PROJECT REPORT

ON
(IT SKILLS- LAB 01)
SUBMITTED TO DR. A.P.J. ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY,
LUCKNOW IN THE PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT
FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION (MBA)

Under the guidance of: SUBMITTED BY:

MRS. SWATI PANDEY Krishna Chaudhary
MBA 1st Semester
ROLL NO.-

Agra Public College of Technology & Management, Agra

Affiliated to Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University, Lucknow

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Conceptual Frame work:-
a)Memory Pg.3

b)Input Devices Pg.4 to 7

c) Output Devices Pg.7 to 11

d)Storage Devices Pg.11 to 14

2. Word Processor:-
a)Software Pg.14 to 15

b)Computer Language Pg.15 to 17

c) Translators and languages: Pg.18 to 20

▪ Compiler
▪ Interpreter
▪ Assembler
d)Operating System Pg.20 to 26

3. Windows and Users Interface:-

a)Graphical User Interface Pg.26 to 29

b)Internet Networks Pg.30 to 32

c) Basic Services: Pg.33 to 37

▪ WWW
▪ FTP
d)Multimedia and its applications Pg.37 to 39

4. Bibliography Pg.40

5. Regards Pg.41

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 MEMORY
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer
memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions
required for processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts
called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address, which varies from zero to memory size
minus one. For example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 =
65536 memory locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535. Memory is
primarily of three types:
● Cache Memory
● Primary Memory/Main Memory
● Secondary Memory

Cache Memory

Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It
acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data
and program which are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are
transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating system, from where the CPU can
access them..

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently
working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally
made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and
instruction required to be processed resides in the main memory. It is divided into two
subcategories RAM and ROM.

Secondary Memory

This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the
main memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not
access these memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents of
secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it.
For example, disk, CD

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 INPUT DEVICES
Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer:
● Keyboard
● Mouse
● Joy Stick
● Light pen
● Track Ball
● Scanner
● Graphic Tablet
● Microphone
● Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
● Optical Character Reader(OCR)
● Bar Code Reader
● Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

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 Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the
computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are
some additional keys provided for performing additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108
keys are also available for Windows and Internet.

The keys on the keyboard are as follows:

Keys & Description

⮚ Typing Keys: These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which generally
give the same layout as that of typewriters.
⮚ Numeric Keypad: It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it
consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration used by most
adding machines and calculators.
⮚ Function Keys: The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are 3
arranged in a row at the top of the keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning
and is used for some specific purpose.
⮚ Control keys: These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional
arrow keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down,
Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).
⮚ Special Purpose Keys: Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter,
Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a
small palm size box with a ground ball at its base, which senses the movement of the mouse
and sends corresponding signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.

Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present
between the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the screen,
but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.

Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor
screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical
ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.

The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

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 Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw
pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small
tube.

When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is pressed, its
photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to
the CPU.

Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be
moved.

Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball
comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.

Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer for
further manipulation.

Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that can
be stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.

Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can
convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a
computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had
been pointed at.

Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial data
into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image
manipulation applications.

Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.
The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a
multimedia presentation or for mixing music.

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 Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank’s code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques
with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine
readable.

This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main advantages
of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.

OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine readable
code, and stores the text on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and dark
lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a
handheld scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is then
fed to the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or
pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.
It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice
questions.

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 OUTPUT DEVICES
Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer.
● Monitors
● Graphic Plotter
● Printer

Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form.
The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.

There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

⮚ Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
⮚ Flat-Panel Display
Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the
better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form a whole
character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided
into a series of character boxes – fixed location on the screen where a standard character can
be placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25
lines vertically.

There are some disadvantages of CRT:

❖ Large in Size
❖ High power consumption

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and
power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on

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your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors,
laptop computer, and graphics display.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −

⮚ Emissive Displays: Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light.
For example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
⮚ Non-Emissive Displays: Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or
light from some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid- Crystal
Device).

Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper. There are two types of
printers:
⮚ Impact Printers
⮚ Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers
Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed on the
paper.

Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following:

❖ Very low consumable costs
❖ Very noisy
❖ Useful for bulk printing due to low cost

There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image. These printers are of two types:
⮚ Character printers
⮚ Line printer

Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time. These are further divided
into two types:
⮚ Dot Matrix Printer (DMP)
⮚ Daisy Wheel

Dot Matrix Printer

In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular
because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in the form of
pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come
out to form a character which is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.

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 Advantages
● Inexpensive
● Widely Used
● Other language characters can be printed

Disadvantages
● Slow Speed
● Poor Quality

Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower)
which is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-
processing in offices that require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality.

Advantages
● More reliable than DMP
● Better quality
● Fonts of character can be easily changed

Disadvantages
● Slower than DMP
● Noisy
● More expensive than DMP

Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time. These are of two types:
⮚ Drum Printer
⮚ Chain Printer

Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of the drum is
divided into a number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper, i.e. for a paper
width of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on the track.
Different character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set.

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One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000
lines per minute.

Chain Printer
In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer. A standard
character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.

Advantages
● Character fonts can easily be changed.
● Different languages can be used with the same printer.

Disadvantages
● Noisy

Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a
complete page at a time, thus they are also called as Page Printers.

These printers are of two types:

⮚ Laser Printers
⮚ Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers
● Faster than impact printers
● They are not noisy
● High quality
● Supports many fonts and different character size

Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form
the characters to be printed on a page.

Advantages
● Very high speed
● Very high quality output
● Good graphics quality
● Supports many fonts and different character size

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 Disadvantages
● Expensive
● Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing

Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They
print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality
output with presentable features.
They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing
modes available. Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce
multiple copies of printing also.

Advantages
● High quality printing
● More reliable

Disadvantages
● Expensive as the cost per page is high
● Slow as compared to laser printer

STORAGE DEVICES

Magnetic Storage Devices

The most common type of storage device is magnetic storage device. In magnetic storage
devices, data is stored on a magnetized medium. Magnetic storage use different patterns of
magnetization to in a magnetizable medium to store data.

