Nutrient use efficiency

Nutrient use efficiency

Nutrient use efficiency (NUE) is a measure of how well plants use the available mineral
nutrients. It can be defined as yield (biomass) per unit fertilizer (fertilizer, nutrient
content).

NUE is the fraction of fertilizer nutrients removed from the field with the crop harvest.

NUE= (crop nutrient removal/ nutrient input) *100

NUE is a workable indicator to assess and monitor sound fertilizer use.

Also, NUE is defined as the amount of dry matter produced per unit of nutrient
supplied or absorbed.

NUE= Physiological efficiency * Apparent recovery efficiency

Classification of NUE

1. Agronomic efficiency
It is defined as the economic production obtained per unit of nutrient applied. It is
calculated by the following equation:
(grain yield of fertilized crop in kg)- (grain yield of unfertilized crop in kg)
Agronomic efficiency =
(quantity of fertilizer applied in kg)
2. Physiological efficiency
It is defined as the biological production obtained per unit of nutrient
(Total dry matter yield of fertilized crop in kg)-(total dry matter yield of unfert
Physiological efficiency = ilized crop in kg)
(nutrient uptake by fertilizer crop in kg)-(nutrient uptake by unfertilized crop in kg)

3. Apparent nutrient efficiency

It is defined as the quantity of nutrient absorbed per unit of nutrient applied.

Apparent nutrient efficiency =(nutrient uptake by fertilized crop)-(nutrient uptake by

unfertilized crop) (quantity of fertilizer applied) Time of fertilizer application

1. Prior to sowing
 Some of water insoluble fertilizers such as rock phosphate and basic slag are
applied 2 to 4 weeks before sowing to enable conversion of water insoluble form
to soluble form for efficient crop utilization.

2. At sowing
Application of fertilizer at the time of sowing or just before sowing is called basal
application.
3. After sowing the crop
Application of fertilizers after the crop establishment of crop is called top
dressing.
4. Split application
When fertilizer is applied in 2 or more different time, the system is called a split
application
Method of fertilizer application
a. Soil application
1. Broadcasting
2. Band placement
3. Point placement
4. Fertigation
b. Application to plant
1. Root dipping
2. Foliar application
 Water resources, soil-plant-water
relationship, crop water requirement

Water resources, soil-plant-water relationship, crop water requirement

Water resources
Water resources are the sources of water that are potentially useful.

 Uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and

environmental activities.
 97 % of the water on the earth is salty water and only 3% is fresh water

Sources of water

Surface water ground water

A. Surface water
- Lakes
- Ponds
- Streams
- Rivers
- Storage reservoir
- Stored rain water

B. Ground water
- Springs
- Infiltration galleries
- Wells

Flow chart showing water resources of India

Total precipitation (400 M ha-m)

Infiltration Evaporation 70 M Surface flow 115

into the soil ha-m M ha-m
215 M ha-m
 Infiltration Surface flow

Soil Ground Rain 105 M Snow 10 M

moisture water 50 M ha-m ha-m
165 M ha-m ha-m

Soil-plant-water relationship
To design a successful irrigation system, it is essential to know the plant rooting
characteristics, effective root zone depth, moisture extraction pattern and moisture
sensitive period of crops.
Rooting characteristics of plants
The purpose of irrigation is to provide adequate soil moisture in the immediate vicinity of the plant roots.
All plants do not have the similar rooting pattern i.e., root penetration and proliferation . Some plants
have relatively shallow root system (annual crops), while others develop several meters under favorable
conditions (tree crops).

Soil properties influencing root development

1. Hard pan
Root penetration is seriously affected by the presence of a hard pan or compacted layer in the soil
profile. Thus roots cannot penetrate a hard layer except through cracks.
2. Soil moisture
Since roots cannot grow in soil that is depleted in moisture down to and below the permanent
wilting point, a layer of dry soil below the surface in the profile can restrict root penetration.
3. Water table
A high water table limits root growth and a rising water table may kill roots that have previously
grown below the new water level.
4. Toxic substances
Presence of toxic substances in the sub-soil also limits root growth and development . Saline layers
or patches in the profile therefore inhibit or prevent root penetration and proliferation.
Types of water movement
Generally 3 types of water movement within the soil are recognized- saturated flow, unsaturated flow and
water vapour flow.
 1. Saturated water movement
The condition of the soil when all the macro and micro pores are filled with water,
the soil is said to be at saturation, and any water flow under this soil condition is
referred to as saturated flow.
2. Unsaturated water movement
The soil is said to be under unsaturated condition when the soil macro pores are
mostly filled with air and micro pores (capillary pores) with water and some air, and
any water movement or flow taking place under this soil condition is referred to as
unsaturated flow.

