UNIT 4

WLL,Signal Encoding Techiques

and
Spread Spectrum Modulation(10M)
Class:IF6IA/B Course:WMN

Wireless local loop (WLL)

◦ The wireless local loop (WLL) is a kind of term in a telephone network

for an access system that avails a wireless link to connect the users to the
local loop.
◦ The wireless connection reduces the period of construction and also
decreases the installation costs and operating costs.

◦ The wireless local loop connects the subscribers to the PSTN by using the
radio signals instead of copper wires.
◦ This wireless system works in a way similar to the CDMA phones
◦ Wireless local loop concentrates on the resources and has the features like
flexible planning and deployment of the system.
◦ It has the lower maintenance cost and quick network deployment.
Features of WLL:
◦ Internet connection via modem
◦ Data service
◦ Voice service
◦ Fax service
Applications of WLL
Presents the applications areas of WLL including
◦ interference,
◦ prototype designs of various access protocols,
◦ a mobility manager,
◦ a remote management systems and
◦ the provision of multimedia services.
Advantages of Wireless Local Loop:
◦ It eliminates the first mile or last mile construction of the network
connection.
◦ Low cost due to no use of conventional copper wires.
◦ Much more secure due to digital encryption techniques used in wireless
communication.
◦ Highly scalable as it does not require the installation of more wires for
scaling it.
◦ High bandwidth is available
◦ Lower network extension costs
Disadvantages of Wireless Local Loop:
1. Limited Range: The range of a WLL base station is limited
compared to wired connections, which may require more base stations
to cover a large area.
2. Interference: Wireless communication is susceptible to interference,
which can affect call quality and data transmission.
3. Data Capacity: The data capacity of WLL may be lower compared
to wired technologies like fiber optics.
WLL Architecture

◦ The Wireless Local Loop (WLL) architecture replaces traditional copper

wires with wireless links, connecting subscribers to the local central
office.
◦ It consists of several components, including the PSTN (Public Switched
Telephone Network), Switch Function, WANU (Wireless Access Network
Unit), and WASU (Wireless Access Subscriber Unit).
◦ Local loop is a circuit line from a subscriber’s phone to the local central
office (LCO).
◦ Microwave wireless links can be used to create a wireless local loop as
shown in figure above.
◦ WLL components:
◦ PSTN:
It is Public Switched Telephone Network which is a circuit switched
network. It is a collection of world’s interconnected circuit switched
telephone networks.
◦ Switch Function:
Switch Function switches the PSTN among various WANUs.
◦ WANU:
It is short for Wireless Access Network Unit. It is present at the local
exchange office.
 ◦ All local WASUs are connected to it. Its functions includes:
Authentication, Operation & maintenance, Routing, Transceiving voice
and data.
◦ It consists of following sub-components:
◦ Transceiver: It transmits/receives data.
◦ WLL Controller: It controls the wireless local loop component with
WASU.
◦ AM: It is short for Access Manager. It is responsible for authentication.
◦ HLR: It is short for Home Location Register. It stores the details of all
local WASUs.
◦ WASU:
It is short for Wireless Access Subscriber Units.
◦ It is present at the house of the subscriber.
◦ It translates wireless link into a traditional telephone connection
◦ It connects the subscriber to WANU and the power supply for it is
provided locally.
◦ It provides an air interface toward the network and another interface to
the subscriber.
◦ This interface includes protocol conversion and transcoding,
authentication functions.

Bing Videos
WLL Technologies:
Wireless Local Loop (WLL) technologies refer to wireless communication
systems that replace the traditional wired local loop, which connects the
subscriber's premises to the central telephone exchange. WLL technologies are
commonly used to provide the "last mile" connectivity for telephone and
broadband services. Here's a technical breakdown of key aspects related to
Wireless Local Loop technologies:

Satellite-Based Systems:
◦ These systems provide telephony services for rural communities and
isolated areas such as islands.
An example of a satellite based technology specifically designed for WLL is the
HNS telephony earth station (TES) technology