There are primarily 3 types of Magnetic Storage Devices as follows,

Disk Drives:

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Magnetic storage devices primarily made of disks are Disk Drives. Hard Disk Drive is a Disk
Drive. HDD contains one or more disks that runs in a very high speed and coated with
magnetizable medium. Each disk in a HDD comes with a READ/WRITE head that reads and write
data from and onto the disk.

Diskette Drives:

Diskette drives or floppy disks are removable disk drives. The discs in Hard Disk Drives are not
meant to be removed, but in case of Floppy disks, the disks are removable from the drive which
is called Floppy Disk Drive or FDD. Floppy disks comes with very little storage capacity and
meant to be used as portable storage to transfer data from one machine to another. The FDD
reads and writes data from and to the floppy disk. The floppy disk itself is covered with plastic
and fabric to remove dust. Floppy disk does not contain any read and write head, the FDD
contains the head.

Magnetic Tape:

Magnetic tapes are those reels of tapes which are coated with magnetizable elements to hold
and server written on it in one of the many magnetizing data storage pattern. Tape drives come
with very high capacity of storage and still in use though personal computers, server etc. uses
hard disk drives or other modern type of storage mechanism, tape drives are still in use for
archiving hundreds of terabytes of data.

Operating Storage Types

Optical storage refers to recording data using light. Typically, that’s done using a drive that can
contain a removable disk and a system based on lasers that can read or write to the disk. If
you’ve ever used a DVD player to watch a movie, put a CD in a player to listen to music or used
similar disks in your desktop or laptop computer, you’ve used optical storage.

Compared to other types of storage such as magnetic hard drives, the disks used in optical
storage can be quite inexpensive and lightweight, making them easy to ship and transport. They
also have the advantage of being removable, unlike disks in typical hard drive, and they’re able
to store much more information than previous types of removable media such as floppy disks.

Among the most familiar types of optical storage devices are the CD, DVD and Blu-ray disc
drives commonly found in computers. Initially, many of these drives were read-only, meaning
they could only access data on already created disks and couldn’t write new content to existing
or blank disks. Still, the read-only devices called CD-ROM drives revolutionized home and
business computing in the 1990s, making it possible to distribute multimedia material like
graphically rich games, encyclopedias and video material that anyone could access on a
computer. Now, most drives can both read and write the types of optical disks they are
compatible with.

Disks are available that can be written once, usually marked with the letter “R” as in “DVD- R,”

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or that can be written multiple times, usually marked with the letters “RW.” Similar drives are
also found in most modern home video game consoles in order to read game software. Drives
in computers and gaming systems can typically play movies and music on optical disks as well.
Make sure you buy disks that are compatible with your drives and players.

FLASH MEMORY
It referred to Code-storage applications. It used for low-density applications.

NOR flash provides support to bad block management. Bad block in memory is handled by
controller devices to improve functionality.

We can use the combination of both NOR and NAND memory. NOR (software ROM) used for
instruction execution, and NAND used for non-volatile data storage.

Limitation of Flash Memory

Although Flash memory gives many advantages, yet it has some flaw.
⮚ We can quickly read or programmed a byte at a time, but we cannot erase a byte or
word. It can delete data in blocks at a time.
⮚ Bit flipping: Bit Flipping problem is more occur in NAND memory as compare to NOR. In
Bit Flipping, a bit get reversed and create errors. For checking and correcting the bit
error (EDC/ECC) detection and error correction code are implemented.
⮚ Bad block: Bad block are the blocks which can’t be used for storage. If scanning system
gets fails to check and recognize badblock in memory. Then reliability of system gets reduced.
⮚ Usage of NOR and NAND memory: NOR is easy to use. Just connect it and use it.
However, NAND not used like that. NAND has I/O interface and requires a driver for
performing any operation. Read operation from NOR do not need any driver.

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 SOFTWARE
Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A program
is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem.

Software is the language of a computer. And like human language, there are many different
computer languages. Essentially, computer software can be divided into three main groups
depending on their use and application. These are system software or operating system
referred simply as the OS, application software and programming languages. Usually most of us
interact with a computer using application software.

There are two types of software:

⮚ System Software
⮚ Application Software

System Software

The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the
processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software is generally prepared by the
computer manufacturers. These software products comprise of programs written in low-level
languages, which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as the
interface between the hardware and the end users.

Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers,
etc.

Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software −

● Close to the system
● Fast in speed

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 ● Difficult to design
● Difficult to understand
● Less interactive
● Smaller in size
● Difficult to manipulate
● Generally written in low-level language

Application Software

Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular

environment. All software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the
category of Application software.
Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft’s notepad for writing
and editing a simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a software
package, which work together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package.

Examples of Application software are the following:

● Payroll Software
● Student Record Software
● Inventory Management Software
● Income Tax Software
● Railways Reservation Software
● Microsoft Office Suite Software
● Microsoft Word
● Microsoft Excel
● Microsoft PowerPoint
● Features of application software are as follows:
● Close to the user
● Easy to design
● More interactive
● Slow in speed
● Generally written in high-level language
● Easy to understand
● Easy to manipulate and use
● Bigger in size and requires large storage space

COMPUTER LANGUAGES
Just as humans use language to communicate, and different regions have different languages,

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computers also have their own languages that are specific to them.

Different kinds of languages have been developed to perform different types of work on the
computer. Basically, languages can be divided into two categories according to how the
computer understands them.

Two Basic Types of Computer Language

Low-Level Languages
Low-level computer languages are either machine codes or are very close them. A computer
cannot understand instructions given to it in high-level languages or in English. It can only
understand and execute instructions given in the form of machine language i.e. binary.

There are two types of low-level languages:

⮚ Machine Language: a language that is directly interpreted into the hardware

⮚ Assembly Language: a slightly more user-friendly language that directly corresponds to

machine language

Machine Language
Machine language is the lowest and most elementary level of programming language and was
the first type of programming language to be developed. Machine language is basically the only
language that a computer can understand and it is usually written in hex.