Water absorption by plants

 Mechanism of absorption of water by plants In higher plants, water is absorbed

through root hairs which are in contact with soil water and form a root hair zone a
little behind the root tips.
Mechanism of water absorption is of 2 types
1. Active absorption of water
In this process the root cells play active role in the absorption of water and
metabolic energy released through respiration is consumed.
2. Passive absorption of water
It is mainly due to transpiration, the root cells do not play active role and remain
passive.

Crop water requirement

Crop water requirement is the water required by the plants for its survival, growth,
development and to produce economic parts. This requirement is applied either naturally
by precipitation or artificially by irrigation. Hence the crop water requirement includes all
losses like:

a) Transpiration loss through leaves (T)

b) Evaporation loss through soil surface in cropped area (E)

c) Amount of weather used by plants (WP) for its metabolic activities which is estimated
as less than 1% of the total water absorption. These three components cannot be
separated so easily. Hence the ET loss is taken as crop water use or crop water
consumptive use.

d) Other application losses are conveyance loss, percolation loss, runoff loss, etc., (WL).
e) The water required for special purposes (WSP) like puddling operation, ploughing
operation, land preparation, leaching, requirement, for the purpose of weeding, for
dissolving fertilizer and chemical, etc.

Hence the water requirement is symbolically represented as:

WR = T + E + WP + WL + WSP

(The other application losses and special purposes are mostly indented for wet land
cultivation. Hence for irrigated dry land crop the ET loss alone is accounted for crop
water requirement).

The estimations of the water requirement of crop are one of the basic needs for crop
planning on the farm and for the planning of any irrigation project.

Water requirement may be defined as the quantity of water required by a crop or

diversified pattern of crop in a given period of time for its normal growth under field
conditions at a place.

Water requirement includes the losses due to ET or CU and losses during the
application of irrigation water and the quantity of water required for special purposes or
operations such as land preparation, transplanting, leaching etc., Hence it may be
formulated as follows

WR = ET or Cu + application loss + water for special needs.

It can also be stated based on “Demand” and “supply source” as follows

WR = IR + ER + S

Where,

IR - Irrigation requirement

ER - Effective rainfall

S - Contribution from ground water table.

Hence the idea about crop water requirement is essential for farm planning with
respect to total quantity of water needed and its efficient use for various cropping
schemes of the farm or project area. This crop water requirement is also needed to decide
the stream size and design the canal capacity.
The combined loss of evaporation and transpiration from a cropped field is termed as
evapotranspiration which is otherwise known as consumptive use and denoted as ET and
this is a part of water requirement.

CU = E + T + WP
Therefore,
WR = CU + WL + WSP
The crop water requirement can also be defined as water required meeting the
evapotranspiration demand of the crop and special needs in case of wet land crop and
which also includes other application losses both in the case of wet land and garden land
crops. This is also known as crop water demand.
The crop water requirement varies from place to place, from crop to crop and depends on
agro-ecological variation and crop characters.

The following features which mainly influence the crop water requirement are:
1) Crop factors
a) Variety
b) Growth stages
c) Duration
d) Plant population
e) Crop growing season
2) Soil factors
a) Structure
b) Texture
c) Depth
d) Topography
e) Soil chemical composition
3) Climatic factors
a) Temperature
b) Sunshine hours
c) Relative humidity
d) Wind velocity
e) Rainfall
4) Agronomic management factors
a) Irrigation methods used
b) Frequency of irrigation and its efficiency
c) Tillage and other cultural operations like weeding, mulching etc/
intercropping etc
Based on all these factors, average crop water requirement for various crops have been
worked out and given below for tropical conditions.
Irrigation requirement
The field irrigation requirement of crops refers to water requirement of crops exclusive
of effective rainfall and contribution from soil profile and it may be given as follows
IR - WR – (ER + S)
IR - Irrigation requirement
WR - Water requirement
ER - Effective rainfall
S - Soil moisture contribution
Irrigation requirement depends upon the
a) Irrigation need of individual crop based on area of crop
b) Losses in the farm water distribution system etc.
All the quantities are usually expressed in terms of water depth per unit of land area
(ha/cm) or unit of depth (cm).

