Unified

COURSE PACKAGE
In

Ed 111
(Child and Adolescent Learners

and the

Learning Principles)

Dr. Virginia S. Albarracin

Prof. Charina G. Bardoquillo
Dr. Glynne P. Bate
Mrs. Martha Joyce G. Garciano
Dr. Christine C. Mabulay
Dr. Purity V. Mata
Dr. rolina C. Paran
Dr. Regina Encarnacion-Sitoy

Compilers

2020

ED The Child and Adolescent Learners and the 1

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 UNIT 1: COURSE ORIENTATION
Compiled by: VIRGINIA S. ALBARRACIIN, Ed. D. - CTU Argao Campus

INTRODUCTION

The school creates an environment that is suitable to teaching and learning. As a member of a
learning institution, such as a school, it is important to understand the school's vision, mission, goals,
and outcomes, as these serve as a guide and source of motivation for achieving a common goal.

This unit gives a bird's eye view of the entire course and introduces the University's vision,
mission, goals, and objectives. This learning packet, however, will only cover the University's VMGO.

In this learning packet, you are expected to:

1. Relate the vision, mission and goals of the University, program, and course outcomes with one’s personal
career goals.

PREPARATION

Learning Activity No. 1

Free Writing

Write down your life’s hopes and dreams.

ED The Child and Adolescent Learners and the 2

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PRESENTATION

Learning Activity No. 2

Reading with Understanding

Click here https://www.ctu.edu.ph/vmgo/ to read the University's VMGO.

Fill out the table below after reading the VMGO to summarize your personal/group knowledge
of the University's VMGO.

My/Our thoughts about the University’s:

ED The Child and Adolescent Learners and the 3

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 VISION MISSION

GOALS CORE VALUES

ED The Child and Adolescent Learners and the 4

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 Read and understand the material below to learn more about the University's VMGO.Cebu
Technological University, like you, has also its hopes and dreams translated in its vision, mission,
goals and outcomes.

The vision statement articulates what the institution aspires to become in the future. In other
words, it tells us where we're all heading. Hence, it provides direction for development and inspiration
for all its stakeholders to do their best in order to arrive at the same destination.

The mission statement communicates what the school should do to achieve its vision. It
informs stakeholders about the services it provides and why it exists. Thus, provides the means to
reach its destination.

The University’s goal specifies the quality of products it will produce. It describes the kind or
quality of graduates it will produce and the actions or activities it will take to achieve its goals.

The Program Outcomes (POs) are the minimum standards expressed as a minimum set of
desired program outcomes stipulated in the CHED Memorandum Order on the Policies, Standards
and Guidelines for each program in Teacher Education. These include the competencies that the
graduates of State Colleges and Universities must possess to support the national, regional and local
development plans as stipulated in RA 7722.

The Course Learning Outcomes (CLOs) identifies the knowledge and skills that the students
are expected to acquire by the end of the course anchored on the international, national and
university standards.

The Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs) identifies what the students are expected to learn at
each session or period. CLOs and ILOs are both observable and measurable statements. Observable
means that the learning outcomes are to be performed or demonstrated by the students. Hence,
action verbs are used. Measurable means that the students’ level of performance can be determined
or evaluated.

Having a clear understanding of the University’s vision, mission, goals, and outcomes helps all
stakeholders understand where we’re headed and how to get there. As a result, everyone must work
together to achieve a shared vision. Without a common goal, everyone is left to their own thing,
ED The Child and Adolescent Learners and the 5
111 Learning Principles
claiming

ED The Child and Adolescent Learners and the 6

111 Learning Principles
that what they are doing is right. Now that we are a part of this educational institution, we must commit
to achieving the VMGO.

Finally, in order for the vision, mission, goals, and outcomes to remain relevant and responsive
to societal needs as well as the demands of time, they must be revisited and revised on a regular
basis.

PRACTICE

Learning Activity No. 3

Making a Link

Now go over your life's hopes and dreams and try to revise them by creating a personal VMGO
that is matched with the university's. Use appropriate graphic organizer to show the connections.

PERFORMANCE

Assessment Task
Reflective Writing

Write a reflective journal entry, in a three-sentence paragraph, about how important it is

to align one's personal career goals with the VMGO of the institution.

Assessment Rubric for Graphic Organizer

5 = Advanced 4 = Proficient 3- Developing 2= Beginning

# Criteria Score
1 The information in the graphic organizer is accurate.
2 The relationships among concepts are coherent/logical.
3 The graphic organizer demonstrates an understanding of the topic.
4 The student was able to present clearly and completely the required information.
5 The graphic organizer represents the student’s creativity.
Total
Adapted from: https://www.nps.gov/apco/learn/education/upload/Grading%20Rubrics.pdf

ED The Child and Adolescent Learners and the 7

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 Assessment Rubric for Written Outputs
Criteria Far Exceeds Exceeds Standard Meets Standard Below Standard Score
Standard (Above Average) (Average) (Below
(Exemplary) Average)
10 8 6
4
Content Ideas are Ideas are accurate Ideas are not Ideas are partial or
comprehensive, and complete. Key comprehensive or incomplete. Key
accurate and points are stated completely stated. points are not
complete. Key ideas
and supported. Key points are clear.
are clearly stated,
explained, and well addressed, but not
supported. well supported.

