Institute of Basic and

Applied Sciences (BAS)

Math 2 – Linear Algebra

(Spring 2025)

Lecture (1)

[email protected]
 Course content
➢ Vector spaces
– Chapter 4

➢ Eigenvalues and eigenvectors

– Chapter 5

➢ Orthogonality
– Chapter 6
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GRADING POLICY
Assessment Percentage Marks
Assignments 10% 30
Quizzes in 10% 30
Tutorial
Two Quizzes in 10% 30
Lecture
Mid-term Exam 30% 90
Final Exam 40% 120
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 Office hours
➢ Monday
– B8-F2-04 10:30 AM – 2:00 PM

➢ By appointment
– Send an email to : [email protected]

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 • 
Vectors in linear algebra • 
v= 
• A vector (till now) is a list of numbers.  
 
• A vector is represented by a column matrix v. • 
• If the size of this column matrix is n × 1, then this vector
belongs to the space ℝ𝑛 . •  • 
• Operations on vectors •  • 
    +  c
– Addition: v + u      
–      
Scalar multiplication: c v •
     • 
(These operations produce vectors in the same space ℝ𝑛 )

• Geometric description in ℝ2 and ℝ3

o A vector v is described by an arrow from
the origin to the point whose coordinates are
given by v.
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 Properties of Vector

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 Vector spaces

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 ℝ2
𝑎1
The set of all ordered pairs 𝑽 = 𝑎 of real numbers with the standard
2
operations is a vector space.
ℝ𝑛

o ℝ𝑛 , n = 2, 3, 4, . . ., is a vector space:
𝑎1
• It contains all vectors of the form ⋮ ; 𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ∈ ℝ.
𝑎𝑛

• Its vectors are subject to addition, scalar multiplication (Linear

combination)
• These operations produce vectors in the same space ℝ𝑛
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 the set of all 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices, denoted by 𝑀𝑚,𝑛
is a vector space.

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Let 𝑉 = 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ2 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 . Is 𝑉 a vector space?

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Let 𝑉 be the unit disc in ℝ2 :
𝑉 = { 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ2 : 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ≤ 1}

Is 𝑉 a vector space?

The circle is not closed under scalar multiplication. For example, take
𝑢 = (1, 0) ∈ 𝑉
and multiply by say 𝛼 = 2. Then
𝛼𝑢 = (2, 0) is not in 𝑉.
Therefore, property (6) of the definition of a vector space fails.

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 Example Let V = ℙ𝑛 [𝑡] be the set of polynomials of degree at most 𝑛.
ℙ𝑛 𝑡 = {𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑡 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 |𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ∈ ℝ}
Show that V is a vector space.

Let
𝐮 𝑡 = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑡 + 𝑏2 𝑡 2 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 ,
𝐯 𝑡 = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑡 + 𝑐2 𝑡 2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝑡 𝑛
be polynomials in 𝑉.
(1) 𝐮 + 𝐯 𝑡 = 𝐮 𝑡 + 𝐯 𝑡 = (𝑏0 + 𝑐0 ) + (𝑏1 + 𝑐1 )𝑡 + ⋯ + (𝑏𝑛 + 𝑐𝑛 )𝑡 𝑛 ∈ ℙ𝑛 [𝑡]
(4) If we set 𝑏0 = 𝑏1 = 𝑏2 = 𝑏𝑛 = 0, then 𝟎(𝑡) ∈ ℙ𝑛 [𝑡]
(6) Let 𝛼 be a scalar,
(𝛼𝐮) 𝑡 = (𝛼𝑏0 ) + (𝛼𝑏1 )𝑡 + (𝛼𝑏2 )𝑡 2 + ⋯ + (𝛼𝑏𝑛 )𝑡 𝑛 ∈ ℙ𝑛 [𝑡]

One can verify that all other properties of the definition of a vector space also
hold; for example, addition is commutative and associative, etc. Thus ℙ𝑛 [𝑡] is a
vector space.

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 Axiom 6

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A subspace of a vector space 𝑉 is any 𝐻 ⊂ 𝑽 such that
1. 𝟎  𝐻.
2. 𝐻 is closed under addition (𝒉𝟏, 𝒉𝟐 ∈ 𝑯 ⇒ 𝒉𝟏 + 𝒉𝟐 ∈ 𝑯)
3. 𝐻 is closed scalar multiplication (𝒉 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑐 𝒉 ∈ 𝐻)

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Example 1
Let H be the set of all vectors of the form: . Is H a subspace of ℝ3 ?

