Hawassa University Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION
Electric circuit theory and electromagnetic theory are the two fundamental theories upon which
all branches of electrical engineering are built. Many branches of electrical engineering, such as
power, electric machines, control, electronics, communications, and instrumentation, are based
on electric circuit theory.
An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements.

1.1 Electric charge

An Electric charge, denoted by Q is associated with a deficiency or the abundance of a group of
electrons and is equal to the product of the number of electrons and the charge on each
individual electron.
Electrical charge manifests itself in the form of forces. Electrons repel other electrons but attract
protons, while protons repel each other but attract electrons.
The unit of electrical charge is the coulomb(C).
 The coulomb is defined as the charge carried by 6.24 x 1018 electrons. Thus, if an
electrically neutral (i.e., uncharged) body has 6.24 x 10 18 electrons removed, it will be left
with a net positive charge of 1 coulomb, i.e., Q = 1 C. Conversely, if an uncharged body
has 6.24 x 1018 electrons added, it will have a net negative charge of 1 coulomb, i.e., Q =
-1 C.
We can now determine the charge on one electron. It is Qe = 1/ (6.24 x 1018) = 1.60 x 10-19 C.
Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists,
measured in coulombs (C).

Example - An initially neutral body has 1.7 µC of negative charge removed. Later, 18.7 x 10 11
electrons are added. What is the body’s final charge?
Solution: - Initially the body is neutral, i.e., QInitial = 0 C. When 1.7 µC of electrons is removed,
the body is left with a positive charge of 1.7 µC. Now, 18.7 x 10 11 electrons are added back. This
is equivalent to
11 1 coulomb
18.7 ×10 electrons × 18
=0.3 µ C
6.24 ×10 electrons
Of negative charge. The final charge on the body is therefore Qf = 1.7 µC - 0.3 µC =1.4 µC.

1.2 Coulombs law

Coulomb determined experimentally that the force between two charges Q1 and Q2 is directly
proportional to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them. Mathematically, Coulomb’s law states
Q1 Q2
F=k 2 newtons , N
r
Where Q1 and Q2 are the charges in coulombs, r is the center-to-center spacing between them in
meters, and k= 9 x 109.

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As Coulomb’s law indicates, force decreases inversely as the square of distance; thus, if the
distance between two charges is doubled, the force decreases to (1⁄2) 2 = 1⁄4 (i.e., one quarter) of
its original value.
Negative result indicates attractive force and positive value indicates repulsive force.
Exercises:
1. Positive charges Q1 = 2 µC and Q2 = 12 µC are separated center to center by 10 mm. Compute
the force between them. Is it attractive or repulsive?
2. Two equal charges are separated by 1 cm. If the force of repulsion between them is 9.7 x 10 -2
N, what is their charge? What may the charges be, both positive, both negative, or one positive
and one negative?
3. After 10.61 x 1013 electrons are added to a metal plate, it has a negative charge of 3 µC. What
was its initial charge in coulombs?
Answers: 1. 2160 N, repulsive; 2. 32.8 nCww, both (+) or both (-); 3. 14 µC (+)

1.3 Electric Field

By definition, the Electric field strength at a point is the force acting on a unit positive charge at
that point; that is,

F
E= (newton /coulomb , N /C)
Q

The force exerted on a unit positive charge (Q2 = 1 C), by a charge Q1, r meters away, as
determined by Coulomb’s law is

k Q1 Q2 k Q1 (1) kQ1 9 2 2
F= 2
= 2
= 2
(k =9 ×10 Nm /C )
r r r
2
F k Q1 /r
E= =
Q2 1

k Q1
E= 2
(N /C)
r

1.4 Voltage
In electrical terms, a difference in potential energy is defined as voltage. In
general, the amount of energy required to separate charges depends on the
voltage developed and the amount of charge moved. By definition, the
voltage between two points is one volt if it requires one joule of energy to
move one coulomb of charge from one point to the other. In equation form,

W
V= volts ,V
Q

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Where W is energy in joules, Q is charge in coulombs, and V is the resulting

voltage in volts which is defined between points. For the case of the battery,
for example, voltage appears between its terminals. Thus, voltage does not
exist at a point by itself; it is always determined with respect to some other
point.