Organization Well organized, Organization is Inadequate Organization and

coherently mostly clear and organization or structure detract
developed, and easy to follow. development. from the answer.
Structure of the
easy to follow.
answer is not easy
to follow.
Grammar & No errors in Displays one to Displays three to Displays over five
Mechanics spelling, three errors in five errors in errors in spelling,
punctuation, spelling, spelling, punctuation,
grammar, and
punctuation, punctuation, grammar, and
sentence structure.
grammar, and grammar, and sentence structure.
sentence structure. sentence structure.

Total
Adapted from https://www.rcampus.com/rubricshowc.cfm?sp=true&code=F4A59A

REFERENCES

CMO 74, S. 2017. Commission on Higher Education. http://ched.gov.ph/wp-

content/uploads/2017/11/CMO-No.-74-s.-2017.pdf

Course-level Learning Outcomes. (n.d.). Retrieved xeptember 14, 2021, from

https://learning.northeastern.edu/course-learning-outcomes/

Grabriel, G. (n.d.). Developing a Vision and a Mission, Chapter Preview. Retrieved September 14,
2021, from
http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/107042/chapters/developing-a-vision-and-a-
mission.aspx

Scoring Rubric for Essay Questions. (2021). Reazon Systems, Inc.

https://www.rcampus.com/rubricshowc.cfm?sp=true&code=F4A59A

VMGO (2021). Cebu technological University. https://www.ctu.edu.ph/vmgo/

https://www.nps.gov/apco/learn/education/upload/Grading%20Rubrics.pdf (No longer accessible)

ED The Child and Adolescent Learners and the 8

111 Learning Principles
 UNIT 2: BASIC CONCEPTS IN THE STUDY OF CHILD
AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
Compiled by: VIRGINIA S. ALBARRACIIN, Ed. D. - CTU Argao Campus

INTRODUCTION

The study of child and adolescent development necessitates an understanding of current

research-based content or information as well as key terms. Understanding of these fundamental
concepts will enable you to identify themes or patterns and establish connections allowing you to
apply what you’ve learned in new situations.

This unit introduces the basic concepts that are important in the study of child and adolescent
development. This include the definitions of the terms, periods of development, developmental tasks
during the lifespan, domains and contexts of development, issues on human development and
research methods and designs in the study of child and adolescent development.

In this learning packet, you are expected to:

1. Explain the basic concepts related to child and adolescent development (CLO 1).

PREPARATION

Learning Activity No. 1

Skimming for General Ideas

Take a quick look at the topics indicated in green in the Presentation section. Allow your eyes
to skim the text for key terms to get the topic’s overall scope. Once you've finished, try asking higher-
order questions on the general idea that you’ve just gathered.

Example: Why are these topics important?

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 1
Question 1

Question 2

Question 3

PRESENTATION

Learning Activity No. 3

Reading with Understanding

Read and understand the unit's major topics and be able to draw the main concepts in each
section. Write your answers in the corresponding boxes.

Definitions

Stages of Development

Developmental Tasks

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 2
 Domains of
Development

Contexts of Development

Characteristics of Human Development

A. DEFINITIONS

For better understanding on the study of the child and adolescent learners, let us first define
the key terms in the study of child and adolescent development.

A child is every human being below the age of eighteen years unless under the law applicable
to the child, majority is attained earlier - Convention on the Rights of the Child
(https://www.unicef.org/child-rights-convention/convention-text; http://uis.unesco.org/en/glossary-
term/child).

In Republic Act 7610: Special Protection of Children Against Abuse, Exploitation and
Discrimination Act, “Children” refers to person below eighteen (18) years of age or those over but are
unable to fully take care of themselves or protect themselves from abuse, neglect, cruelty, exploitation
or discrimination because of a physical or mental disability or condition (https://pcw.gov.ph/republic-
act-7610-special-protection-of-children-against-abuse-exploitation-and-discrimination-act/).

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 3
 WHO defines adolescents as individuals in the 10-19-year age group and “youth” as the 15-
24- year age group. These two overlapping age groups are combined in the group “young people”,
covering the age range 10-24 years.

Adolescence has been described as the period in life when an individual is no longer a child,
but not yet an adult. It is a period in which an individual undergoes enormous physical and
psychological changes. In addition, the adolescent experiences change in social expectations and
perceptions. Physical growth and development are accompanied by sexual maturation, often leading
to intimate relationships. The individual’s capacity for abstract and critical thought also develops,
along with a sense of self-awareness when social expectations require emotional maturity. It is
important to keep this in mind for a more complete understanding of the behaviors of adolescents as
you read through this handout.

WHO clearly recognizes that “adolescence” is a phase rather than a fixed time period in an
individual’s life. As indicated above, it is a phase of development on many fronts: from the
appearance of secondary sex characteristics (puberty) to sexual and reproductive maturity; the
development of mental processes and adult identity; and the transition from total socio-economic and
emotional dependence to relative independence.
(https://www.who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/documents/pdfs/9241591269_op_handout.pdf)

In Republic Act No. 10354 known as “The Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health
Act of 2012″, adolescent refers to young people between the ages of ten (10) to nineteen (19) years
who are in transition from childhood to adulthood (https://pcw.gov.ph/republic-act-10354/).

Child development - includes various processes that every child goes through. It involves
learning and mastering skills like sitting, walking, talking, skipping, and tying shoes. These physical
skills that children can do at predictable time periods are known as developmental milestones.