In fact, a manufacturer designs a computer to obey just one language, its machine code, which
is represented inside the computer by a string of binary digits (bits) 0 and 1. The symbol 0 stands for
the absence of an electric pulse and the 1 stands for the presence of an elect ric pulse. Since a
computer is capable of recognizing electric signals, it understands machine language.

Assembly Language
Assembly language was developed to overcome some of the many inconveniences of machine
language. This is another low-level but very important language in which operation codes and
operands are given in the form of alphanumeric symbols instead of 0’s and l’s.

These alphanumeric symbols are known as mnemonic codes and can combine in a maximum of
five-letter combinations e.g. ADD for addition, SUB for subtraction, START, LABEL etc. Because
of this feature, assembly language is also known as ‘Symbolic Programming Language.’ This
language is also very difficult and needs a lot of practice to master it because there is only a
little English support in this language. Mostly assembly language is used to help in compiler
orientations. The instructions of the assembly language are converted to machine codes by a

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language translator and then they are executed by the computer.

High-Level Languages
High-level computer languages use formats that are similar to English. The purpose of
developing high-level languages was to enable people to write programs easily, in their own
native language environment (English).

High-level languages are basically symbolic languages that use English words and/or
mathematical symbols rather than mnemonic codes. Each instruction in the high-level language
is translated into many machine language instructions that the computer can understand.

Types of High-Level Languages

Many languages have been developed for achieving a variety of different tasks. Some are fairly
specialized, and others are quite general.

These languages, categorized according to their use, are:

These languages are oriented towards the computational procedures for solving mathematical
and statistical problems.
Examples include:
● BASIC (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)
● FORTRAN (Formula Translation)
● PL/I (Programming Language, Version 1)
● ALGOL (Algorithmic Language)
● APL (A Programming Language)

These languages are best able to maintain data processing procedures and problems involved in
handling files. Some examples include:

● COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language)

● RPG (Report Program Generator)

String and List Processing

These are used for string manipulation, including search patterns and inserting and deleting
characters. Examples are:
● LISP (List Processing)
● Prolog (Program in Logic)

Object-Oriented Programming Language

● C++
● Java

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 Visual Programming Language

These programming languages are designed for building Windows-based applications.

Examples are:
● Visual Basic
● Visual Java
● Visual C

Translators and Languages: Compiler, Interpreter and Assembler

COMPILER
A compiler is a computer program that translates computer code written in one programming
language (the source language) into another programming language (the target language). The
name compiler is primarily used for programs that translate source code from a high-level
programming language to a lower level language (e.g., assembly language, object code, or
machine code) to create an executable program.

However, there are many different types of compilers. If the compiled program can run on a
computer whose CPU or operating system is different from the one on which the compiler runs,
the compiler is a cross-compiler. A bootstrap compiler is written in the language that it intends
to compile. A program that translates from a low-level language to a higher level one is a
decompiler. A program that translates between high-level languages is usually called a source-
to- source compiler or transpiler. A language rewriter is usually a program that translates the
form of expressions without a change of language. The term compiler-compiler refers to tools
used to create parsers that perform syntax analysis.

A compiler is likely to perform many or all of the following operations: preprocessing, lexical

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analysis, parsing, semantic analysis (syntax-directed translation), conversion of input programs
to an intermediate representation, code optimization and code generation. Compilers
implement these operations in phases that promote efficient design and correct
transformations of source input to target output. Program faults caused by incorrect compiler
behavior can be very difficult to track down and work around; therefore, compiler
implementers invest significant effort to ensure compiler correctness.

Compilers are not the only language processor used to transform source programs. An
interpreter is computer software that transforms and then executes the indicated operations.
The translation process influences the design of computer languages which leads to a
preference of compilation or interpretation. In practice, an interpreter can be implemented for
compiled languages and compilers can be implemented for interpreted languages.

INTERPRETER
In computer science, an interpreter is a computer program that directly executes instructions
written in a programming or scripting language, without requiring them previously to have
been compiled into a machine language program. An interpreter generally uses one of the
following strategies for program execution:

(i) Parse the source code and perform its behavior directly;
(ii) Translate source code into some efficient intermediate representation and immediately
execute this;
(iii)Explicitly execute stored precompiled code made by a compiler which is part of the
interpreter system.

Early versions of Lisp programming language and Dartmouth BASIC would be examples of the
first type. Perl, Python, MATLAB, and Ruby are examples of the second, while UCSD Pascal is an
example of the third type. Source programs are compiled ahead of time and stored as machine
independent code, which is then linked at run-time and executed by an interpreter and/or
compiler (for JIT systems). Some systems, such as Smalltalk and contemporary versions of
BASIC and Java may also combine two and three. Interpreters of various types have also been
constructed for many languages traditionally associated with compilation, such as Algol,
Fortran, Cobol and C/C++.

While interpretation and compilation are the two main means by which programming languages
are implemented, they are not mutually exclusive, as most interpreting systems also perform
some translation work, just like compilers. The terms “interpreted language” or “compiled
language” signify that the canonical implementation of that language is an interpreter or a
compiler, respectively. A high level language is ideally an abstraction independent of particular
implementations.

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 ASSEMBLER
An assembler is a type of computer program that interprets software programs written in
assembly language into machine language, code and instructions that can be executed by a
computer.

An assembler enables software and application developers to access, operate and manage a
computer’s hardware architecture and components.

An assembler is sometimes referred to as the compiler of assembly language. It also provides

the services of an interpreter.

An assembler primarily serves as the bridge between symbolically coded instructions written in
assembly language and the computer processor, memory and other computational
components. An assembler works by assembling and converting the source code of assembly
language into object code or an object file that constitutes a stream of zeros and ones of
machine code, which are directly executable by the processor.

Assemblers are classified based on the number of times it takes them to read the source code
before translating it; there are both single-pass and multi-pass assemblers. Moreover, some
high- end assemblers provide enhanced functionality by enabling the use of control statements,
data abstraction services and providing support for object-oriented programming structures.