W =QV joules , J

W
Q= coulombs , C
V

If we are dealing with a changing charge and energy, we have

dw
v=
dq

Example 2 - If it takes 35 J of energy to move a charge of 5 C from one point to

another, what is the voltage between the two points?

Solution

W 35 J
V= = =7 J /C=7 V
Q 5C

Exercises:

1. The voltage between two points is 19 V. How much energy is required to move 67 x 1018 electrons
from one point to the other?

2. The potential difference between two points is 140 mV. If 280 µJ of work are required to move a
charge Q from one point to the other, what is Q?

Answer: 1. 204 J 2. 2 mC

1.5 Current
Assume now that a battery is connected as in Figure 1.1. Since electrons are
attracted by the positive pole of the battery and repelled by the negative
pole, they move around the circuit, passing through the wire, the lamp, and
the battery. This movement of charge is called an electric current. The
more electrons per second that pass through the circuit, the greater the
current. Thus, current is the rate of flow (or rate of movement) of charge.

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Figure 1.1 electron current through a cross sectional area

Since charge is measured in coulombs, its rate of flow is coulombs per second. In the SI system,
one coulomb per second is defined as one ampere (commonly abbreviated A). From this, we get
that one ampere is the current in a circuit when one coulomb of charge passes a given point
(plane) in one second (Figure 1.1). The symbol for current is I. Expressed mathematically,

Q
I= amperes , A
t

Where Q is the charge (in coulombs) and t is the time interval (in seconds) over which it is
measured.

Alternate forms of the above equation are

Q=¿ coulombs , C

Q
t= seconds , s
I

If we are dealing with time varying charge then we use the equation

dq (t)
i(t)=
dt
t

Then q ( t )= ∫ i( τ )d ( τ )
τ=−∞

If the current does not change with time, but remains constant, we call it a direct current (dc).
While, if a current varies sinusoidally with time, call it an alternating current (ac).

Example - The total charge entering a terminal is given by q = 5t sin 4πt mC. Calculate the
current at t = 0.5 s.

Answer: 31.42 mA

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Exercise- Determine the total charge entering a terminal between t = 1 s and t = 2 s if the current
passing the terminal is i = (3t 2 − t) A.

Exercise- The current flowing through an element is

Calculate the charge entering the element from t = 0 to t = 2 s.

Answer: 6.667 C.

Example 3 – If 840 coulombs of charge pass through the imaginary plane of figure 1.1 during a
time interval of 2 minutes, what is the current?

Solution - convert t to seconds

Q 840 C
I= = =7 C / s=7 A
t (2× 60)s

In the early days of electricity, it was believed that current was a movement of positive charge
and that these charges moved around the circuit from the positive terminal of the battery to the
negative as depicted in Figure 1–2(a). Based on this, all the laws, formulas, and symbols of
circuit theory were developed. (We now refer to this direction as the conventional current
direction.)

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Figure 1.2 conventional and electron flow of electric current

After the discovery of the atomic nature of matter, it was learned that what actually moves in
metallic conductors are electrons and that they move through the circuit as in Figure 1–2(b). This
direction is called the electron flow direction. However, because the conventional current
direction was so well established, most users stayed with it. Thus, in most books and in the
discussions that follow, the conventional direction for current is used.

Note: Current and voltage are the two basic variables in electric circuits. The
common term signal is used for an electric quantity such as a current or a voltage
(or even electromagnetic wave) when it is used for conveying information.
1.6 Power
Power is defined as the rate of doing work or, equivalently, as the rate of transfer of energy. The
symbol for power is P. By definition,

W
P= watts , W
t

Where W is the work (or energy) in joules and t is the corresponding time interval of t seconds.