Net irrigation requirement

It is the actual quantity of water required in terms of depth to bring the soil to field
capacity level to meet the ET demand of the crop.

It is the water applied by irrigation alone in terms of depth to bring the field to field
capacity level. To work out the net irrigation requirement, ground water contribution and
other gains in soil moisture are to be excluded. It is the amount of irrigation water
required to bring the soil moisture level in the effective root zone to field capacity, which
in turn meet the ET effective root zone to field capacity, which in turn meet the ET
demand of the crop. It is the difference between the F.C and the soil moisture content in
the root zone before starting irrigation.

n Mfci – Mbi
d = ∑ --------------- x Ai x Di
i=i 100
d = Net irrigation water to be applied (cm)
Mfci = FC in ith layer (%)
Mbi = Moisture content before irrigation in i th layer (%)
Ai = Bulk density (g/cc)
Di = depth (cm) n = number of soil layer
Water use efficiency
Water use efficiency, irrigation-scheduling criteria and methods, quality of
irrigation water
Water use efficiency
It is the ratio of the quantity of dry matter produced to the total depth of water
consumed during the entire crop growth season and is expressed as kg per cm.

An efficient irrigation system implies effective transfer of water from the source to the
filed with minimum possible loss. The objective of the efficiency concept is to identify
the nature of water loss and to decide the type of improvements in the system.

Evaluation of performance in terms of efficiency is prerequisite for proper use of

irrigation water.

1. Irrigation Efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of water output to the water input, i.e., the ratio or
percentage of the irrigation water consumed by the crop of an irrigated farm, field
or project to the water delivered from the source.

Wc
Ei = --------- x 100
Wr
Where
Ei = irrigation efficiency (%)
Wc = irrigation water consumed by crop during its growth period in an irrigation
project.
Wr = water delivered from canals during the growth period of crops.

In most irrigation projects, the irrigation efficiency ranges between 12 to 34 %.

2. Water Conveyance Efficiency

It is a measure of efficiency of water conveyance system from canal
network to watercourses and field channels. It is the ratio of water delivered
infields at the outlet head to that diverted into the canal system from the river or
reservoir. Water losses occur in conveyance from the point of diversion till it
reaches the farmer's fields which can be evaluated by water conveyance efficiency,
as under:
Wt
Ec = ------- x 100
Wf
 where,
Ec = water conveyance efficiency, per cent
Wf= water delivered to the farm by conveyance system (at field supply channel)
Wt = water introduced into the conveyance system from the point of diversion

Water conveyance efficiency is generally low; about 21% losses occur in earthen
watercourses only.

3. Water Application Efficiency

It is a measure of efficiency of water application in the field. It is the
ratio of volume of water that is stored in the root zone of crops and ultimately
consumed by transpiration or evaporation or both to the volume of water actually
delivered at the field. Alternatively, it may be defined as the percentage of water
applied that can be accounted for as increase in soil moisture in soils as occupied
by the principal rooting system of the crop. It is also termed as farm efficiency as
it takes into account water lost in application at the farm. We have
Ws
Ws Ea = -------- x 100
Wf

where,
Ea = water application efficiency, per cent
Ws = irrigation water stored in the root zone of farm soil
Wf = irrigation water delivered to the farm (at field supply channel)

In general, water application efficiency decreases as the amount of water

during each irrigation increases. Water losses due to inefficient application of
water in the field vary from 28 to 50 %.