0
(1) If 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 0, then 0 ∈ 𝐻
0

𝑐∈ℝ

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Example 2

Is H a subspace of ℝ3 ?

(3) let 𝑐 ∈ ℝ
𝑠1 𝑐 𝑠1
𝑐𝑢 = 𝑐 𝑡1 = 𝑐 𝑡1 ∈ 𝐻
0 0
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Example 3
Let W be the graph of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥:
𝑊 = {(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ2 |𝑦 = 2𝑥}
Is 𝑊 a subspace of ℝ2 ?

(1) If 𝑥 = 0, then 𝑦 = 0, thus (0,0) ∈ 𝑊.

(2) Let 𝑢 = 𝑎, 2𝑎 , 𝑣 = (𝑏, 2𝑏). Then
𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝑎 + 𝑏, 2 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ 𝑊.
(3) Let 𝑐 ∈ ℝ,
𝑐𝑢 = 𝑐 𝑎, 2𝑎 = (𝑎𝑐, 2𝑎𝑐) ∈ 𝑊

Then 𝑊 is a subspace of ℝ2

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Example 4
Let 𝐻 be the first quadrant in ℝ2
𝐻 = {(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ2 |𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑦 ≥ 0}
Is 𝐻 a subspace of ℝ2 ?

(3) Let 𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑦 such that 𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑦 ≥ 0. Let 𝑐 = −1 ∈ ℝ,

𝑐𝑢 = −𝑥, −𝑦 ∉ 𝐻

Then 𝐻 is not a subspace of ℝ2

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 Spanned set
The set of all vectors that can be written as a linear
combination of a given set of vectors W ={v1, …, vp} is
called the spanned set, and is denoted by Span W
Span W = Span {v1, …, vp} = 𝑐1 v1 + 𝑐2 v2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑝 v𝑝
with 𝑐1 , … , 𝑐𝑝 scalars.

Span{RGB} = Span , , = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 𝑐3

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 A Subspace Spanned by a Set
Theorem

𝐻 = 𝐡 𝐡 = 𝑎 𝐯𝟏 + 𝑏 𝐯𝟐 , 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ}
(1)

(2)

(3)

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 A Subspace Spanned by a Set

Example a − 3b 
Let H be the set of all vectors of the form:  b − a  .
 
That is, H = {(a – 3 b, b – a, a, b); a, b  ℝ}.  a 
Is H a subspace of ℝ4 ?  
 b 

Answer:

Hence, H = Span {v1, v2} which implies that H is a subspace.

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 Null space
The null space of an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix A (denoted by Nul A) is the set
of all solutions to the system 𝐴 𝐱 = 𝟎.
In symbols,
Nul A = 𝐱 ∈ ℝ𝑛 𝐴 𝐱 = 𝟎}.

Example 5 −15
1 −3 −2
(a) Does u belong to Nul A? 𝐴= , 𝐮 = 3 , 𝐯 = −9 ,
−5 9 1
(b) Repeat (a) for v and w. −2 6
5
(c) Does u + v belong to Nul A? 𝐰 = −2
3
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Theorem If A is of size 𝑚 × 𝑛, then Nul A is a subspace of ℝ𝑛 .

Nul A = 𝐱 ∈ ℝ𝑛 𝐴 𝐱 = 𝟎}.

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 Spanning Sets
Definition
Let S = {v1, v2, …, vk } be a subset of a vector space V. The set S
is called a spanning set of V if every vector in the space V can
be expressed as a linear combination of vectors in S.