The SI unit of power is the watt. From the above equation, we see that P also has units of joules
per second. If you substitute W = 1 J and t = 1 s you get P = 1 J/1 s = 1 W. From this, you can
see that one watt equals one joule per second.

To express P in terms of electrical quantities, recall that voltage is defined as work per unit
charge and current as the rate of transfer of charge, i.e.,

W
V=
Q

Q
I=
t

From voltage equation, W = QV. Substituting this into Equation for power yields P = W/t =
(QV)/t = V (Q/t). Replacing Q/t with I, we get

P=VI watts , W

Additional relationships are obtained by substituting V = IR and I =V/R

2
P=I R
2
V
P=
R

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For non-constant (time varying) conditions

dW (t)
P(t )=
d (t)

dW ( t ) dW ( t ) dq
P (t)= = ×
dt dq dt

P ( t ) =V (t ) I ( t)

Example - compute the power to each resistor in figure below.

Solution –use the appropriate voltage in the power equation, for resistor R1 use V1 and for resistor
R2 use V2

Solution

a. P1=V 21 / R1=¿(10 V )2 /20 Ω=5 W ¿

b. P2=V 22 / R2 =¿(50 V )2 /100 Ω=25 W ¿

Exercises

a. show that I =√ P/ R and V = √ PR

b. A 100 Ω resistor dissipates 169 W. What is its current?

1.7 Energy
We defined power as the rate of doing work. When you rearrange this equation, you get the
formula for energy:

W =Pt

If t is measured in seconds, W has units of watt-seconds (i.e., joules, J), while if t is measured in
hours, W has units of watt-hours (Wh). Note that in the above equation, P must be constant over
the time interval under consideration. If it is not, apply the equation to each interval over which
P is constant.

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For time varying circuits energy can be expressed as

t2 t2

w (t )= ∫ p ( t ) dt=¿ ∫ v (t ) i(t)dt ¿
t =t 1 t =t 1

Example: Determine the total energy used by a 100 W lamp for 12 hours and a 1.5 kW heater
for 45 minutes.

Solution - convert all quantities to the same set of units, thus 1.5 kW = 1500 W and 45 minutes =
0.75 h.then,

W =( 100 W ) ( 12h )+ (1500 W )( 0.75 h )=2325 Wh=2.325 kWh

1
Example - Suppose you use the following electrical appliances: 1.5 kW heater for 7 hours, a
2
3.6 kW boiler for 17 minutes, three 100 W lamps for 4 hours, a 900 W toaster for 6 minutes. At
0.09 birr per kilowatt-hour, how much will this cost?

Solution - convert time in minutes to hours. Thus,

W =( 1500 ) ( 7.5 ) + ( 3600 ) ( 1760 )+( 3 )( 100 )( 4 ) +( 900 ) ( 606 )

¿ 13560 Wh=13.56 kWh

cost =( 13.56 kWh )( 0.09 birr /kWh )=1.22 birr

1.7 Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic Induction

If a conductor is moved through a magnetic field so that it cuts magnetic lines of flux, a voltage
will be induced across the conductor, as shown in Figure 1.3. The greater the number of flux
lines cut per unit time (by increasing the speed with which the conductor passes through the
field), or the stronger the magnetic field strength (for the same traversing speed), the greater will
be the induced voltage across the conductor. If the conductor is held fixed and the magnetic field
is moved so that its flux lines cut the conductor, the same effect will be produced.

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Figure 1.3 Induced voltage when a conductor wire passes through a magnetic flux

If a coil of N turns is placed in the region of a changing flux, a voltage will be induced across the
coil as determined by Faraday’s law:

dϕ
e=N volts ,V
dt

Where e is voltage induced N represents the number of turns of the coil and dϕ/dt is the
instantaneous change in flux (in webers) linking the coil. The term linking refers to the flux
within the turns of wire.

If the flux linking the coil ceases to change, such as when the coil simply sits still in a magnetic
field of fixed strength, dϕ/dt = 0, and the induced voltage e = N (dϕ/dt) = N(0) = 0.