Introduction to Operating System

An operating system acts as an intermediary between the user of a computer and computer
hardware. The purpose of an operating system is to provide an environment in which a user can
execute programs in a convenient and efficient manner.

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An operating system is software that manages the computer hardware. The hardware must
provide appropriate mechanisms to ensure the correct operation of the computer system and
to prevent user programs from interfering with the proper operation of the system.

An operating system is a program that controls the execution of application programs and acts
as an interface between the user of a computer and the computer hardware.

A more common definition is that the operating system is the one program running at all times
on the computer (usually called the kernel), with all else being application programs.

An operating system is concerned with the allocation of resources and services, such as
memory, processors, devices, and information. The operating system correspondingly includes
programs to manage these resources, such as a traffic controller, a scheduler, memory
management module, I/O programs, and a file system.

Operating system as User Interface:

1. User
2. System and application programs
3. Operating system
4. Hardware

Every general purpose computer consists of the hardware, operating system, system programs,
and application programs. The hardware consists of memory, CPU, ALU, and I/O devices,
peripheral device, and storage device. System program consists of compilers, loaders, editors,
OS, etc. The application program consists of business programs, database programs.

The operating system is a set of special programs that run on a computer system that allows it
to work properly. It performs basic tasks such as recognizing input from the keyboard, keeping
track of files and directories on the disk, sending output to the display screen and controlling
peripheral devices.

OS is designed to serve two basic purposes:

● It controls the allocation and use of the computing System’s resources among the
various user and tasks.
● It provides an interface between the computer hardware and the programmer that
simplifies and makes feasible for coding, creation, debugging of application programs.

The Operating system must support the following tasks. The tasks are:

● Provides the facilities to create, modification of programs and data files using an editor.
● Access to the compiler for translating the user program from high level language to
machine language.
● Provide a loader program to move the compiled program code to the computer’s

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 memory for execution.
● Provide routines that handle the details of I/O programming.

Windows (GUI based, PC)

● GNU/Linux (Personal, Workstations, ISP, File and print server, Three-tier
client/Server)
● macOS (Macintosh), used for Apple’s personal computers and work stations (MacBook,
iMac).
● Android (Google’s Operating System for smartphones/tablets/smartwatches)
● iOS (Apple’s OS for iPhone, iPad and iPod Touch)

Functions of Operating System

An operating system includes all the programs of a computer system that control and monitor
the operations of the system. Operating systems typically consist of a kernel that manages the
hardware of the computer, as well as basic system programs that are used to boot the
operating system and configure it. We are going to discuss main functions of operating system.
Operating system performs the following functions;

● Booting
Booting is a process of starting the computer operating system starts the computer to work. It
checks the computer and makes it ready to work.

● Memory Management
It is also an important function of operating system. The memory cannot be managed without
operating system. Different programs and data execute in memory at one time. if there is no
operating system, the programs may mix with each other. The system will not work properly.

● Loading and Execution

A program is loaded in the memory before it can be executed. Operating system provides the
facility to load programs in memory easily and then execute it.

● Data Security
Data is an important part of computer system. The operating system protects the data stored
on the computer from illegal use, modification or deletion.

● Disk Management

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Operating system manages the disk space. It manages the stored files and folders in a proper
way.

● Process Management
CPU can perform one task at one time. if there are many tasks, operating system decides which
task should get the CPU.

● Device Controlling
Operating system also controls all devices attached to computer. The hardware devices are
controlled with the help of small software called device drivers.

● Printing Controlling
Operating system also controls printing function. It a user issues two print commands at a time,
it does not mix data of these files and prints them separately.

● Providing Interface
It is used in order that user interface acts with a computer mutually. User interface controls
how you input data and instruction and how information is displayed on screen. The operating
system offers two types of the interface to the user;

⮚ Graphical-line interface: It interacts with of visual environment to communicate with

the computer. It uses windows, icons, menus and other graphical objects to issues
commands.
⮚ Command-line interface: It provides an interface to communicate with the computer by
typing commands.

Types of Operating System

An Operating System performs all the basic tasks like managing file, process, and memory. Thus
operating system acts as manager of all the resources, i.e. resource manager. Thus operating
system becomes an interface between user and machine.

Types of Operating Systems: Some of the widely used operating systems are as follows:

⮚ Batch Operating System

This type of operating system does not interact with the computer directly. There is an
operator which takes similar jobs having same requirement and group them into batches. It is
the responsibility of operator to sort the jobs with similar needs.

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 Advantages of Batch Operating System:

● It is very difficult to guess or know the time required by any job to complete. Processors
of the batch systems know how long the job would be when it is in queue
● Multiple users can share the batch systems
● The idle time for batch system is very less
● It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems

Disadvantages of Batch Operating System:

● The computer operators should be well known with batch systems

● Batch systems are hard to debug
● It is sometime costly
● The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job fails
● Examples of Batch based Operating System:- Payroll System, Bank Statements etc.

⮚ Time-Sharing Operating Systems

Each task is given some time to execute, so that all the tasks work smoothly. Each user gets
time of CPU as they use single system. These systems are also known as Multitasking Systems.
The task can be from single user or from different users also. The time that each task gets to
execute is called quantum. After this time interval is over OS switches over to next task.

Advantages of Time-Sharing OS:

● Each task gets an equal opportunity

● Less chances of duplication of software
● CPU idle time can be reduced

Disadvantages of Time-Sharing OS:

● Reliability problem
● One must have to take care of security and integrity of user programs and data
● Data communication problem

⮚ Distributed Operating System

These types of operating system is a recent advancement in the world of computer technology
and are being widely accepted all-over the world and, that too, with a great pace. Various
autonomous interconnected computers communicate each other using a shared
communication network. Independent systems possess their own memory unit and CPU. These
are referred as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems. These system’s processors differ

25
 in size and function. The major benefit of working with these types of operating system is that it
is always possible that one user can access the files or software which are not actually present
on his system but on some other system connected within this network i.e., remote access is
enabled within the devices connected in that network.