Common sources of loss of irrigation water during application are represented thus:
Rf = surface runoff from the farm
Df = deep percolation below the farm root zone soil

Neglecting evaporation losses during application, we have

Wf = Ws + Df + Rf

(Df+ Rf)
Ec= Wf - ---------------------- x 100
Wf
4. Water Use Efficiency
Having conveyed water to the point of use and having applied it, the next
efficiency concept of concern is the efficiency of water use. It is expressed in
kg/ha cm. The proportion of water delivered and beneficially used on the project
can be calculated using the following formula

Wu
Eu = -------- x 100
Wd

where,
Eu = water use efficiency, per cent
Wu = water beneficially used
Wd = water delivered

Water use efficiency is also defined as

(i) crop water use efficiency and
(ii) field water efficiency.
(a) Crop Water Use Efficiency:
It is the ratio of yield of crop (Y) to the amount of water depleted by crop in
evapotranspiration (ET).
Y
CWUE = ----
ET

where,
CWUE = Crop water use efficiency
Y = Crop yield
ET = Evapotranspiration

CWUE is otherwise called consumptive water use efficiency. It is the

ratio of crop yield (Y) to the sum of the amount of water taken up and used for
crop growth (G), evaporated directly from the soil surface (E) and transpired
through foliage (T) or consumptive use (Cu)
Y
CWUE = ---------------------
G+ E+ T
 where,
(G + E + T) = Cu

In other words ET is Cu since water used for crop growth is negligible.

Y
CWUE = ------
CU

It is expressed in kg/ha/mm or kg/ha/cm.

(b) Field Water Use Efficiency:

It is the ratio of yield of crop (Y) to the total amount of water used in the field.
Y
FWUE = -----
WR
where,
FWUE = field water use efficiency
WR = water requirement

This is the ratio of crop yield to the amount of water used in the field (WR)
including growth (G), direct evaporation from the soil surface (E),
transpiration (T) and deep percolation loss (D).
Y
FWUE = --------------------
G+ E + T +D

G + E + T + D = WR
It is expressed in kg/ha/mm (or) kg/ha/cm

Deep percolation is important for rice crop. For other crops seepage is important.
Of the two indices defined, the crop water use efficiency is more of research value
whereas the field water use efficiency has grater practical importance for planners
and farmers.
5. Water Storage Efficiency:
It is defined as the ratio of the water stored in the root depth by irrigation to the
water needed in the root depth to bring it to the field capacity. Also termed as
water storage factor.
Ws
Ws Es = ---------- x 100
Ww
 where,
Es = water storage efficiency, per cent
Ws = water stored in the root zone during the irrigation
Ww = water needed in the root zone prior to irrigation, i.e., field capacity

6. Water Distribution Efficiency

Expression for distribution efficiency to evaluate the extent to which the water is
uniformly distributed is as follows:
(1- d)
Ed = -------------x 100
D

(1- average deviation)

= --------------------------------------X 100
Average depth applied

where,

Ed = water distribution efficiency, per cent

d = average numerical deviation in depth of water stored from average depth

stored during irrigation

D = average depth of water stored along the run during irrigation

A water distribution efficiency of 80% means that 10% of water was applied in excess
and consequently 10% was deficient in comparison to the average depth of application.

7. Consumptive Use Efficiency

It is defined as the ratio of consumptive water use by the crop of irrigated
farm or project and the irrigation water stored in the root zone of the soil on the
farm or the project area. After irrigation water is stored in the soil, it may not be
available for use by the crop because water may evaporate from the ground
surface or continuously move downward beyond the root zone as it may happen in
wide furrow spacing. The loss of water by deep penetration and by surface
evaporation following irrigation is evaluated from the following expression:
 Wcu
Ecu = -----------x 100
Wd

where,
Ecu = consumptive use efficiency, per cent
Wcu = normal consumptive use of water
Wd = net amount of water depleted from root zone soil
Consumptive use efficiency is useful in explaining the difference in crop response
from different methods of irrigation.

