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TOPIC FOUR
DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEMS
Digital control systems
A digital control system model can be viewed from different perspectives including control
algorithm, computer program, conversion between analog and digital domains, system
performance etc. The most important aspects is the sampling process level. In continuous time
control systems, all the system variables are continuous signals. Whether the system is linear or
nonlinear, all variables are continuously present and therefore known at all times. A continuous
time control system is shown in Figure below.

In a digital control system, the control algorithm is implemented in a digital computer. The error
signal is discretized and fed to the computer by using an A/D (analog to digital) converter. The
controller output is again a discrete signal which is applied to the plant after using a D/A (digital
to analog) converter. General block diagram of a digital control system is shown in Figure
below. The values of error, e(t) is sampled at intervals of time, T. In the context of control and
communication, sampling is a process by which a continuous time signal is converted into a
sequence of numbers at discrete time intervals. It is a fundamental property of digital control
systems because of the discrete nature of operation of digital computer.

Digital electronics are electronics that represent signals by discrete bands of analoglevels, rather
than by continuous range. All levels within a band represent the same signal state. Digital

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techniques are useful because it is easier to get an electronic device to switch into one of a
number of known states than to accurately reproduce a continuous range of values. A sequential
system is a combinational system with some of the outputs fed back as inputs. This makes the
digital machine perform a "sequence" of operations. The simplest sequential system is a
mechanism that represents a binarydigit or "bit". Sequential systems divide into two further
subcategories. "Synchronous" sequential systems change state all at once, when a "clock" signal
changes state. "Asynchronous" sequential systems propagate changes whenever inputs change.
Synchronous sequential systems are made of well-characterized asynchronous circuits such as
flip-flops that change only when the clock changes and which have carefully designed timing
margins. To implement a synchronous sequential state machine is to divide it into a piece of
combinational logic and a set of flip flops called a "state register’. Each time a clock signal ticks,
the state register captures the feedback generated from the previous state of the combinational
logic and feeds it back as an unchanging input to the combinational part of the state machine.
The fastest rate of the clock is set by the most time-consuming logic calculation in the
combinational logic. Many systems need circuits that allow external unsynchronized signals to
enter synchronous logic circuits. These are inherently asynchronous in their design and must be
analyzed as such. Examples of widely used asynchronous circuits include synchronizer flip-
flops, switch de-bouncers and arbiters.

Alarms
One-alarm, two-alarm, three-alarm fires, are categories of fires indicating the level of response
by local authorities with an elevated number of alarms indicating increased commitment of
resources. The term multiple-alarm is a quick way of indicating that a fire was severe and
difficult to contain. The multi-alarm designation is based on the number of units responding to a
fire; the more vehicles and firefighters responding, the higher the alarm designation. With this
unit/firefighter alarm designation, the initial dispatch is referred to as a "first alarm" and is the
largest. Subsequent alarms are calls for additional units.

Computer Data Logging

Data Logger
A data logger is an electronic instrument that records measurements at set intervals over a period
of time. It is an electronic device that records data over time or in relation to location either with
a built in instrument or sensor or via external instruments and sensors. Such measurements
include: air temperature, relative humidity, AC/DC current and voltage, differential pressure,
time-of-use, light intensity, water temperature, water level, dissolved oxygen, soil moisture,
rainfall, wind speed and direction, leaf wetness, pulse signals, room occupancy and plug
load.Data loggers are compact, battery-powered devices equipped with an internal
microprocessor, data storage, and one or more sensors and equipped with a microprocessor,
internal memory for data storage and sensors. They can be deployed indoors, outdoors,
underwater and can record data for up to months at a time, unattended. A data logger may be a
single-unit, stand-alone device with internal sensors, which fits in the palm of a hand, or it may

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be a multi-channel data collection instrument equipped with one or more external sensors.Some
data loggers interface with a personal computer and utilize software to activate the data logger
and view and analyze the collected data, while others have a local interface device (keypad,
LCD) and can be used as a stand-alone device.

How a Data Logger Works

The data logger is connected to a computer through a USB interface. Next, accompanying data
logger software is used to select logging parameters (sampling intervals, start time, etc.) and
activate the logger. The logger is then disconnected and deployed in the desired location, where
it records each measurement and stores it in memory along with the time and date. Bluetooth
Smart loggers can be configured and launched wirelessly, after deployment. After the desired
monitoring period, the data logger is then reconnected to the computer and the software is used
again to read out the data and display the measurements in graphs that show profiles over time.
Tabular data can be viewed as well, or exported to a spreadsheet for further manipulation. In the
case of web-based data logging systems, data are pushed to the Internet for access; with wireless
data nodes, data are transmitted to a central receiver; and with Bluetooth Smart loggers, data are
downloaded directly to your mobile device.Data loggers are used in a broad range of indoor,
outdoor and underwater environments – essentially anywhere data is needed and the convenience
of battery power is preferred.The four main types of data loggers include;
i. Stand-alone data loggers
Stand-alone USB data loggers are compact, reusable, and portable, and offer low cost
and easy setup and deployment. Internal-sensor models are used for monitoring at the
logger location, while external-sensor models can be used for monitoring at some
distance from the logger. Most stand-alone loggers communicate with a computer via
a USB interface
ii. Web-based data logging systems
Web-based data logging systems enable remote, around-the-clock Internet-
based access to data via GSM cellular, WI-FI, or Ethernet communications. These
systems can be configured with a variety of external plug-in sensors and transmit
collected data to a secure web server for accessing the data.
iii. Wireless data nodes
Wireless data nodes transmit real-time data from dozens of points to a central
computer, eliminating the need to manually retrieve and offload data from individual
data loggers.
iv. Bluetooth Smart data loggers
Bluetooth Smart enabled data loggers measure and transmit temperature and relative
humidity data wirelessly to mobile devices over a 100-foot range.
For greater convenience, a data shuttle device can be used to offload data from the logger for
transport back to a computer.