Advantages of Distributed Operating System:

● Failure of one will not affect the other network communication, as all systems are
independent from each other
● Electronic mail increases the data exchange speed
● Since resources are being shared, computation is highly fast and durable
● Load on host computer reduces
● These systems are easily scalable as many systems can be easily added to the network
● Delay in data processing reduces

Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System:-

● Failure of the main network will stop the entire communication

● To establish distributed systems the language which are used are not well defined yet
● These types of systems are not readily available as they are very expensive. Not only
that the underlying software is highly complex and not understood well yet
Examples of Distributed Operating System are- LOCUS etc.

⮚ Network Operating System

These systems run on a server and provide the capability to manage data, users, groups,
security, applications, and other networking functions. These type of operating systems allow
shared access of files, printers, security, applications, and other networking functions over a
small private network. One more important aspect of Network Operating Systems is that all the
users are well aware of the underlying configuration, of all other users within the network, their
individual connections etc. and that’s why these computers are popularly known as tightly
coupled systems.
Advantages of Network Operating System:

● Highly stable centralized servers

● Security concerns are handled through servers
● New technologies and hardware up-gradation are easily integrated to the system
● Server access are possible remotely from different locations and types of systems

Disadvantages of Network Operating System:-

● Servers are costly

● User has to depend on central location for most operations

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 ● Maintenance and updates are required regularly
Examples of Network Operating System are:- Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft
Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD etc.

⮚ Real-Time Operating System

These types of OSs serves the real-time systems. The time interval required to process and
respond to inputs is very small. This time interval is called response time.

Real-time systems are used when there are time requirements are very strict like missile
systems, air traffic control systems, robots etc.

❖ Maximum Consumption: Maximum utilization of devices and system, thus more output
from all the resources
❖ Task Shifting: Time assigned for shifting tasks in these systems are very less. For
example in older systems it takes about 10 micro seconds in shifting one task to another
and in latest systems it takes 3 micro seconds.
❖ Focus on Application: Focus on running applications and less importance to applications
which are in queue.
❖ Real time operating system in embedded system: Since size of programs are small,
RTOS can also be used in embedded systems like in transport and others.
❖ Error Free: These types of systems are error free.
❖ Memory Allocation: Memory allocation is best managed in these type of systems.
Disadvantages of RTOS:
❖ Limited Tasks: Very few tasks run at the same time and their concentration is very less
on few applications to avoid errors.
❖ Use heavy system resources: Sometimes the system resources are not so good and they
are expensive as well.
❖ Complex Algorithms: The algorithms are very complex and difficult for the designer to
write on.
❖ Device driver and interrupt signals: It needs specific device drivers and interrupt signals
to response earliest to interrupts.
❖ Thread Priority: It is not good to set thread priority as these systems are very less prone
to switching tasks.
Examples of Real-Time Operating Systems are:- Scientific experiments, medical imaging
systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control
systems, etc.

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 Introduction to Graphical User Interface (GUI)
GUI is an interface that uses icons or other visual indicators to interact with electronic devices,
rather than only text via a command line. For example, all versions of Microsoft Windows is a
GUI, whereas MS-DOS is a command line. The GUI was first developed at Xerox PARC by Alan
Kay, Douglas Engelbart, and a group of other researchers in 1981. Later, Apple introduced the
Lisa computer with a GUI on January 19, 1983.

The actions in a GUI are usually performed through direct manipulation of the graphical
elements. Beyond computers, GUIs are used in many handheld mobile devices such as MP3
players, portable media players, gaming devices, smartphones and smaller household, office
and industrial controls. The term GUI tends not to be applied to other lower-display resolution
types of interfaces, such as video games (where head-up display (HUD) is preferred), or not
including flat screens, like volumetric displays because the term is restricted to the scope of
two- dimensional display screens able to describe generic information, in the tradition of the
computer science research at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center.

How does a GUI work?

A GUI uses windows, icons, and menus to carry out commands, such as opening, deleting, and
moving files. Although a GUI operating system is primarily navigated using a mouse, the
keyboard can also be used to navigate using keyboard shortcuts or the arrow keys.

As an example, if you wanted to open a software program on a GUI operating system, you
would move the mouse pointer to the program’s icon and double-click the icon.
Benefits of GUI

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Unlike a command line operating system or CUI, like Unix or MS-DOS, GUI operating systems
are much easier to learn and use because commands do not need to be memorized.
Additionally, users do not need to know any programming languages. Because of their ease of use,
GUI operating system s have become the dominant operating system used by today’s end-users.

Q1.What are examples of a GUI operating system?

● Microsoft Windows
● Apple System 7 and macOS
● Chrome OS
● Linux variants like Ubuntu using a GUI interface.

Q2.Are all operating systems GUI?

● No. Early command line operating systems like MS-DOS and even some versions of Linux
today have no GUI interface.

Q3.What are examples of a GUI interface?

● GNOMEKDE
● Any Microsoft program (e.g., Word, Excel, and Outlook).
● Internet browser (e.g., Internet Explorer, Chrome, and Firefox).
Q4.How does the user interact with a GUI?

The user uses a pointing device such as the mouse to interact and use most aspects of the GUI.
However, it is also possible to interact with a GUI using a keyboard or other input devices.

DICTIONARY
A dictionary is an alphabetical listing of words and their meanings. Dictionaries help users look
up definitions to get a better understanding of the word and an overall better understanding of
a language or field. Many computers do not include an electronic dictionary, however, with
access to the Internet, there are hundreds of free online dictionaries.

What’s the difference between a dictionary and a thesaurus?

● A dictionary is used to describe the meaning of a word. A thesaurus is used to group

different words with the same meaning (synonyms) and similar words. For example,
looking up the word “computer” in a dictionary would define the word like what is
found on our computer definition. Looking up the word “computer” in a thesaurus may
give words like PC, CPU, calculator, abacus, and laptop that could be used in place of the
word computer.