◦ Cellular-Based Systems:
These systems provide large power, large range, median subscriber density, and
median circuit quality WLL services. Cellular WLL technologies are primarily
used to expand the basic telephony services.
◦ Fixed Wireless Access Systems
These systems are proprietary radio systems designed specifically for fixed
wireless applications, which may or may not be extensible to PCS or cordless.
◦ Low-Tier PCS or Microcellular-Based Systems:
These systems provide low power, small range, high subscriber density, and
high circuit quality WLL services. These technologies are considered to
facilitate rapid market entry and to expand the capacity of the existing
infrastructure

Concept of LEC

◦ LEC stands for Local Exchange Carrier, is a telco in the United States
that provides local telephone and telecommunication services to
businesses and individuals. “Local exchange” refers to a telco’s central
office (CO), and “carrier” refers to a company that “carries” telephone
and data traffic for customers.
In other words, your local exchange carrier (LEC) is simply the company that
sends you a telephone bill for local phone calls
◦ A LEC owns the local loop cabling between its CO and its subscribers’
premises, which are confined to a geographical area known as the local
access and transport area (LATA).
◦ Any calls that take place within a given LATA are considered local calls
and are billed accordingly.
LINE CODING TECHNIQUES

A line code is the code used for data transmission of a digital signal over a
transmission line. This process of coding is chosen so as to avoid overlap and
distortion of signal such as inter-symbol interference.

Properties of Line Coding

Following are the properties of line coding −

• As the coding is done to make more bits transmit on a single signal, the
bandwidth used is much reduced.
• For a given bandwidth, the power is efficiently used.
• The probability of error is much reduced.
• Error detection is done and the bipolar too has a correction capability.
• Power density is much favorable.
• The timing content is adequate.
• Long strings of 1s and 0s is avoided to maintain transparency.

Types of Line Coding

There are 3 types of Line Coding

• Unipolar
• Polar
• Bi-polar
Unipolar Signaling

Unipolar signaling is also called as On-Off Keying or simply OOK.

The presence of pulse represents a 1 and the absence of pulse represents a 0.

There are two variations in Unipolar signaling −

• Non Return to Zero NRZ

• Return to Zero RZ

Unipolar Non-Return to Zero NR

In this type of unipolar signaling, a High in data is represented by a positive

pulse called as Mark, which has a duration T0 equal to the symbol bit duration.
A Low in data input has no pulse.
The following figure clearly depicts this.

Advantages

The advantages of Unipolar NRZ are −

• It is simple.
• A lesser bandwidth is required.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of Unipolar NRZ are −

• No error correction done.

• Presence of low frequency components may cause the signal droop.
• No clock is present.
• Loss of synchronization is likely to occur (especially for long strings
of 1s and 0s).

Unipolar Return to Zero RZ

In this type of unipolar signaling, a High in data, though represented by a Mark

pulse, its duration T0 is less than the symbol bit duration. Half of the bit
duration remains high but it immediately returns to zero and shows the absence
of pulse during the remaining half of the bit duration.
It is clearly understood with the help of the following figure.

Advantages

The advantages of Unipolar RZ are −

• It is simple.
• The spectral line present at the symbol rate can be used as a clock.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of Unipolar RZ are −

• No error correction.
• Occupies twice the bandwidth as unipolar NRZ.
• The signal droop is caused at the places where signal is non-zero at 0 Hz.
•
Polar Signaling

There are two methods of Polar Signaling. They are −

• Polar NRZ
• Polar RZ

Polar NRZ

In this type of Polar signaling, a High in data is represented by a positive pulse,

while a Low in data is represented by a negative pulse. The following figure
depicts this well.
Advantages

The advantages of Polar NRZ are −

• It is simple.
• No low-frequency components are present.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of Polar NRZ are −

• No error correction.
• No clock is present.
• The signal droop is caused at the places where the signal is non-zero at 0
Hz.

Polar RZ

In this type of Polar signaling, a High in data, though represented by a Mark

pulse, its duration T0 is less than the symbol bit duration. Half of the bit
duration remains high but it immediately returns to zero and shows the absence
of pulse during the remaining half of the bit duration.