Adolescent Development – includes the various changes that adolescents go through such
as physical, emotional, intellectual and social. Puberty, which happens earlier than in the past, usually
marks the start of adolescence.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 4
 Learning Principles - are statement of generalizations that are proven to be sufficiently
reliable and are to be taken into considerations when making decisions on how children learn at
various stages and ages in the lifespan.

Hence, in this course, after reading, doing the activity and gaining knowledge from what you
are reading and doing, you are expected to articulate what you are learning by putting them into
practice in a school or classroom setting. This involves coming up with practices appropriate for
each developmental stage where the learners are.

Below is an example of how to articulate the educational application or implication after

reading the definition of learning principle.

Contextualizing one’s knowledge gained or learned from the study of child and adolescent
development requires clear and evident application in an actual classroom setting.

Example of a Learning Principle from https://www.cmu.edu/teaching/principles/learning.html

Students’ current level of development interacts with the social, emotional, and
intellectual climate of the course to impact learning.

Students are not only intellectual but also social and emotional beings, and they are still developing
the full range of intellectual, social, and emotional skills. While we cannot control the developmental
process, we can shape the intellectual, social, emotional, and physical aspects of classroom climate
in developmentally appropriate ways. In fact, many studies have shown that the climate we create
has implications for our students. A negative climate may impede learning and performance,
but a positive climate can energize students’ learning.

Growth is defined as the quantitative changes that can be measured. It is the progressive
increase in the child’s size or body parts or the maturation of tissues or organs. Example is the growth
in height or weight.

Development is defined as changes which lead to qualitative reorganizations in the structure

of a behavior, skill or ability.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 5
 Maturation and Learning
You might have asked yourselves this question, “Why do people grow and develop?” As living
organisms, we must grow and develop. You already learned that growth and development are not
synonymous but are often times used interchangeably. Development however, is more complex than
growth. There are two major causes of development. They are:

Maturation - the biological unfolding of the individual according to a plan contained in the
genes, changes resulting from growth and not from training or practice as indicated by the state of
readiness to progress in a definite type of behavior.

Learning - the process through which one’s experiences produce relatively permanent
changes in one’s feelings thoughts and actions that entails careful instruction and practice.

Difference between Maturation and Learning

Maturation Learning
• Based on heredity • Based on Environment
• Automatic • Planned
• Age-limited • No age limit
• Related to structure and potential
• Related to experience
capacity
• Does not require training and
• Requires training and practice
practice
• Instruction has no effect • Entails careful instruction
https://www.psychologydiscussion.net/learning/learning-theory/difference-between-maturation-and-
learning-psychology/2497

B. PERIODS/STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

The lifespan development includes the entire human life cycle, that is, from conception to
adulthood. It is significant to understand them as you relate to your learners, to yourself, to your co-
workers, to parents, to non-formal education clienteles and to other education stakeholders.

Developmental psychologists divide the lifespan into stages or periods. At each period or
stage, they specified based from research, what children can do and the rate at which they grow.
From this,
ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 6
they came up with the milestone of development. A milestone of development refers to the age when
most children are expected to reach a certain stage of development.

Study the table below and try to compare them by paying close attention on the number of
stages or periods they have identified. What have you noticed?
Stages of Periods of Development by Periods of Human Development
Development by Santrock 2016 by Papalia and Martorell 2015
Havigurst 1972
1. Infancy and 1. Prenatal Period –from the moment 1. Prenatal Period – from
of conception to birth which normally conception to birth
Early Childhood
takes place for nine months
(0-5 years old)
2. Middle 2. Infancy – from birth to about 18 to 2. Infancy and Toddlerhood –
24 months where the neonate is from birth to age 3
Childhood
helpless and dependent on another for
(6-12 years old) survival

3. Adolescence 3. Early Childhood- is also known as 3. Early Childhood – from ages 3

preschool years – from end of infancy to 6
(13-18 years old)
to 5 to 6 years
4. Early Adulthood 4. Middle and Late Childhood- also 4. Middle Childhood – from ages 6
known as Elementary School Years – to 11
(19-29 years old)
for 6 to 11 years
5. Middle 5. Adolescence – the transition from 5. Adolescence – from ages 11to
childhood to early adulthood about 20
Adulthood
(30-60 years old)
6. Later Maturity 6. Early Adulthood – from late teens or 6. Emerging and Young
early twenties to thirties Adulthood – from ages 20 to 40
(61 and over)
7. Middle Adulthood – from 40 to 60 7. Middle Adulthood – from ages
years 40 to 65
8. Late Adulthood – from 60 to 70 8. Late Adulthood – from age 65
years until death and over

C. DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS DURING THE LIFESPAN

From https://www.psychologynoteshq.com/development-tasks

A developmental task is an activity which arises at or about a certain period in the life of the
individual. It is an ability to master certain essential skills and acquire approved patterns of behavior at

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 7
various stages. It provides teachers and parents awareness of whether the child being early or late or
on time with regards to a given tasks.

The main assertion of the Havighurst developmental tasks theory is that development is
continuous throughout a person’s entire lifespan, occurring in stages. A person moves from one stage
to the next by means of successful resolution of problems or performance of certain developmental
tasks. These tasks are typically encountered by most people in the culture where that person belongs.
Havighurst pointed out the importance of sensitive stages which he considered to be the ideal
teachable moments during child development. At these stages, children demonstrate maturation at a
level that is most conducive to learning and successfully performing the developmental tasks at these
stages.