Why would someone need a dictionary on a computer?

● A dictionary is used on a computer most often to find the meaning words and as a way
to find the correct spelling of a word.

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 FILE
A file is an object on a computer that stores data, information, settings, or commands used with
a computer program. In a GUI (graphical user interface), such as Microsoft Windows, files display
as icons that relate to the program that opens the file. For example, the picture is an icon
associated with Adobe Acrobat PDF files. If this file was on your computer, double- clicking the
icon in Windows would open that file in Adobe Acrobat or the PDF reader installed on the
computer.

How are files created?

● A file is created using a software program on the computer. For example, to create a
text file you would use a text editor, to create an image file you would use an image
editor, and to create a document you would use a word processor.

VOLUME
When referring to sound, volume refers to the amplitude of the sound being projected from a
speaker. As seen in this picture, two knobs are used to change the volume level: one controls
the subwoofer, and one controls the main (overall) sound volume.

When referring to data storage, a volume refers to a logical drive, which has a single file system
and is usually located on a single partition. For instance, on a typical Microsoft Windows
computer, the volume named C: contains the operating system. In Windows, any drive which
has an assigned drive letter is a volume.

LABEL

A label may refer to any of the following:

In general, a label is a sticker placed on a floppy diskette drive, hard drive, CD-ROM or other
equipment that contains printed information to help identify that object or its data.

In a spreadsheet program such as Microsoft Excel, a label is text within a cell, usually describing
data in the rows or columns surrounding it.

When referring to a chart, a label is any text over a section of a chart that gives additional
information about the charts value. For example, in our pie chart example each section of the
pie chart is labeled to give the value of each percentage.

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When referring to HTML, the <label> tag is used to create labels for items in a user interface. In
programming, a label is either a reference point or command used to move throughout a
program. See the goto definition for an example of how this may be used.

Label is also an MS-DOS and Windows command line instruction used to change the identity of
a hard or floppy disk drive.

DRIVE

A drive is a location (medium) that is capable of storing and reading information that is not
easily removed, like a disk or disc. All drives store files and programs that are used by your
computer. For example, when you write a letter in a word processor the program is loaded
from your hard drive and when you save the document it is saved to the hard drive or other
disk or drive.
In the example shown on this above, drive A: is the floppy drive, C: is the primary hard drive, D:
and E: are partitions of the hard drive, and F: is the CD-ROM drive. The CD-ROM drive is usually
the last drive letter, so in most situations the hard drive is the C: drive and a CD-ROM or other
disc drive is the D: drive.

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 TYPES OF INTERNET NETWORKS:

LAN
It is a privately-owned network and stands for local area network. A network is a group of
computers and other devices connected so they can pass information back and forth. The
local area network (LAN) is a network which is designed to operate over a small physical
area such as an office, factory or a group of buildings up to a few kilometers in size. LANs
very widely used in a variety of computers to share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange
information.

The personal computers and workstations in the offices are interconnected via LAN to share
resources. The resources to be shared can be hardware like a printer or softwares or data. A
LAN is a form of local (limited-distance), shared packet network for computer
communications. In LAN all the machines are connected to a single cable. The data rates for
LAN range from 4 to 16 Mbps with the maximum of 100 Mbps.

The term LAN can also refer just to the hardware and software that allows you to connect all
the devices together. In this sense, Local Talk is one kind of LAN, Ethernet is another.
(AppleTalk is the protocol for Local Talk.)

The components used by LANs can be divided into cabling standards, hardware, and protocols.
Various LAN protocols are Ethernet, Token Ring: TCP/IP, 5MB, NetBIOS and NetBeui, IPX/SPX,
Fiber Distributed Data Interchange (FDDI) and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). LANs can
be distinguished from different types of networks by their size, their transmission technology,
and their topology.

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A local-area network (LAN) restricted in size, which means that it can span in a relatively small
area.

LANs use a transmission technology consisting of a cable. Traditional LANs technology

transmits at speeds of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps and makes very few errors. However, current
LANs technology transmits at up to 10 Gbps.
Various network topologies are possible for broadcast LANs. In a linear cable network (Bus),
at any given time, one client machine is the master machine, and that is only allowed to
transmit. All other machines refrain from sending data. The second type of broadcast LANs
is the ring. In it, LAN operating at 4 and 16 Mbps. FDDI is another example of a ring network.

Types of LAN
Ethernet is the most common type of LAN. Different Lan can be differentiated on the behalf
of following characteristics.
❖ Topology: The topology is the geometric arrangement of a network elements. For
example, Network devices can be interconnected in a ring topology or in a bus
topology or linear bus.
❖ Protocols: It is a guidelines for communicating data between two devices. The
protocols also determine type of error and data compression. Media: The cable used
in Lan to connect devices are twisted-pair wire, coaxial cables, or fiber optic.

LAN Applications and Benefits

LANs are used almost exclusively for data communications over relatively short distances
such as within an office, office building or campus environment. LANs allow multiple
workstations to share access to multiple host computers, other workstations, printers and
other peripherals, and connections to other networks. LANs are also being utilized for
imaging applications, as well. They are also being used for video and voice communications,
although currently on a very limited basis.

LAN applications include communications between the workstation and host computers,
other workstations, and servers. The servers may allow sharing of resources. Resources
could be information, data files, e-mail, voice mail, software, hardware (hard disk, printer,
fax, etc.) and other networks.

LAN benefits include the fact that a high-speed transmission system can be shared among
multiple devices in support of large number of active terminals and a large number of active
applications in the form of a multi-user, multi-tasking computer network. LAN-connected
workstations realize the benefit of decentralized access to very substantial centralized
processors, perhaps in the form of mainframe host computer and storage capabilities
(information repositories). Additionally, current technology allows multiple LANs to be inter-
networked through the use of LAN switches, routers and the like.

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 Disadvantages of LANs include concern for security of files and accounts.
● LAN Advantages and Services
● A LAN has the following advantages:
● They work on higher operating speed than WAN and MAN.
● They suit the requirements of a specific organization.
● They are easy to install and maintain.