Irrigation- scheduling criteria and methods

Irrigation scheduling is defined as frequency with which water is to be applied
based on needs of the crop and nature of the soil.
Irrigation scheduling is nothing but number of irrigations and their frequency
required to meet the crop water requirement.
Irrigation scheduling may be defined as scientific management techniques
of allocating irrigation water based on the individual crop water requirement (ETc)
under different soil and climatic condition, with an aim to achieve maximum crop
production per unit of water applied over a unit area in unit time.
Based on the above definition, the concept made is.
“If we provide irrigation facility the agricultural production and
productivity will go up automatically”
Irrigation scheduling is a decision making process repeated many times in
each year involving when to irrigate and how much of water to apply? Both
criteria influence the quantity and quality of the crop. It indicates how much of
irrigation water to be used and how often it has to be given.

Effect of application of right amount and excess amount of water Excess irrigation
is harmful because
a) It wastes water below root zone
b) It results in loss of fertilizer nutrients
c) It causes water stagnation and salinity
d) It causes poor aeration
e) Ultimately it damages the crops
 Practical considerations in irrigation scheduling
Before scheduling irrigation in a farm or field or a command, the following
criteria should be taken care for efficient scheduling

1. Crop factors
a) Sensitiveness to water shortage
b) Critical stages of the crop
c) Rooting depth
d) Economic value of the crop
2. Water delivery system
a) Canal irrigation or tank irrigation (It is a public distribution system where
scheduling is arranged based on the decision made by public based on the resource
availability).
b) Well irrigation (individual decision is final)
3. Types of soil
a) Sandy – needs short frequency of irrigation and less quantity of water
b) Clay – needs long frequency of irrigation and more quantity of water
4. Salinity hazard
To maintain favorable salt balance, excess water application may be required
rather than ET requirement of the crop to leach the excess salt through deep
percolation
5. Irrigation methods
a) Basin method allows more infiltration through more wetting surface which
in turn needs more water and long interval in irrigation frequency
b) Furrow method allows less infiltration due to less wetting surface which
needs less water and short interval in irrigation frequency.
c) Sprinkler method needs less water and more frequency d) Drip method
needs less water and more frequency

6. Irrigation interval

The extension of irrigation interval does not always save water. The interval
has to be optimized based on the agroclimatic situation.

7.Minimum spreadable depth

We cannot reduce the depth based on the water requirement of the crop alone.
The depth should be fixed based on the soil type, rooting nature of the crop and
 irrigation method followed. The minimum depth should be so as to achieve
uniformity of application and to get uniform distribution over the entire field.
Scheduling irrigation methods
1. Soil water regime approach
In this approach the available soil water held between field capacity and
permanent wilting point in the effective crop root zone.
Alternatively soil moisture tension, the force with which the water is held
around the soil particles is also sometimes used as a guide for timing
irrigations.
2. Climatological approach
The potential rate of water loss from a crop is primarily a function of
evaporative demand of the atmosphere. In this method, the water loss
expressed in terms of either potential evapotranspiration (PET).
3. Plant indices approach
 Visual plant symptoms
 In this method the visual signs of plants are used as an index for scheduling
irrigations.
 For instance, plant wilting, drooping, curling, and rolling of leaves in maize is used
as indicators for scheduling irrigation.
 Change in foliage color and leaf angle is used to time irrigations in beans.
 Shortening of internodes in sugarcane and cotton; retardation of stem elongation in
grapes.

4. System as a whole approach

A) Rotational water supply
R.W.S is one of the techniques in irrigation water distribution management. It
aims at equi-distribution of irrigation water irrespective of location of the land in the
command area by enforcing irrigation time schedules.
Each 10 ha block is divided into 3 to 4 sub units (irrigation groups)
According to the availability of irrigation water, stabilized field channels and group-
wise irrigation requirement, time schedules are evolved. The irrigation will be done
strictly in accordance with the group-wise time schedules by the block committees.
Within the group, the time is to be shared by the farmers themselves.
Methods of Irrigation
Irrigation
Irrigation is defined as the artificial application of water to the soil for the
purpose of crop production in supplement to rainfall and ground water contribution.
Importance of water to plants
1. Plants contain 90% water which gives turgidity and keeps them erect
2. Water is an essential part of protoplasm
3. It regulates the temperature of the plant system
4. It is essential to meet the transpiration requirements
5. It serves as a medium for dissolving the nutrients present in the soil
6. It is an important ingredient in photosynthesis

Criteria for selection of irrigation method

• Water supply source
• Topography
• Quantity of water to be applied
• The crop
• Method of cultivation