Robert Havighurst proposed a bio-psychosocial model of development. According to

Havighurst’s Developmental Tasks Theory, the developmental tasks at each stage are influenced by
a person’s biology (physiological maturation and genetic makeup), his/her psychology (personal
values and goals), as well as his/her sociology (specific culture to which the individual belongs.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 8
Characteristics at Different Stages of Development
From https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/president-ramon-magsaysay-state-university/bachelor-
of-secondary-education/ftc1-lesson-2-lecture-notes-2/9704351

1. PRE-NATAL (Outset of fertilization to birth)

 The period of gestation, the period of pregnancy
 Takes place for 9 months or 280 days
In Santrock’s developmental stages, this is the period where remarkable growth takes
place –from a single-celled organism to a complete human being endowed with behavioral
capabilities and a brain that is distinct from other forms of animals.
ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 9
2. INFANCY (First two weeks after birth)
 The shortest of all developmental periods
 Is divided into 2 periods: period of partunate (from birth and 30 minutes after birth) and period
of the neonate from the cutting of the umbilical cord to second week of life
According to Santrock 2002, this is the time when the child is extremely dependent on
their caregivers. They are also beginning to carry out several psychological activities such as
language, use of symbols, sensorimotor coordination and social learning.

3. EARLY CHILDHOOD (Two to six years –Grade 1)

 Preschool age since this is the period when they will be enrolled in day care centers or
nursery or kindergarten schools.
For Santrock, this is when children become self-sufficient and to start caring for
themselves. They also begin to develop their readiness for school and to socialize with other
children through play activities.

4. MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (Six to nine or ten years)

 Designated as the primary school period
 Physical growth is slower
 Achieving a sufficient degree of maturity to enable him to profit from formal education
 Have trouble reasoning about abstract and hypothetical questions

5. LATE CHILDHOOD (Nine or ten until the onset of puberty or sexual maturity)
 The elementary school period
 Learning essential skills both curricular and extra-curricular
 The real formative period, marked by individualism, a growing independence and self-
assertion
Santrock combined the two stages of Middle and Late Childhood, from the ages of 6 to
11, and classified them as Elementary School years. This is when children learn the
fundamentals of reading, writing and arithmetic and are exposed to a larger world and various
cultures. Achievement becomes the central theme in the child’s development as he gains self-
control.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 10
8. ADOLESCENCE (Twelve to eighteen years to twenty years)
 Is generally designated as the high school years
 Follows an orderly sequence or pattern of development
 Is referred to as the transition period from childhood dependence to assumption of adult
activities and responsibilities
 The period of change in behavior and behavior and so with its physical features
According to Santrock, this period begins with rapid physical changes (dramatic gains in height
and in weight, changes in body contour, and development of sexual characteristics such as
enlargement of breasts, development of pubic and facial hair, deepening of voice). Pursuit of
independence and identity are prominent. Thought is more logical, abstract and idealistic. More
time is spent, outside family.

D. DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT

Development occurs in different domains. Below are the different domains of development and
in each domain you are given an example of how you can draw learning principles from the different
information provided to you. The major domains of development are:
1. Physical Domain: Changes in body size, proportions, appearance, functioning of body
systems, perceptual and motor capacities, and physical health.
Provide opportunities to support learners’ physical functioning such as acquisition of
new physical skills and performance of physical activities.
2. Emotional and Social Domain: Changes in emotional communication, self-understanding,
knowledge about other people, interpersonal skills, friendships, intimate relationships, and
moral reasoning and behavior.
Provide opportunities for learners to increase capacity for self-acceptance, self-reliance,
self-confidence, and identity formation.
Provide opportunities for learners to enhance their abilities to build healthy relationships.
3. Cognitive Domain: Changes in intellectual abilities, including attention, memory, academic
and everyday knowledge, problem solving, imagination, creativity, and language.
Provide learners the opportunities to enhance their ability to think, set goals, solve
problems and work with focused attention.
Provide learners the opportunity to develop their receptive and expressive skills.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 11
 The domains are not really distinct. Rather, they overlap and interact hence, are closely
related. This means that one domain influences and is influenced by the development in other
domain. For example, the child’s physical domain, such as when the he/she begins to walk and use
the hands to manipulate objects, will enable him/her to explore the environment, which in turn, has an
effect on his/her cognitive development.

E. CONTEXTS OF DEVELOPMENT (Hallahan, Kauffman, Levine And Munsch, 2016)

Context refers to all the settings in which development occurs.

1. Family - the primary context for development (nuclear families, single parent- families, step-or
adoptive families) they have the same functions: They are responsible for the socialization of
their children. They instill norms, values, attitudes and beliefs of their culture so that children
will grow up to be positive, contributing members of their society.
2. School - children learn academic skills and are prepared for entry to workforce. Also play
important role in the socialization of the children.
3. Community - affects the range and quality of support services available to children and their
families, including the educational opportunities and out of school activities that are available.
4. Culture - includes the behaviors, norms, beliefs and traditions that a particular group has
developed as it has adapted to its environment.

Two more spheres of influence on a growing child (Gordon and Brown, 2017)
1. Cultural identity: the interconnections between developmental stages and a growing
awareness of one’s attitudes toward others. Children’s experiences with their bodies, social
environment and cognitive development combine to help them form their own identity and
attitudes.
2. Creative development: This includes the unusual creative activities such as movement,
dance, music and painting as well as originality, imagination, divergent thinking and problem
solving.