They exist as connected (wired) and wireless configurations. LAN can provide the following
services. They are: File-based services Transfer of files from one node to another within the
LAN area. For example, in a typical LAN used for local banking, the file containing the
detailed
transactions of a specific customer is transferred form sever to the client, whenever new
transactions are made on behalf of the customer. It also provides efficient ways of storing
and retrieving the data. When multiple copies of the same file exist, it provides necessary
synchronization in updating the files. LAN also provides backup for the critical data so that
safe recovery is possible when a failure occurs. It also provides data encryption facility to
control the access to certain data to only selected persons.

laws are updated to reflect these rights in the extended environment. Theft, harassment,
and bullying while online is still theft, harassment, and bullying, period.

Acknowledging cultural differences. Even when national boundaries no longer apply,

cultural respect and tolerance should remain. This requires finding a way to accept that the
social values and norms of some netizens will not be the social values and norms of all
netizens.

For Businesses:
For companies, being a good netizen, applying online ethics, and using netiquette include:
Respecting rights of privacy for offline employees. Information possessed by citizens in their
offline interactions should be respected.

Maintaining transparency in information policies. By taking action so that consumers can

easily and quickly understand how that company is using their information and protecting
them from harm, companies can provide users with a clear means of ownership and self-
determination as to what is, and isn’t shared about them, which strengthens the consumer
relationship.

Most internet users automatically apply the same responsible respectful behavior online as
they do in every other environment and by nature apply netiquette an online ethics, and are
good netizens. The minority that fails to apply societal values in some or any environment-

34
including the internet- are quickly identified as exceptions to be dealt with on a social, or
criminal level. When you choose to partner with technology companies, especially for
something as important as internet security, it’s imperative you ensure that the partner
shares your understanding of what it means to act ethically online.

Basic Services of Internet like: WWW, FTP

WWW
The World Wide Web (WWW) is a network of online content that is formatted in HTML and
accessed via HTTP. The term refers to all the interlinked HTML pages that can be accessed
over the Internet. The World Wide Web was originally designed in 1991 by Tim Berners-Lee
while he was a contractor at CERN.

The World Wide Web is most often referred to simply as “the Web.”
The World Wide Web is what most people think of as the Internet. It is all the Web pages,
pictures, videos and other online content that can be accessed via a Web browser. The
Internet, in contrast, is the underlying network connection that allows us to send email and
access the World Wide Web. The early Web was a collection of text-based sites hosted by
organizations that were technically gifted enough to set up a Web server and learn HTML. It
has continued to evolve since the original design, and it now includes interactive (social)
media and user- generated content that requires little to no technical skills.
We owe the free Web to Berners-Lee and CERN’s decision to give away one of the greatest
inventions of the century.

FTP
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard Internet protocol for transmitting files between
computers on the Internet over TCP/IP connections. FTP is a client-server protocol where a

35
client will ask for a file, and a local or remote server will provide it.

The end-users machine is typically called the local host machine, which is connected via the
internet to the remote host—which is the second machine running the FTP soft ware. Anonymous
FTP is a type of FTP that allows users to access files and other data without needing an ID or
password. Some websites will allow visitors to use a guest ID or password- anonymous FTP
allows this.

Although a lot of file transfer is now handled using HTTP, FTP is still commonly used to
transfer files “behind the scenes” for other applications — e.g., hidden behind the user
interfaces of banking, a service that helps build a website, such as Wix or Square Space, or
other services. It is also used, via Web browsers, to download new applications.

How FTP works?

● FTP is a client-server protocol that relies on two communications channels between
client and server: a command channel for controlling the conversation and a data
channel for transmitting file content. Clients initiate conversations with servers by
requesting to download a file. Using FTP, a client can upload, download, delete,
rename, move and copy files on a server. A user typically needs to log on to the FTP
server, although some servers make some or all of their content available without
login, known as anonymous FTP.
● FTP sessions work in passive or active modes. In active mode, after a client initiates a
session via a command channel request, the server initiates a data connection back
to the client and begins transferring data. In passive mode, the server instead uses
the command channel to send the client the information it needs to open a data
channel. Because passive mode has the client initiating all connections, it works well
across firewalls and Network Address Translation (NAT) gateways.

How to FTP?

● Files can be transferred between two computers using FTP software. The user’s
computer is called the local host machine and is connected to the Internet. The
second machine, called the remote host, is also running FTP software and connected
to the Internet.
● The local host machine connects to the remote host’s IP address.
● The user would enter a username/password (or use anonymous).
● FTP software may have a GUI, allowing users to drag and drop files between the
remote and local host. If not, a series of FTP commands are used to log in to the
remote host and transfer files between the machines.

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 Telnet
Telnet is a user command and an underlying TCP/IP protocol for accessing remote
computers. Through Telnet, an administrator or another user can access someone else’s
computer remotely. On the Web, HTTP and FTP protocols allow you to request specific files
from remote computers, but not to actually be logged on as a user of that computer. With
Telnet, you log on as a regular user with whatever privileges you may have been granted to
the specific application and data on that computer.

The result of this request would be an invitation to log on with a user id and a prompt for a
password. If accepted, you would be logged on like any user who used this computer every
day. Telnet is most likely to be used by program developers and anyone who has a need to
use specific applications or data located at a particular host computer.

Gopher
Gopher is an application-layer protocol that provides the ability to extract and view Web
documents stored on remote Web servers. Gopher was conceived in 1991 as one of the
Internet’s first data/file access protocols to run on top of a TCP/IP network. It was

37
developed at University of Minnesota and is named after the school’s mascot.

Gopher was designed to access a Web server or database via the Internet. It requires that
files be stored in a menu-style hierarchy on a Gopher server that is accessible through a
Gopher- enabled client browser and/or directly. It initially supported only text-based
file/document access but later came to support some image formats such as GIF and JPEG.