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 Spanning set for Nul A
Example
− 3 6 − 1 1 − 7 
Find a spanning set for the null space A =  1 − 2 2 3 − 1
 
of the shown matrix.  2 − 4 5 8 − 4

▪ Solution: The first step is to find the general solution of

Ax = 0 in terms of free variables.
▪ Row reduce the augmented matrix  A 0 to reduce
echelon form in order to write the basic variables in terms
of the free variables:

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 −3 6 −1 1 −7 0
𝐴 0 = 1 −2 2 3 −1 0
2 −4 5 8 −4 0
1 −2 2 3 −1 0 1 −2 2 3 −1 0
~ −3 6 −1 1 −7 0 ~ 0 0 5 10 −10 0
2 −4 5 8 −4 0 0 0 1 2 −2 0

1 −2 2 3 −1 0 1 −2 0 −1 3 0
~ 0 0 1 2 −2 0 ~ 0 0 1 2 −2 0
0 0 1 2 −2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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 1 −2 0 −1 3 0  x1 − 2 x2 − x4 + 3x5 = 0
0 0 1 2 −2 0 
  x3 + 2 x4 − 2 x5 = 0
0 0 0 0 0 0  0=0

▪ The basic variables are 𝑥1 , 𝑥3 , and the free variables

are x2, x4, and x5 . The general solution is
x1 = 2 x2 + x4 − 3x5 x3 = −2 x4 + 2 x5
▪ Next, decompose the vector giving the general
solution into a linear combination of vectors where
the weights are the free variables. That is,

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  x1   2 x2 + x4 − 3x5  2  1  −3
x   x  1   0  0
 2  2
      
 x3  =  −2 x4 + 2 x5  = x2  0  + x4  −2  + x5  2 
x   x  0  1  0
 4  4       
 x5   x5   0   0   1

• The vectors is the spanning set are ALWAYS LI.

• The number of such vectors equals the number of free variables.
•30 Nul A = {0} if and only if 2A- LA
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0 has a unique (trivial) solution.
2025)
Example Show that the solution set of the following system is a subspace of ℝ3 :
3 x + 5 y – 4 z = 0, – 3 x – 2 y + 4 z = 0, 6 x + y – 8 z = 0.

S.S. = Span {v}. Hence. S.S. is a subspace.

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 Column space

▪ Definition: The column space of an m  n matrix A, written as

Col A, is the set of all linear combinations of the columns of A. If

then

∈ ℝ𝑚

The column space of Amn is the set of all linear combinations of

the columns of A.
In symbols,
Col A = {𝐛 ∈ ℝ𝑚 | 𝐴 𝐱 = 𝒃 has a solution}.
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The column space of an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix 𝐴 is a subspace of ℝ𝑚 .

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Example: Let
 3
 2 4 −2 1  −2   3
  u=   , 
v = −1 
A = −2 −5 7 3 ,  
   −1
 3 7 −8 6   0  3
 
a. Determine if u is in Nul A. Could u be in Col A?
b. Determine if v is in Col A. Could v be in Nul A?

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▪ Solution:
a. An explicit description of Nul A is not needed
here. Simply compute the product Au.
 3
 2 4 −2 1    0  0 
  −2    
Au = −2 −5 7 3   = −3  0
   −1    
 3 7 −8 6     3 0 
 0
▪ u is not a solution of Ax = 0 , so u is not in Nul A.
▪ Also, with four entries, u could not possibly be in Col
A, since Col A is a subspace of ℝ3 .

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 b. Reduce  A v to an echelon form.
2 4 −2 1 3 2 4 −2 1 3
𝐴 v = −2 −5 7 3 −1 ∼ 0 1 −5 −4 −2
3 7 −8 6 3 0 0 0 17 1

▪ The equation Ax = v is consistent, so v is

in Col A.

With only three entries, v could not possibly be in Nul A,

since Nul A is a subspace of ℝ4 .

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Example
(a) Find some other vectors in Col A. 2 4 −2 1
(b) Find a spanning set for Col A. 𝐴 = −2 −5 7 3
3 7 −8 6

Span

= 𝑐1 𝑎1 + 𝑐2 𝑎2 + 𝑐3 𝑎3 + 𝑐4 𝑎4
2 4 −2 1
= 𝑐1 −2 + 𝑐2 −5 + 𝑐3 7 + 𝑐4 3
3 7 −8 6

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 Study materials
Sections covered
4.1, 4.2
Problems
Exercise 4.1 Page 197 Exercise 4.2 Page 207
Tutorial: 2, 4, 6*, 9, 11,15, 16*, 21 Tutorial: 1, 3, 5*, 17, 21, 23
Homework: 3, 10, 17, 23 Homework: 2, 4, 18, 22, 24

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