The contexts of children’s development can be thought of as nested, interacting ecosystems.

Each context can provide resources for positive growth or present significant challenges to health and
well- being.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 12
 F. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LIFE-SPAN PERSPECTIVE (SANTROCK, 2016)
1. Development is lifelong. It is continuing through life. No age
period dominates development.
2. Development is multidimensional. It consists of biological, cognitive and socio-emotional
dimensions. Each dimension has several components. Changes in one dimension also affect
development in the other dimensions.
Ex. A seven-year old child was hospitalized with a severe allergic reaction. His parents rarely
visited him. After his hospital stay, he was never the same happy baby. He became withdrawn
and unresponsive.
3. Development is multidirectional. Throughout life, some dimensions or components of a
dimension expand while others shrink. For example, when one reaches adolescence, his/her
romantic relationship is established while relationship with friends decreases.
4. Development is plastic. The capacity to change. A ten-year old shy child may improve his
social skills through exposure to group activities.
5. Development is contextual. All development occurs in a context or setting. Contexts include
families, schools, peer groups, churches, cities, neighborhood, university laboratories,
countries and so on. Each of these settings is influenced by historical, economic, social and
cultural factor. Context changes like individuals.
Three types of Influences as a result of change
a. Normative age-graded influences - are similar for individuals in a particular age
group. These include biological processes such as puberty and menopause. They also
include socio-cultural, environmental process such as beginning of formal education
(usually at about 6 in most cultures).
b. Normative history-graded influences - are common to people of a particular
generation because of historical circumstances. Include economic, political and social
upheavals such as civil rights and women’s rights movements of the 1960’s and 1970’s.
c. Non-normative life events. Are unusual occurrences that have a major impact on the
individual’s life. Examples include the death of a parent when a child is young,
pregnancy in early adolescence.
6. Developmental science is multidisciplinary. Psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists,
neurologists and medical researchers all share an interest in unlocking the mysteries of
development through the life span.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 13
 7. Development Involves Growth, maintenance and Regulation of Loss. The mastery of life
often involves conflicts and competition among three goals of human development; growth,
maintenance and regulation of loss.
8. Development is a co-construction of biology, culture and the individual. Development
comes from biological, cultural and individual factors influencing each other.

PRACTICE
Learning Activity No. 3
Concepts in Action

Having learned the basic concepts in this unit, accomplish the task below to apply what
you are learning in a new situation.

A. Explain the following terms to someone:

1. Child Learner
2. Adolescent Learner
3. Principles of Development

B. Apply the concepts of the following terms in teaching:

1. Contexts of Development
2. Characteristics of human development

C. Connect the domains of development to your personal life journey?

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 14
PERFORMANCE
Assessment Task
Checking for Understanding

A. Summative Quiz

B. Review the topics covered in this unit, then summarize them using text and graphic
presentation or infographic showing the key concepts in each major topic. The output will
be exhibited in a gallery. See Rubric for rating to guide you in the making of your
infographic. The deadline will be one week prior to the Preliminary Exam.

RUBRIC FOR RATING GRAPHIC ORGANIZER

Course No. & Title :
Names of Presenters :
Topic :
Date Presented :
Name of Professor :

DIRECTIONS: Using the following criteria, choose the appropriate number from the following scale that
reflects your assessment of the group’s work.

5 = Advanced 4 = Proficient 3- Developing 2= Beginning

# Criteria Score
1 The information in the graphic organizer is accurate.
2 The relationships among concepts are coherent/logical.
3 The graphic organizer demonstrates an understanding of the topic.
4 The student was able to present clearly and completely the required information.
5 The graphic organizer represents the student’s creativity.
Total

Comments:

Adapted from https://www.nps.gov/apco/learn/education/upload/Grading%20Rubrics.pdf

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 15
REFERENCES

A. Books
Corpuz, Brenda B.,et. al (2018). The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning
Principles. Lorimar Publishing Inc.: Quezon City, Metro Manila.

Gordon, A. M. and Brone, K. W. (2017). Beginnings and Beyond. Foundations in

Early Childhood Education, 10th Edition. Cenage Learning: United States of America.

Hallahan, D., Kauffman, J.M., Levine, L. E and Munsch. (2016). Child Development
from Infancy to Adolescence. An Active Approach. SAGE Publications, Inc. Thousand
Oaks California.

Santrock, J.W. (2016). Essentials of Life-span Development, Fourth Edition. New

York, NY;McGraw-Hill Education.

B. Online Sources

Child and Adolescent Development Module (n.d.). Retrieved September 14, 2021, from
https://www.unhcr.org/3bb81bad4.pdf

Child and Adolescent Development Research and Teacher Education: Evidence-based Pedagogy,
Policy, and Practice. (2006). National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
(NICHD)https://www.nichd.nih.gov/sites/default/files/publications/pubs/documents/child_adol_d
ev_teacher_ed.pdf

Child, Definition. (2021). UNESCO Institute of Statistics. http://uis.unesco.org/en/glossary-term/child

Convention on the Rights of the Child. unicef/for every child 75. Retrieved September 14, 2021, from
https://www.unicef.org/child-rights-convention/convention-text

Difference between Maturation and Learning | Psychology. (n.d.). Retrieved September 14, 2021,
from https://www.psychologydiscussion.net/learning/learning-theory/difference-between-
maturation-and-learning-psychology/2497