Applications

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Applications of data logging include:

 Unattended weather station recording (such as wind speed / direction, temperature,
relative humidity, solar radiation).
 Unattended hydrographic recording (such as water level, water depth, water flow, water
pH, water conductivity).
 Unattended soil moisture level recording.
 Unattended gas pressure recording.
 Offshore buoys for recording a variety of environmental conditions.
 Road traffic counting.
 Measure temperatures (humidity, etc.) of perishables during shipments:
 Measure variations in light intensity.
 Process monitoring for maintenance and troubleshooting applications.
 Process monitoring to verify warranty conditions
 Wildlife research with pop-up archival tags
 Measure vibration and handling shock (drop height) environment of distribution
packaging.
 Tank level monitoring.
 Deformation monitoring of any object with geodetic or geotechnical sensors controlled
by an automatic deformation monitoring system.
 Environmental monitoring.
 Vehicle Testing (including crash testing)
 Motor Racing
 Monitoring of relay status in railway signaling.
 For science education enabling 'measurement', 'scientific investigation' and an
appreciation of 'change'
 Record trend data at regular intervals in veterinary vital signs monitoring.
 Load profile recording for energy consumption management.
 Temperature, Humidity and Power use for Heating and Air conditioning efficiency
studies.
 Water level monitoring for groundwater studies.
 Digital electronic bus sniffer for debug and validation

The Multiplexer
The multiplexer, (“MUX” or “MPX”), is a combinational logic circuit designed to switch one of
several input lines through to a single common output line by the application of a control signal.
Multiplexers operate like very fast acting multiple position rotary switches connecting or
controlling multiple input lines called “channels” one at a time to the output. They can be digital
circuits made from high speed logic gates used to switch digital or binary data or they can be
analogue types using transistors and relays to switch one of the voltage or current inputs through
to a single output.

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Multiplexing
Multiplexing is a term used to describe the operation of sending one or more analogue or digital
signals over a common transmission line at different times or speeds. The device used is called a
Multiplexer. The most basic type of multiplexer device is that of a one-way rotary switch as
shown below.

Multiplexers are also known as data selectors because they can “select” each input line. They are
used as one method of reducing the number of logic gates required in a circuit design or when a
single data line or data bus is required to carry two or more different digital signals. The
selection of each input line in a multiplexer is controlled by an additional set of inputs called
control lines and according to the binary condition of these control inputs, either “HIGH” or
“LOW” the appropriate data input is connected directly to the output. A multiplexer has an even
number of 2N data input lines and a number of “control” inputs that correspond with the number
of data inputs.

2-input Multiplexer Design

The input A of this simple 2-1 line multiplexer circuit constructed from standard NAND gate
acts to control which input ( I0 or I1 ) gets passed to the output at Q. From the truth table we can
see that when data select input, A is LOW (logic 0), input I1 passes its data to the output while
input I0 is blocked. When data select A is HIGH (logic 1), input I0 is passed to Q while input I0
is blocked. So by the application of either a logic “0” or a logic “1” at A we can select the
appropriate input with the circuit acting a bit like a single pole double throw (SPDT) switch. The
2-input multiplexer connects one of two 1-bit sources to a common output, producing a 2-to-1-
line multiplexer and we can confirm this in the following Boolean expression.
Q = A.I0.I1 + A.I0.I1 + A.I0.I1 + A.I0.I1
and for our 2-input multiplexer circuit above, this can be simplified too:
Q = A.I1 + A.I0

We can increase the number of data inputs to be selected further simply by following the same
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procedure and larger multiplexer circuits can be implemented using smaller 2-to-1 multiplexers
as their basic building blocks. So for a 4-input multiplexer we would therefore require two data
select lines as 4-inputs represents 22 data control lines give a circuit with four inputs, I0, I1, I2, I3
and two data select lines A and B as shown.

4-to-1 Channel Multiplexer

The Boolean expression for this 4-to-1 Multiplexer above with inputs A to D and data select
linesa, b is given as:
Q = abA + abB + abC + abD

In this example at any one instant in time only ONE of the four analogue switches is closed,
connecting only one of the input lines A to D to the single output at Q. As to which switch is
closed depends upon the addressing input code on lines “a” and “b“, so for this example to
select input B to the output at Q, the binary input address would need to be “a” = logic “1” and
“b” = logic “0”.

Multiplexer Input Line Selection

Adding more control address lines will allow the multiplexer to control more inputs but each
control line configuration will connect only ONE input to the output. Then the implementation of
the Boolean expression above using individual logic gates would require the use of seven
individual gates consisting of AND, OR and NOT gates as shown.

4 Channel Multiplexer using Logic Gates

Multiplexers are not limited to switching a number of different input lines or channels to one

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