Water application methods are grouped as:

1. Flooding 3. Spraying it under pressure
2. Applying it beneath the soil surface 4. Applying in drops

Irrigation methods
I. Surface
II. II. Sub-surface
III. III. Pressurized irrigation

Surface is grouped as Border, Check basin and Furrow irrigations. Border is

again classified in to two as straight and contour. Check basins may be of
rectangular, contour or ring, whereas furrow irrigation is classified as deep furrow
and corrugated furrows. These may be again straight or contour according to
direction and leveled and graded as per their elevation

I. Surface irrigation
1. Border irrigation
The land is divided into number of long parallel strips called borders.
 These borders are separated by low ridges
 The border strip has a uniform gentle slope in the direction of
irrigation.
  Each strip is irrigated independently by turning the water in the upper
end.
 The water spreads and flows down the strip in a sheet confined by the
border ridges.

Suitability :
To soils having moderately low to moderately high infiltration rates. It is
not used in coarse sandy soils that have very high infiltration rates and also in
heavy soils having very low infiltration rate. Suitable to irrigate all close
growing crops like wheat, barley, fodder crops and legumes and not suitable
for rice.
Advantages
1. Border ridges can be constructed with simple farm implements like
bullock drawn “A” frame ridger or bund former.
2. Labour requirement in irrigation is reduced as compared to conventional
check basin method. 3. Uniform distribution of water and high water
application efficiencies are possible.
4. Large irrigation streams can be efficiently used.
5. Adequate surface drainage is provided if outlets are available.

2. Check basin irrigation

It is the most common method.

 Here the field is divided into smaller unit areas so that each has a nearly level
surface.

 Bunds or ridges are constructed around the area forming basins within which the
irrigation water can be controlled.

- The water applied to a desired depth can be retained until it infiltrates into the soil

 The size of the basin varies from 10m2 to 25 m2 depending upon soil type ,
topography, stream size and crop.

Adaptability

-Small gentle and uniform land slopes

- Soils having moderate to slow infiltration rates.

- Adapted to grain and fodder crops in heavy soils.

- Suitable to permeable soils.

Advantages

1. Check basins are useful when leaching is required to remove salts from the soil profile.

2. Rainfall can be conserved and soil erosion is reduced by retaining large part of rain

3. High water application and distribution efficiency.

Limitations

1. The ridges interfere with the movement of implements.

2. More area occupied by ridges and field channels.

3. The method impedes surface drainage

4. Precise land grading and shaping are required

5. Labour requirement is higher.

6. Not suitable for crops which are sensitive to wet soil conditions around the stem.

Furrow irrigation

⇒ Used in the irrigation of row crops.

⇒ The furrows are formed between crop rows.

⇒ The dimension of furrows depend on the crop grown, equipment used and soil type.

⇒ Water is applied by small running streams in furrows between the crop rows.

⇒ Water infiltrates into soil and spreads laterally to wet the area between the furrows.

⇒ In heavy soils furrows can be used to dispose the excess water.

Adaptability

1. Wide spaced row crops including vegetables.

2. Suitable for maize, sorghum, sugarcane, cotton, tobacco, groundnut, potatoes

3. Suitable to most soils except sand.

Advantages

1. Water in furrows contacts only one half to one fifth of the land surface.

2. Labour requirement for land preparation and irrigation is reduced.

3. Compared to check basins there is less wastage of land in field ditches.

Types of furrow irrigation

- Based on alignment of furrows :

1. Straight furrows

2. Contour furrows

- Based on size and spacing :

1. Deep furrows

2. Corrugations

- Based on irrigation:

A. All furrow irrigation:

Water is applied evenly in all the furrows and are called furrow system or uniform
furrow system.

B. Alternate furrow irrigation:

It is not an irrigation layout but a technique for water saving. Water is applied in
alternate furrows for eg. During first irrigation if the even numbers of furrows are
irrigated, during next irrigation, the odd number of furrows will be irrigated.