Lara, C. (2020). FTC1 lesson 2 - Lecture notes 2. StuDocu. President Ramon Magsaysay State
University. https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/president-ramon-magsaysay-state-
university/bachelor-of-secondary-education/ftc1-lesson-2-lecture-notes-2/9704351

Learning Principles, Theory and Research-based Principles of Learning. (2021). Carnegie Mellon
University. https://www.cmu.edu/teaching/principles/learning.html

Orientation Program on Adolescent Health for Health-care Providers, Handout. (n.d.). Department of
Child and Adolescent Health and development (CAH), World Health Organization. Retrieved
September 14, 2021, from
ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 16
 https://www.who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/documents/pdfs/9241591269_op_handout.pdf

Principles of Child Development and Learning and Implications That Inform Practice. (n.d.). National
Association for the Education of Young Children. Retrieved September 9, 2021, from
https://www.naeyc.org/resources/topics/12-principles-of-child-development

Reading Strategies, Skimming. (n.d.). Wiki.co. Creative Commons Attribution. Retrieved September
14, 2021, from http://readingstrategies.wikidot.com/skimming.

Republic Act 7610: Special Protection of Children Against Abuse, Exploitation and Discrimination Act.
(2021). Philippine Commission on Women.
https://pcw.gov.ph/republic-act-7610-special-protection-of-children-against-abuse-exploitation-
and-discrimination-act/

Republic Act 10354: The Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012. (2021).
Philippine Commission on Women. https://pcw.gov.ph/republic-act-10354/

TI-AIE: Supporting reading for understanding. (n.d.). Retrieved September 13, 2021, from
https://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=57349&printable=1

What is the Havighurst Developmental Tasks Theory?. (2021). The Psychology Notes Headquarter.
https://www.psychologynoteshq.com/development-tasks

https://www.nps.gov/apco/learn/education/upload/Grading%20Rubrics.pdf (No longer accessible)

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 17
 UNIT 3: ISSUES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Compiled by: CHARINA G. BARDOQUILLO, M. Ed. Math, CTU Tuburan Campus

INTRODUCTION

The emotional, social and physical development of young children has a direct effect on their
overall development and on the adult they will become. That is why understanding the need to invest
in very young children is so important, so as to maximize their future well-being.

In this learning packet, you are expected to:

1. Determine the issues on human development.

PREPARATION
Learning Activity No. 1
Do you agree or disagree?

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111 Learning Principles
PRESENTATION

1. Nature vs. Nurture

Nature proposed that important aspects of development are programmed by the genes.
Whereas, nature believed that development is significantly influenced by learning, experience, and
culture.

2. Continuous/Incremental versus /Discontinuous/Stage-like development

Incremental theories or Continuous Development - in which development is a result of
continuous quantitative changes. Development is a gradual increase in capacity as when children get
older, the types of things they do, do not differ greatly but they are only able to do things more
skillfully

Stage theories or Discontinuous Development - in which each stage in life is seen as

qualitatively different from the ones that come before and after. Development occurs in stages and in
each stage children display behaviors that are different from the ones that come before and after.

Continuity theorists asserted that as children get older, the types of things they do, do not differ
greatly but they are only able to do things more skillful while discontinuity theorists believed the
change from one style of behaving or thinking to another is relatively abrupt

3. Quantitative and Qualitative

Quantitative - changes in the amount or quantity of what you are measuring. Children grow
taller, utter more words, increase in vocabulary, acquire more information.
Qualitative - changes that alter the overall quality of a process or function and the result is
something altogether different

4. Universal vs Individual
Universal - are changes that are shared by all individuals
Individual - are changes which are different from each other

5. Stability vs. Plasticity

Stability proposed that there are aspects of development that remain constant despite changes
in the environment. Contrastingly, plasticity believed that there are aspects of development that can
be modified through experience.
ED The Child and Adolescent Learners and the 2
111 Learning Principles
6. Active vs. Passive
Active- believed that children actively influence their own development. It corresponds to
Rousseau’s view that development is a natural unfolding that takes place within the child. He viewed
children as noble savages, naturally endowed with a sense of right and wrong and with innate plan for
orderly, healthy growth.

Passive- suggested that children are simply at the mercy of their environment. This view
corresponds to Locke’s description of the child as a “blank slate” on which experience writes.

PRACTICE
Learning Activity No.2

Time for Sharing

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111 Learning Principles
PERFORMANCE
Assessment Tasks
Comprehension Check

Read each the statements carefully and identify which is referred to in the following situations:
1. Children’s language skills may be stimulated by the parents and care givers. (Nature, Nurture)
2. Children are able to acquire language rapidly because you are genetically predisposed to do
so. (Nature, Nurture)
3. A 1 year old can already utter 5 words. (Qualitative, Quantitative)
4. Children at 15 to 18 months of age can already put two short words together to form
sentences. (Qualitative, Quantitative)
5. When you were yet a baby, your ability to sort objects into categories, may have been much
like your parents. Perhaps your only limitation was that you could not perform these skills with
much precession and speed as your parents can. (Stage, Incremental)
6. Infants display behaviors that are different from the toddlers. They moved through a series of
developmental steps, each of which has unique features, until they reached the highest level of
functioning. (Stage, Incremental)
7. When you were yet a baby, your perception of a piano melody, your memory for past events,
and your ability to sort objects into categories, may have been much like your parents.
Perhaps your only limitation was that you could perform these skills with us much information
and precession as your parents can.
8. You could not yet perceive remember, and organize experiences as a mature person can.
Rather, You moved through a series of developmental steps, each of which has unique
features, until you reached the highest level of functioning. (Continuity, Discontinuity)
9. Children follow the same stages of language development. (Universal, Individual)
10. There are children who are good at dancing, painting and riding bicycle. (Universal, Individual)
11. The way you were brought up by your parents will also influence the way you will brought up
your own children in the future. (Active, Passive)
12. Even if you hang out with your friends with different attitudes you know which should and not to
be imitated or followed. (Active, Passive)

