so that you don't appear unprofessional. Also, don't
assume that using a smiley will diffuse a difficult message.
11. Summarize long discussions. Scrolling through pages of replies to understand a
discussion is annoying. Instead of continuing to forward a message string, take a minute to

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summarize it for your reader. You could even highlight or quote the relevant passage, then
include your response.
5.8: Preparing CV

Today’s graduate job market is very competitive and your CV is your prime marketing tool. It
must highlight your skills and achievements in a clear and positive light which will persuade the

employer to call you for an interview. Many applicants fail to make it to interview because of
ineffective evidence of their skills and experience, poor presentation and careless spelling and
grammar. Taking time and some simple advice can really make all the difference. Here we will
show you how to write an impressive CV and how to avoid the pitfalls.

Before you start

● Check that a CV is the correct method of applying to the organisation. Many employers
now expect you to apply online via their website.

● Research what the employer is looking for. Look at the advertor information on the
employer’s website. What does it say about the job requirements? Are they looking for
specific skills or competencies?

● Investigate the employer and the business sector. Read our leaflet, Finding out about
employers.

● Target your skills and experience around what you have found out about the role. What do
you want the employer to know about you?

● Write down some key experiences where you can demonstrate the skills required and think
about how you might show evidence of your suitability.

By giving thought to these points you are thinking strategically about why the recruiter should give
your application serious consideration.

Standard contents:

All CVs need to contain some standard information, which normally includes:

● Personal details – name, address, telephone number and email address

● Education and qualifications

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● Employment history

● Interests, activities and achievements

● References

Presentation

● Usually two sides of A4 or the equivalent in electronic format.

● Avoid coloured or textured paper.

● Be clear and concise.

● Be consistent with font type and size. Line up text.

● Make sure key information is not hidden by too much text; try breaking up with bullet
points.

● Use headings or format text in bold to draw attention to important points.

● Spelling and grammar must be accurate.

Style and format

There is not one correct style of CV to use. All CVs should be targeted to meet the requirements
of an advertised vacancy or a particular employer. The two most commonly used CV formats are:

● Chronological: the most common format outlining your experiences in reverse date order.

● Functional: this highlights and gives evidence of your relevant skills. It is particularly
appropriate if you wish to demonstrate transferable skills.

The language of CVs:

Most CVs can be improved by a greater attention to the language and grammar you use. CV and
application form writing is an art. It is one you can learn with a bit of perseverance and a good
dictionary and thesaurus! Here are some golden rules.

● Make verbs work for you: Your best friends are active verbs and your worst enemies are
passive verbs. Example:

Do not say: I was responsible for organising a programme of speakers.

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Do say: I organised a programme of speakers.

When you use the verb “negotiated,” in your CV, you are describing what you did but you also
show you have negotiating skills as well as demonstrating that you use them. Use active verbs
linked to skills the employer is looking for. Examples:

Do not say: Resolution of customer queries to tight deadlines was required.

Do say: Resolved customer queries within tight deadlines.

Do not say: Simplification of the logging procedure resulted in speedier progress

chasing of faults.

Do say: I simplified the logging procedure which resulted in speedier progress

chasing of faults.

Avoid weak verbs like endeavoured, tried, hoped and attempted. “I feel that I am” is often used,
which again should be avoided as it too can sound weak.

Explain what you did: You may find when writing your CV or in answering questions on
application forms that you are too concise or too wordy. Asking yourself the following questions
is a useful strategy for making descriptions more detailed as well as pertinent.

● Who? With whom did you work?

● What? What duties/activities did you perform?

● Where? Where did your job fit into the organisation?

● Why? What were your goals?

● When? What timelines were you working under?

● How? What procedures did you follow?

Use them to help you convey to the reader what you did. Remember that no-one reading your CV
will have a lot of time to think about what you mean. Making it easy for the reader to understand
gives you a better chance of making an impact.

Examples:

Do not say: Planned activities for the children

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Do say: Planned arts, crafts, activities and exercises weekly for children with learning
disabilities.

Do not say: I worked as a counter assistant in a building society.

Do say:

● Gained valuable experience working to targets within a fast moving

financial sector.

● Worked quickly and accurately on a number of complex computer

programmes.

● Dealt effectively and professionally with the public in a busy branch.

Do not say: This job involved dealing with the public and using the till.

Do say:

● Worked as part of a team of six in this busy city centre store.

● Developed my communication skills through interacting with customers.

● Used tact and diplomacy to deal with customer complaints.

Or

I worked on the tills, in the warehouse, stacking shelves and pricing items. Teamwork and
working directly with customers was an important element of my job. I often worked at the
busiest times and I loved the buzz of working under pressure to get a job done on time.