C. Skip furrow irrigation:

They are normally adopted during the period of water scarcity and to accommodate
intercrops. In the skip furrow irrigation, a set of furrows are completely skipped out from
irrigation permanently. The skipped furrow will be utilized for raising intercrop. The
system ensures water saving of 30-35 per cent. By this method, the available water is
economically used without much field reduction.
D. Surge irrigation:

Surge irrigation is the application of water in to the furrows intermittently in a

series of relatively short ON and OFF times of irrigation cycle. It has been found that
intermittent application of water reduces the infiltration tare over surges thereby the water
front advances quickly. Hence, reduced net irrigation water requirement. This also results
in more uniform soil moisture distribution and storage in the crop root zone compared to
continuous flow. The irrigation efficiency is in between 85 and 90%.

II. Sub-surface irrigation

♦ In subsurface irrigation, water is applied beneath the ground by creating and

maintaining an artificial water table at some depth, usually 30-75 cm below the
ground surface.

♦ Moisture moves upwards towards the land surface through capillary action

♦ Water is applied through underground field trenches laid 15-30 m apart.

♦ Open ditches are preferred because they are relatively cheaper and suitable to all
types of soil.

♦ The irrigation water should be of good quality to prevent soil salinity.

Advantages

1. Minimum water requirement for raising crops

2. Minimum evaporation and deep percolation losses
3. No wastage of land
4. No interference to movement of farm machinery
5. Cultivation operations can be carried out without concern for the irrigation
period.
Disadvantages
1. Requires a special combination of natural conditions.
2. There is danger of water logging
3. Possibility of choking of the pipes lay underground.
4. High cost.

DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM

Drip or trickle irrigation is one of the latest methods of irrigation.
- It is suitable for water scarcity and salt affected soils.
- Water is applied in the root zone of the crop
 - Standard water quality test needed for design and operation of drip irrigation
system.
Components
♦ A drip irrigation system consists of a pump or overhead tank, main line, sub-
mains, laterals and emitters.

♦ The mainline delivers water to the sub-mains and the sub-mains into the
laterals.

♦ The emitters which are attached to the laterals distribute water for irrigation.

♦ The mains, sub-mains and laterals are usually made of black PVC (poly
vinyl chloride) tubing. The emitters are also made of PVC material

♦ The other components include regulator, filters, valves, water meter, fertilizer
application components, etc.,

Pump

The pump creates the pressure necessary to force water through the components
of the system including the fertilizer tank, filter unit, mainline, lateral and the
emitters and drippers. Centrifugal pump operated by engines or electric motors are
commonly used. The laterals may be designed to operate under pressures as low as
0.15 to 0.2 kg/ cm2 and as large as 1 to 1.75 kg/cm2. The water coming out of the
emitters is almost at atmospheric pressure.

Chemical tank

A tank may be provided at the head of the drip irrigation systems for applying
fertilizers, herbicides and other chemicals in solution directly to the field along with
irrigation water.

Filter

It is an essential part of drip irrigation system. It prevents the blockage of pipes and
drippers/emitters. The filter system consists of valves and a pressure gauge for regulation
and control.

Emitters
Drip nozzles commonly called drippers or emitters are provided at regular
intervals on the laterals. They allow water to emit at very low rates usually in trickles.
The amount of water dripping out of each emitters in a unit time will depend mainly upon
the pressure and size of the opening. The discharge rate of emitters usually ranges from 2
to 10 litres per hour.

Micro-tubes are also used in a drip lateral. They are used mainly in the following ways
(1) as emitters
(2) as connectors,
(3) as pressure regulators

Advantages
1. Water saving - losses due to deep percolation, surface runoff and transmission are
avoided. Evaporation losses occurring in sprinkler irrigation do not occur in drip
irrigation.
2. Uniform water distribution
3. Application rates can be adjusted by using different size of drippers
4. Suitable for wide spaced row crops, particularly coconut and other horticultural
tree crops
5. Soil erosion is reduced
6. Better weed control
7. Land saving
8. Less labour cost