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111 Learning Principles
REFERENCES
A. Books

Corpuz, Brenda B.,et. al (2018). The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles.
Lorimar Publishing Inc.: Quezon City, Metro Manila.

B. Online Sources

Payabyab, M (2018). Issues on human development [slides]. Slideshare.

https://www.slideshare.net/mpayabyab1/issues-on-human-development

ED The Child and Adolescent Learners and the 5

111 Learning Principles
 Unit IV: Research in Child and Adolescent
Development
Compiled by: Charina G. Bardoquillo
Introduction
As you have noticed, most if not all is presented about the development of the
child and the adolescent are products of research. It might interest you to know how
these concepts/ theories were arrived at. Or having been exposed to a number of
researchers cited in this course, hopefully, you may inspire that you, too would like to
start conducting on you own or join a group of research.
This module is about the principles of research, teachers as consumer/end of
research and the scientific methods.
In this module, you are expected to:
1. Discuss how current research and theories on child and adolescent
development can be applied to teaching and learning (CLO 2).

PREPARATION
Why Study Child Development?
Studying Child Development is Critical in Child Health and Well-being

During the first 5 years of a child’s life, there is almost unimaginable physical, social,
cognitive and emotional change and growth which takes place. Growth and
development obviously continue during the child’s early life until maturity at adulthood,
however that growth is not as rapid as we see in the early years. In these early years,
children work out their place in world. They are part of a family, a community, a social
system. They are also an individual being and their foundations of personality are well
and truly formed.

Children go through different stages of development. Some child development experts

have called the various stages of development different names over decades of
research. Some well-known child-development theories evolved from the work of Jean
Piaget, John Bowlby, Sigmund Freud are a few names you may recognise. Today very
popular child development psychologists include Dr Gordon Neufeld and Dr Gabor
Mate.

https://www.acsedu.co.uk/info/psychology-and-counselling/child-development/why-study-
child-development.aspx
II. PRESENTATION
Research that are done with high level of quality and integrity provide us with
valuable information about child and adolescent development. To be able to conduct
quality research, it is important that you know various research designs and different
data-gathering techniques used by developmental researches. You may follow the link
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=researchin+child+and+adolecentin order
you to know the basic methods on research
Some are given and describe below:
Child and Adolescent Development Research Methods
1. Case Study - an in-depth look at an individual. It compiles a detailed portrait of a
single individual’s development. It seeks information about the family background,
socio-economic status, health records, or academic or work history, performance on
psychological tests of individual. Much of the information is obtained from interviews
and biographies. However, the researcher needs to exercise caution when
generalizing from the information.
2. Naturalistic Observation Method - allows to study behavior as they actually occurs
in a natural environment, making no effort to manipulate environment or to alter
behavior. One disadvantage of this method is that it can be difficult to determine the
exact cause of a behavior and the experimenter cannot control outside variables like
those that typically occur in private settings.
3. Clinical Method - treats the subjects as unique individuals through giving freedom
to search answers to questions asked ensuring that the participant understands the
meaning of the questions asked. This method helps find out how children think.
4. Correlational Method - shows the direction and magnitude of a relationship
between variables, that is, they can tell whether two variables are related positively
or negatively and to what degree. However, it cannot determine cause and effect.
5. Longitudinal Method - observes the same individuals at different point in time like
the children of migrant workers whose development will be studied at yearly
intervals. This will allow the researcher to record and monitor developmental trends.

Disadvantages of Longitudinal Method

a. Practice Effect-when children are given the same test many times, they may
become ‘test wise”. Improvement over time that is attributed to development
may actually stem from practice with a particular test.
b. Selective Attrition- another problem is the constancy of the sample over the
course of research. Some children may drop out because they move away.
Others may simply lose interest and choose not to continue.
c. Cohort Effect- when children in a longitudinal study are observed over a
period of several years, the developmental change may be specific to that
particular generation.
d. This method is expensive and time consuming.
6. Cross-sectional method- Individuals of different ages are compared or tested at
the same time. It uses representative samples at two or more age levels on the
same measures. It allows the researcher to record and monitor developmental trend
and is more convenient to use than longitudinal method. However, it cannot provide
information about how individuals change or about the stability of their
characteristics.
7. Experimental method- The only true and reliable method of determining cause and
effect relationships. It involves manipulating variables to determine if changes in one
variable cause changes in another. Scientific experiments must be conducted and
reported in such a way that another investigator can replicate them to verify validity
of results and conclusions. It is limited to what is observable, testable and
manipulable. Use of human subjects may have number of external influences that
may dilute the results. Hawthorne effect may result if the subjects will change their
behavior or respond in a specific manner simply because of their awareness of
being observed.
8. Action research- a reflective process of progressive problem-solving led by
individuals working with others in teams or as part of a ‘community of practice” to
improve the way they address issues and solve problems. Appropriate in a setting
where changes are to be implemented and stakeholders are involved. Result is
specific to an organization, that is, it cannot be interpreted within different
organization.
Data Gathering Techniques
1. Interview and Questionnaire Method- allows the investigator to gather quick
information and to make direct comparison between data provided by different
participants. Data gathering may be done through a printed questionnaire, over the
phone, by mail, in person or on-line.
2. Life-History Records- consist of records of information about a lifetime chronology
of events and activities. They often involve combination of data records on
education, work, family and residence. Also includes public records or historical
documents or interviews with respondents.
3. Observation- can be made in either laboratories or materialistic settings.
4. Standardized tests- these are prepared tests that assess individuals’ performance
in different domains. Tests are administered in consistent manner.
5. Self-Reports- a special case of using tasks to measure children’s behavior. Are
simply children’s answers to questions about the topic of interest.
6. Physiological measures- certain indicators of children’s development such as heart
rate, bone growth, hormonal levels, body weight and brain activity.