However, for a Low input, a negative pulse represents the data, and the zero
level remains same for the other half of the bit duration. The following figure
depicts this clearly.
Advantages

The advantages of Polar RZ are −

• It is simple.
• No low-frequency components are present.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of Polar RZ are −

• No error correction.
• No clock is present.
• Occupies twice the bandwidth of Polar NRZ.
• The signal droop is caused at places where the signal is non-zero at 0 Hz.
Bipolar Signaling

This is an encoding technique which has three voltage levels namely +, - and 0.
Such a signal is called as duo-binary signal.

An example of this type is Alternate Mark Inversion AMI For a 1, the voltage
level gets a transition from + to – or from – to +, having alternate 1s to be of
equal polarity. A 0 will have a zero voltage level.

Even in this method, we have two types.

• Bipolar NRZ
• Bipolar RZ
From the models so far discussed, we have learnt the difference between NRZ
and RZ. It just goes in the same way here too. The following figure clearly
depicts this.

The above figure has both the Bipolar NRZ and RZ waveforms. The pulse
duration and symbol bit duration are equal in NRZ type, while the pulse
duration is half of the symbol bit duration in RZ type.

Advantages

Following are the advantages −

• It is simple.
• No low-frequency components are present.
• Occupies low bandwidth than unipolar and polar NRZ schemes.
• This technique is suitable for transmission over AC coupled lines, as
signal drooping doesn’t occur here.
• A single error detection capability is present in this.
 Disadvantages

Following are the disadvantages −

• No clock is present.
• Long strings of data causes loss of synchronization.

Digital-to-Analog signals is the next conversion we will discuss in this chapter.

These techniques are also called as Digital Modulation techniques.

Digital Modulation provides more information capacity, high data security,

quicker system availability with great quality communication. Hence, digital
modulation techniques have a greater demand, for their capacity to convey
larger amounts of data than analog modulation techniques.

There are many types of digital modulation techniques and also their
combinations, depending upon the need. Of them all, we will discuss the
prominent ones.

ASK – Amplitude Shift Keying

The amplitude of the resultant output depends upon the input data whether it
should be a zero level or a variation of positive and negative, depending upon
the carrier frequency.

FSK – Frequency Shift Keying

The frequency of the output signal will be either high or low, depending upon
the input data applied.

PSK – Phase Shift Keying

The phase of the output signal gets shifted depending upon the input. These are
mainly of two types, namely Binary Phase Shift Keying BPSKand Quadrature
Phase Shift Keying QPSKaccording to the number of phase shifts. The other
one is Differential Phase Shift Keying DPSK which changes the phase
according to the previous value.
Amplitude Shift Keying ASK is a type of Amplitude Modulation which
represents the binary data in the form of variations in the amplitude of a signal.

Any modulated signal has a high frequency carrier. The binary signal when
ASK modulated, gives a zero value for Low input while it gives the carrier
output for High input.

The following figure represents ASK modulated waveform along with its input.

To find the process of obtaining this ASK modulated wave, let us learn about
the working of the ASK modulator.

ASK Modulator

The ASK modulator block diagram comprises of the carrier signal generator,
the binary sequence from the message signal and the band-limited filter.
Following is the block diagram of the ASK Modulator.
The carrier generator, sends a continuous high-frequency carrier. The binary
sequence from the message signal makes the unipolar input to be either High or
Low. The high signal closes the switch, allowing a carrier wave. Hence, the
output will be the carrier signal at high input. When there is low input, the
switch opens, allowing no voltage to appear. Hence, the output will be low.

The band-limiting filter, shapes the pulse depending upon the amplitude and
phase characteristics of the band-limiting filter or the pulse-shaping filter.

Phase Shift Keying PSK is the digital modulation technique in which the phase
of the carrier signal is changed by varying the sine and cosine inputs at a
particular time. PSK technique is widely used for wireless LANs, bio-metric,
contactless operations, along with RFID and Bluetooth communications.

PSK is of two types, depending upon the phases the signal gets shifted. They are
−

Binary Phase Shift Keying BPSK

This is also called as 2-phase PSK or Phase Reversal Keying. In this technique,
the sine wave carrier takes two phase reversals such as 0° and 180°.