Examples of action phrases used in a CV:

● Demonstrated excellent interpersonal and people management skills through my retail

experience, working on Nightline and as captain of the University’s netball team.

● Achieved all of my data inputting targets to a high standard, demonstrating that I am able
to work accurately under pressure.

● Proficiency in the use of statistical computer packages gained through my final year
project.

Examples of action phrases:

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● Effective

● Sole/lone/only/single

● Proficiency in, skilled in/at, experienced in/with, practised in/with/at

● Analysed problems and developed solutions

● Excellent interpersonal and people management skills

● Able to analyse and interpret data

● Able to exercise good judgement and sound reasoning

● Good interpersonal skills

● Able to concentrate and pay attention to detail

● Can work well on own initiative

● A good communicator

● Ability to organise and motivate staff

● A good planner

● Careful and methodical approach

● Able to work accurately under pressure

● A good organiser with an eye for detail

● A good team worker

● Patient, tolerant and able to communicate

● A good listener with a common sense approach

● Persuasive but tactful

● A flexible approach to changing situations

● Determination and drive to see projects to successful completion

● An active decision-maker

● An effective time manager

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● Highly numerate and computer literate

● Adaptable to team or individual roles

● Produces to deadlines

● Extensive visual memory

Dos and Don’ts of CV writing

Curriculum Vitae is a self-marketing tool and getting an interview can depend on how good your
CV is. Your CV is your chance to show an employer you have the skills and experience needed,
and that you are the right person for the job. However, the way you present your CV can have an
overwhelming influence over whether your CV is even read, let alone get you that all important
interview. You will need to consider what to include, how much detail is needed and how to make
your CV stand out from all the others.

Do...

● Construct your CV with your prospective employer in mind. Look at the job advert or
specification and think about what the job involves, and what the employer needs. Find out
about the main activities of the employer.

● Tailor your CV to the job. Your CV shouldn't be your life story but should be tailored for
the job you're applying for, focusing on the parts that are important for that particular job.

● Make your CV clear, neat and tidy. Get somebody to check your spelling and grammar.
No-one wants to read a CV that is squashed together and includes too much information.
Your CV should be easy to read with space between each section and plenty of white space.
Use left-justified text as it's easiest to read, using black text on good quality white or cream
paper.

● View your experience in a positive light. Try to look objectively at your experiences
(even the bad ones) and identify what you learned or what skills you developed in the
process. This is the picture you should present to the employer.

● Place the important information up-front. Put experience and education achievements
in reverse chronological order.

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● Include experience and interests that might be of use to the employer: IT skills, voluntary
work, foreign language competency, driving skills, leisure interests that demonstrate team
skills and organization/leadership skills.

● Put your name and email address on every page - in case the pages of your CV get
separated.

● Use positive language. When describing your work achievements use power words such
as ‘launched’, ‘managed’, ‘coordinated’, ‘motivated’, ‘supervised’, and ‘achieved’.

● Quote concrete outcomes to support your claims. For example, ‘This reduced the
development time from 7 to 3 days’ or ‘This revolutionized the company’s internal
structure, and led to a reduction in overheads from £23,000 to £17,000 per year’. Make use
of the internet for sample CVs and CV templates - to help maximize the impact of your
CV and to get inspiration for layout and tone.

Don’t...

● Hand-write your CV. This looks unprofessional and old fashioned.

● Include information which may be viewed negatively – failed exams, divorces, failed
business ventures, reasons for leaving a job, points on your driving license. Don’t lie, but
just don’t include this kind of information. Don’t give the interviewer any reason to discard
you at this stage.

● Include anything that might discriminate against you – such as date of birth, marital
status, race, gender or disability.

● Include salary information and expectations. Leave this for negotiations after your
interview, when the employers are convinced how much they want to employ you.

● Make your CV more than two pages long. You can free up space by leaving out or editing
information that is less important. For example, you do not need to include referees – just
state they are available upon request. Don’t include all of the jobs you have had since
school, just the relevant ones. Add details about your most recent qualifications, which are
more relevant, but summarize the rest.

Dept. of English, NIST 164

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Institute Park, Pallur Hills, Berhampur – 761008, ODISHA, INDIA
Tel. No. 0680-3925400, Web. www.nist.edu

● Dilute your important messages. Don’t bother with a list of schools you attended with
grades and addresses, don’t include a long list of hobbies, or a long work history.
Concentrate on demonstrating that the skills they need, what you have achieved by
applying the skills you have and what benefits your clients have gained from your work.

● Use jargon, acronyms, technical terms - unless essential.

● Lie - employers have ways of checking what you put is true, and may sack you if they take
you on and find out you've lied to them.

Dept. of English, NIST 165