Gopher was succeeded by the HTTP protocol and now has very few implementations.
Gopher- based databases, servers or websites can be accessed through two search engines:
Veronica and Jughead.

ISPs
An Internet service provider (ISP) is a company that provides customers with Internet
access. Data may be transmitted using several technologies, including dial-up, DSL, cable
modem, wireless or dedicated high-speed interconnects.

Typically, ISPs also provide their customers with the ability to communicate with one
another by providing Internet email accounts, usually with numerous email addresses at the
customer’s discretion. Other services, such as telephone and television services, may be
provided as well. The services and service combinations may be unique to each ISP.

An Internet service provider is also known as an Internet access provider (IAP).

The Internet began as a closed network between government research laboratories and
universities and colleges. As universities and colleges began giving Internet access to their
faculty and other employees, ISPs were created to provide Internet access to those
employees at home and elsewhere. The first ISP began in 1990 as The World, based in
Brookline, Massachusetts.
Individual customers and businesses pay ISPs for Internet Access. ISPs are interconnected to
one another at network access points. In turn, ISPs pay other, larger ISPs for their Internet
access, which in turn pay still other ISPs. This cascades multiple times until transmissions
reach a Tier 1 carrier, which is an ISP capable of reaching every other network on the
Internet without purchasing IP transit or paying settlements. However, it is difficult to
determine the status of a network because the business agreements to pay settlements are
not made public.

However, the situation is more complex than simply a single connection established to an
upstream ISP. ISPs may have more than one point of presence (PoP), which is an access
point to the Internet comprised of a physical location housing servers, routers, ATM
switches and digital/analog call aggregators. Some ISPs have thousands of PoPs. Multiple
PoPs may have separate connections to an upstream ISP. And each ISP may have upstream
ISPs and connections to each one of them at one or multiple PoPs.

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 URLs
A uniform resource locator (URL) is the address of a resource on the Internet. A URL
indicates the location of a resource as well as the protocol used to access it. A URL contains
the following information:
● The protocol used to a access the resource
● The the location of the server (whether by IP address or domain name)
● The port number on the server (optional)
● The location of the resource in the directory structure of the server
● A fragment identifier (optional)

Also known as a Universal Resource Locator (URL) or Web address. A URL is a type of
uniform resource identifier (URI). In common practice, the term URI isn’t used, or is used
synonymously with URL, even though this is technically incorrect.

Tim Berners-Lee and the Internet Engineering Task Force working group is credited with
developing the URL in 1994. It is formally specified in RFC 1738.
All URLs are presented in the following order:
● Scheme name
● Colon and two slashes
● Location of the server
● The port (optional) and the location of the resource on the server
● Fragment identifier (optional)

MULTIMEDIA AND ITS APPLICATIONS:

Multimedia is the field concerned with the computer-controlled integration of text,
graphics, drawings, still and moving images (Video), animation, audio, and any other media
where every type of information can be signified, stored, communicated and handled

39
digitally.

Applications for Multimedia System

● Text
● Images
● Audio
● Video
● Animation
● Medicare
● Virtual Reality
● Research

Text
This seems so obvious that many people forget about it. Text content is the most common
type of media used throughout multimedia systems and applications. Chances are, your
multimedia system uses text and at least one other type of media to have functionality.
Whether your text relays information or reinforces information, it is a crucial part of any
multimedia system.
Images
Many multimedia systems include digital images as part of the application. Many
applications use custom buttons or interactive elements to further customize the
application. Other images can include basic digital image files like JPEGs or PNGs. These file
types allow for good image quality without a large file size.

Audio
In many multimedia systems, audio provides a crucial link between text and images. In
applications, many audio files automatically play. If you are using your audio on the web, the
end user might need to have a plug-in media player installed to access it. Common audio
formats include MP3, WMA, and RealAudio.

Video
Another common type of media found in multimedia applications is video. Digital video can
be streamed or downloaded and compressed as needed to reduce the file size. The most
common file formats are Flash, MPEG, AVI, WMV, and QuickTime. Just like audio files, the
end user might need a plug-in installed before they can watch the video.

Animation

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Animation is a fun and common part of both online and desktop multimedia systems.
Whether it means an interactive element that invites the user to engage with the
application or simply a fun animation to watch, animation is a unique multimedia system
element. Adobe Flash is commonly used to create animations viewable online.

Multimedia Application in Education:

Using images, video and animations alongside a text stimulates the brain. Stude nt attention and
retention increase. Under these circumstances, in a multimedia learning environment,
students can identify and solve problems more easily compared to the scenario where
teaching is made possible only by textbooks.

Multimedia Application in Entertainment:

Multimedia is heavily used in the entertainment industry, especially to develop special
effects in movies and animations (VFX, 3D animation, etc.). Multimedia games are a popular
pastime and are software programs available either as CD-ROMs or online. Some video
games also use multimedia features.

Medicare:

Uses of multimedia are also seen in Medicare services. Today, advices of doctors can be
received even staying at home with the help of multimedia based electronic communication.
Besides this, multimedia is also used in diagnosing the diseases and prescribing medicines.

Research:

Researchers require different kinds of information to conduct their research and

development works. Internet plays a vital role in obtaining the necessary information. By
searching the Internet the researchers can gather their required information and make
successful research.

Virtual Reality:

Virtual reality is a technology which allows a user to interact with computer-simulated

environment. The simulated environment can be similar to the real world. For example:
simulation for pilot or combat or surgery training. This simulated environment can also differ
significantly from reality, as in virtual reality games. This virtual reality is actually based on
multimedia bounder technology.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

● www.scribe.com
● www.studocu.com
● https://data-flair.training/blogs/basics-of-
computer-hardware-and- software/
● https://medium.com/
@tharinduprabathjayapathma/computer-
storage- devices-ff64e72d964e
● Wikipedia.com
● Basic_computer_information.com
● https://examupdates.in/information-technology-
management/

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THANK YOU
FOR YOUR ATTENTION
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PRACHI BHADORIYA
MBA 1ST SEM

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