Self-inductance

Self-inductance of a coil is a measure of the change in flux linking a coil due to a change in
current through the coil; that is,

dϕ
L=N
di

Self-Inductance can also be described as the measure opposition that an inductor exhibits to the
change of current flowing through itself, measured in henrys (H). The opposition in the form of
an induced voltage across the inductor is directly proportional to the time rate of change of the
current.

The induced voltage is given by the formula

dϕ dϕ di
e L =v=N =( N )( )
dt di dt

di
e L =L
dt

where L is the constant of proportionality called the inductance of the inductor.

The inductance of an inductor depends on its physical dimension and construction. Inductors
(coils) of different shapes have different formulas. Formulas for calculating the inductance of
inductors of different shapes are derived from electromagnetic theory and can be found in
standard electrical engineering handbooks.

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Mutual inductance

In addition to inducing an opposing voltage in the original coil, change in current in a certain
coil can also induce voltage across the terminals of another coil placed in its vicinity. This
phenomenon is called mutual inductance.

Figure 1.4 – mutual inductance in the primary and secondary coil of a transformer

Let us consider two coils, where the first one is called a primary coil (p) and the other one the
secondary (s). The magnitude of es, the voltage induced across the secondary, is determined by

dϕ m
e s=N s
dt

where Ns is the number of turns in the secondary winding and ϕm is the portion of the primary
flux ϕp that links the secondary winding.

If all of the flux linking the primary links the secondary, then ϕm = ϕp

dϕ p
e s=N s
dt

The mutual inductance between the two coils of the above figure is determined by

dϕ m
M =N s henries , H
d ip

dϕ p
M =N p henries , H
d is

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Circuit elements
Resistance and Resistors

A resistor is a material that provides an opposing force to the flow of charge through it. This
opposition, due to the collisions between electrons and between electrons and other atoms in the
material, which converts electrical energy into another form of energy such as heat, is called the
resistance of the material. The unit of measurement of resistance is the ohm, for which the
symbol is Ω (omega).

The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area is determined by the following
four factors:

1. Material

2. Length

3. Cross-sectional area

4. Temperature

At a fixed temperature of 20°C (room temperature), the resistance is related to three factors by

l
R=ρ
A

Where ρ (Greek letter rho) is a characteristic of the material called the resistivity, l is the length
of the sample, and A is the cross-sectional area of the sample.

The voltage- current relation of a resistor is determined by ohms law which is given by

V
I= amperes , A
R

Where I is the current through the resistor and V is the voltage

The reciprocal of resistance is conductance and it is measure of how well the material will
conduct electricity. It is represented by the symbol G.

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TYPES OF RESISTORS

Fixed Resistors

Resistors are made in many forms, but all belong in either of two groups: fixed or variable. The
most common of the low-wattage, fixed-type resistors is the molded carbon composition resistor.
The basic construction is shown in fig 1.0 below.

Fig 1.0 Fixed composition resistor

Variable Resistors

Variable resistors, as the name implies, have a terminal resistance that can be varied by turning a
dial, knob, screw, or whatever seems appropriate for the application. They can have two or three
terminals, but most have three terminals. If the two- or three-terminal device is used as a variable
resistor, it is usually referred to as a rheostat. If the three terminal device is used for controlling
potential levels, it is then commonly called a potentiometer. Even though a three-terminal device
can be used as a rheostat or potentiometer (depending on how it is connected), it is typically
called a potentiometer when listed in trade magazines or requested for a particular application.