BPSK is basically a Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier DSBSC modulation

scheme, for message being the digital information.

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying QPSK

This is the phase shift keying technique, in which the sine wave carrier takes
four phase reversals such as 0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°.

If this kind of techniques are further extended, PSK can be done by eight or
sixteen values also, depending upon the requirement.

BPSK Modulator

The block diagram of Binary Phase Shift Keying consists of the balance
modulator which has the carrier sine wave as one input and the binary sequence
as the other input. Following is the diagrammatic representation.
The modulation of BPSK is done using a balance modulator, which multiplies
the two signals applied at the input. For a zero binary input, the phase will
be 0° and for a high input, the phase reversal is of 180°.

Following is the diagrammatic representation of BPSK Modulated output wave

along with its given input.

The output sine wave of the modulator will be the direct input carrier or the
inverted 180°phaseshifted180° input carrier, which is a function of the data
signal.

Compa
What is Spread Spectrum?

The increasing demand for wireless communications has problems due to

limited spectrum efficiency and multipath propagation. The use of spread
spectrum communication has simplified these problems. In the spread
spectrum, signals from different sources are combined to fit into larger
bandwidth.
Most stations use air as the medium for communication, stations must be able
to share the medium without an interception and without being subject to
jamming from a malicious intruder. To achieve this, spread-spectrum techniques
add redundancy means it uses extended bandwidth to accommodate signals in
a protective envelope so that more secure transmission is possible. The spread
code is a series of numbers that looks random but are actually a pattern. The
original bandwidth of the signal gets enlarged (spread) through the spread code
as shown in the figure.
 Spread Spectrum

Principles of Spread Spectrum process:

1. To allow redundancy, it is necessary that the bandwidth allocated to
each station should be much larger than needed.
2. The spreading process occurs after the signal is created by the source.

Two types of techniques for Spread Spectrum are:

1. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
2. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):

In Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS), different carrier frequencies

are modulated by the source signal i.e. M carrier frequencies are modulated by
the signal. At one moment signal modulates one carrier frequency and at the
subsequent moments, it modulates other carrier frequencies. The general block
diagram of FHSS is shown in the below figure.

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum

A pseudorandom code generator generates Pseudo-random Noise of some

pattern for each hopping period Th. The frequency corresponding to the pattern
is used for the hopping period and is passed to the frequency synthesizer. The
synthesizer generates a carrier signal of that frequency. The figure above shows
the spread signal via FHSS.

Advantages of FHSS:
• Synchronization is not greatly dependent on distance.
• Processing Gain is higher than DSSS.
Disadvantages of FHSS:
• The bandwidth of the FHSS system is too large (in GHz).
• Complex and expensive Digital frequency synthesizers are required.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):

In DSSS, the bandwidth of the original signal is also expanded by a different
technique. Here, each data bit is replaced with n bits using a spreading code
called chips, and the bit rate of the chip is called as chip-rate. The chip rate
is n times the bit rate of the original signal. The below Figure shows the DSSS
block diagram.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

In wireless LAN, the sequence with n = 11 is used. The original data is

multiplied by chips (spreading code) to get the spread signal. The required
bandwidth of the spread signal is 11 times larger than the bandwidth of the
original signal.
Advantages of DSSS:
• The DSSS System combats the jamming most effectively.
• The performance of DSSS in presence of noise is superior to FHSS.
• Interference is minimized against the signals.
Disadvantages of DSSS:
• Processing Gain is lower than DSSS.
• Channel Bandwidth is less than FHSS.
• Synchronization is affected by the variable distance between the
transmitter and receiver.

Comparison of PCM
Tutorials Compare

C
 FHSS DSSS

Multiple frequencies are used Single frequency is used

Hard to find the user’s frequency at any User frequency, once allotted is always the
instant of time same

Frequency reuse is allowed Frequency reuse is not allowed

Sender has to wait if the spectrum is busy

Sender need not wait

Power strength of the signal is high Power strength of the signal is low

Stronger and penetrates through the

obstacles It is weaker compared to FHSS

It is never affected by interference It can be affected by interference

It is cheaper It is expensive

This is the commonly used technique This technique is not frequently used

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