Disadvantages
1. High initial cost
2. Drippers are susceptible to blockage
3. Interferes with farm operations and movement of implements and machineries
4. Frequent maintenance
5. Trees grown may develop shallow confined root zones resulting in poor anchorage.
Layout of sprinkler irrigation system
- The sprinkler (overhead or pressure) irrigation system conveys water to the field
through pipes (aluminium or PVC) under pressure with a system of nozzles.
This system is designed to distribute the required depth of water uniformly,
which is not possible in surface irrigation.
Water is applied at a rate less than the infiltration rate of the soil hence the
runoff from irrigation is avoided.
A sprinkler system usually consists of the following parts.
1. A pumping unit
2. Debris removal equipment
3. Pressure gauge / water-meter
4. Pipelines (mains – sub-mains and laterals)
5. Couplers
6. Raiser pipes
7. Sprinklers
8. Other accessories such as valves, bends, plugs, etc.
 Pumping unit
A high speed centrifugal or turbine pump can be installed for operating the
system for individual farm holdings. The pumping plants usually consist of a
centrifugal or a turbine type pump, a driving unit, a suction line and a foot valve.
Pipe lines
Pipelines are generally of two types. They are main and lateral. Main
pipelines carry water from the pumping plant to many parts of the field. In some
cases sub main lines are provided to take water from the mains to laterals. The
lateral pipelines carry the water from the main or sub main pipe to the sprinklers.
The pipelines may be either permanent, semi permanent or portable.
Couplers
A coupler provides connection between two tubing and between tubing and
fittings.

Sprinklers
Sprinklers may rotate or remain fixed. The rotating sprinklers can be adapted
for a wide range of application rates and spacing. They are effective with pressure
of about 10 to 70 m head at the sprinkler. Pressures ranging from 16-40 m head
are considered the most practical for most farms. Fixed head sprinklers are
commonly used to irrigate small lawns and gardens.
Other accessories / fittings
1. Water meters - It is used to measure the volume of water delivered.
2. Pressure gauge - It is necessary to know whether the sprinkler is working with
the desired pressure in order to deliver the water uniformly.
3. Bends, tees, reducers, elbows, hydrants, butterfly valves, end plugs and risers
4. Debris removal equipment: This is needed when water is obtained from streams,
ponds, canals or other surface supplies. It helps to keep the sprinkler system clear
of sand, weed seeds, leaves, sticks, moss and other trash that may otherwise plug
the sprinklers.
5. Fertilizer applicators. These are available in various sizes. They inject fertilizers
in liquid form to the sprinkler system at a desired rate.

Types of sprinkler system

-On the basis of arrangement for spraying irrigation water
1. Rotating head (or) revolving sprinkler system
2. Perforated pipe system
- Based on the portability
1. Portable system:
It has portable mainlines and laterals and a portable pumping unit
2.Semi portable system:
A semi portable system is similar to a fully portable system except that the
location of the water source and pumping plant are fixed.
3.Semi permanent system:
 A semi permanent system has portable lateral lines, permanent main lines and
sub mains and a stationery water source and pumping plant.

The mainlines and sub-mains are usually buried, with risers for nozzles located at
suitable intervals.
4. Solid set system: A solid set system has enough laterals to eliminate their
movement. The laterals are placed in the field early in the crop season and remain
for the season.
5. Permanent system: It consists of permanently laid mains, sub-mains and
laterals and a stationary water source and pumping plant. Mains, sub-mains and
laterals are usually buried below plough depth. Sprinklers are permanently located
on each riser.
Advantages
1. Water saving to an extent of 35-40% compared to surface irrigation methods.
2. Saving in fertilizers - even distribution and avoids wastage.
3. Suitable for undulating topography (sloppy lands)
4. Reduces erosion
5. Suitable for coarse textured soils (sandy soils)
6. Frost control - protect crops against frost and high temperature
7. Drainage problems eliminated
8. Saving in land
9. Fertilisers and other chemicals can be applied through irrigation water

Disadvantages
1. High initial cost
2. Efficiency is affected by wind
3. Higher evaporation losses in spraying water
4. Not suitable for tall crops like sugarcane
5. Not suitable for heavy clay soils
6. Poor quality water can not be used (Sensitivity of crop to saline water and
clogging of nozzles)

Steps to be taken for reducing the salt deposits on leaves and fruits during
sprinkler irrigation
• Irrigate at night
• Increase the speed of the sprinkler rotation
• Decrease the frequency of irrigation