Fig. 1.2 variable resisror

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Power
Power is an indication of how much work (the conversion of energy from one form to another)
can be done in a specified amount of time, That is, a rate of doing work. In terms of the electrical
quantities V and I,

W QV Q Q
P= = =V but I =
t t t t

P=VI watts , W

By direct substitution of Ohm’s law, the equation for power can be obtained in two other forms:

( )
2
V V
P=VI =V =
R R
2
P=VI =( IR ) I =I R

Energy

The energy (W) lost or gained by any system is therefore determined by

W =Pt wattseconds , Ws ,∨ joules

The watt second, however, is too small a quantity for most practical purposes, so the watthour
(Wh) and kilowatt-hour (kWh) were defined, as follows:

Energy(Wh)= power (W )× time(h)

power (W )× time(h)
Energy ( kWh )=
1000

Example – How much energy (in kilowatt-hours) is required to light a 60 W bulb continuously
for 1 year?

Solution –

Pt ( 60 W ) ( 24 h /day ) (365 days) 525,600 Wh

W= = =
1000 1000 1000

¿ 520.60 kWh

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Exercise – How long can a 205 W television set be on before using more than 4 kWh of energy?
Ans = 19.51 hours

Capacitance and Capacitor

A circuit element that is composed of two conducting plates or surfaces separated by a dielectric
(non-conducting) materials. If a voltage source (v) is connected to the capacitor, +ve charge will
be transferred to one plate while –ve charge will be transferred to the other plate.

Let the charge stored at the capacitor ≡q, then if v increases q also increases

v∝q

Then from the above relation it can be found that

q=cv

Where c is the capacitance of the capacitor

q
c=
v

The capacitance can also determined using the following relation

A
c∝
d

εo A
c∝
d

Where A=surface area of each plate

d=distance between the two plates

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ε o= Permittivity of free space

Current in capacitor

We know that

dq (t)
i (t )=
dt

Then

d
i (t )= (c v c (t))
dt

dv c (t )
i (t )=C
dt

Voltage in capacitor

dv c (t )
i c ( t )=C
dt

i c ( t ) dt =Cd v c (t )

1
dv c ( t ) = i c (t )dt
c
τ =t
1
v c ( t )=v c (t o )+ ∫ i c (τ )dτ
c τ=t o

Where to is the initial time

The capacitor is a passive element and follows the passive sign convention

Inductance and Inductors

Inductors are circuit elements that consist of a conducting wire in the shape of a coil (N=1).

If a current is flowing in the inductor, it produce a magnetic field, Φ.

Φ c ( t )=Li (t)

Where L is the inductance and measured in Henry [H]

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As the current increases or decreases, the magnetic field spreads or collapse The change in
magnetic field induces a voltage across the inductor.

dΦ ( t )
v L (t)=
dt

d i L (t)
v L (t)=L
dt

Current in inductors

d i L (t)
v L (t)=L
dt

1
di L (t )= v L (t)dt
L

Integrate both sides

τ =t
1
i L ( t )=i L ( t o ) + ∫ v ( τ)dτ
L τ=t L
o

Electric sources

1. Independent voltage source: is a 2-terminal sources that maintains a specific voltage across
its terminals regardless of the current through it. The circuit symbol of independent voltage
sources is given below,

2. Dependent voltage source: is a 2-terminal sources that generates a voltage that is determined
by a voltage or current at a specified location in the circuit. The circuit symbol of dependent
voltage sources is,

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3. Independent current source: is a 2-terminal sources that maintains a specific current through
it regardless of the voltage across it terminals. The circuit symbol of independent current sources
is given below,

4. Dependent current source: is a 2-terminal sources that generates a current that is determined
by voltage or current at a specified location in the circuit. The circuit symbol of dependent
current sources is given below,

Example - Compute the power that is absorbed or supplied by each of the elements in the
following circuit

Solution

PVs=V s I X =( 36 ) (−4 )=−144 W (supplies)

P R 1=V R 1 I X = (12 )( 4 )=48 W ( absorbs)

P R 2=V R 2 I R 2 =V R 2 ( I X −I R 3 )=( 24 ) ( 4−2 )=48 W (absorbs)

P Ds=V Ds I R 3= ( 1 I X ) ( I R 3 )=( 4 ) (−2 )=−8W (supplies)

P R 3=V R 3 I R 3=( 28 ) ( 2 )=56 W (absorbs)

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