Ethics in Lifespan Research

1. Protection from harm. Participants have the right to be protected from physical
or psychological harm in research.
2. Informed consent. All participants, including children and the elderly, have the
right to have explained to them, in language appropriate to their level of
understanding, all aspects of the research that may affect their willingness to
participate. When children are participants, informed consent of parents as well
 as of others who act on the child’s behalf (such as school officials) should be
obtained, preferably in writing.
3. Privacy. Participants have the right to concealment of their identity on all
information collected in the course of research. They also have this right with
respect to written reports and any informal discussions about the research.
4. Knowledge of results. Participants have the right to be informed of the results
of research in language that is appropriate to their level of understanding.
5. Beneficial treatments. If experimental treatments believed to be beneficial are
under investigation, participants in control groups have the right to alternative
beneficial treatments if they are available.
Sources: American Psychological Association, 2002; Canadian Psychological
Association, 2000; Society for Research in Child Development, 1993.
(http://catalogue.pearsoned.co.uk/samplechapter/0205491251.pdf)

III. PRACTICE
Research Connection
Surf the internet for samples of research abstracts/researches on child and
adolescent development. Select one research abstract then using the matrix
given below, write given below, write the problem, the research methodology, the
findings and conclusions.

Problem: Research Methodology:

Source: (bibliographical entry

format)
_

Findings: Conclusions:
IV. PERFORMANCE

RESEARCH METHODS AND DATA GATHERING TECHNIQUES

Read the situations below and be able to do as directed.

A. Tell the research method used in the following studies:

_1. An anthropologist wanted to find out the culture and the day-
to-day life of the tribal people. He lived in the place for more than a year to experience
their way of life.
_2. Teacher A wanted to find out which method in teaching
science is most effective. She selected 50 students as her subjects and grouped them
into two making sure that the two groups are of the same composition such as gender
and intellectual levels. The first group was introduced with cooperative learning while in
the second group, lecture method was used.
_3. The researcher conducted an investigation to find out the
behavior of children whose fathers are working abroad. The children’s behaviors were
observed every year from one year old to 15 years old.
_4. A researcher wanted to find out whether preschoolers are
capable of comprehending simple situations. Sample respondents from nursery school,
K1 and K2 were used to represent the population of preschoolers.
5. Teacher B made a study on the relationship between the
screening result of incoming first year students and their academic performance in the
first year of being university students.
6. A math teacher conducted a study to evaluate the
mathematical skills of 7-year old children and 10-year old children at the time of the
study. She then assesses the same children every 6 months for the next 5 years.

B. Tell the data gathering techniques used in the following situations:

1. Teacher C wanted to find out how K1 children actually
behave while the class is on progress. She entered the classroom pretending to be
looking for something while the teacher is presenting the lesson so that the children will
not become conscious that they are being observed.
 2. The Student Council of the campus conducted a study using
a questionnaire to get the consensus of the students on how the Acquaintance Party be
celebrated.
3. A group of teacher education students where gathering
information from the teachers who were in the service for a long time by asking them
questions on a one-on-one approach.
4. The entrants in the Teacher Education Program took the
Standardized Aptitude Test for Teachers (SATT) to determine whether they can face
the challenges in the teaching profession.
5. When one is angry doctors usually take the blood pressure,
heart beat and body temperature using medical instruments to determine bodily
changes associated with anger.
6. A psychologist wanted to do a research on the root cause
of the present behavior of his client by gathering information from the people who knew
his client better and through reviewing his client’s school records.

Click this link for your answers

https://drive.google.com/file/d/10-vb1L7r07_fkQd-
References:
lOGRGAGPVsJD3KZz/view?usp=sharing
Corpuz, B. B., et. al(2018).The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles.
Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

http://catalogue.pearsoned.co.uk/samplechapter/0205491251.pdf)
https://www.acsedu.co.uk/info/psychology-and-counselling/child-development/why-
study-child-development.aspx
 UNIT 5: BIOLOGICAL BEGINNINGS
Compiled by: PURITY V. MATA, Dev. Ed. D. - CTU Carmen Campus

INTRODUCTION

Throughout history, philosophers and scientists have been fascinated by the process of
creating a new human being. Given that we now have the ability to interfere in life at its inception, the
knowledge you will gain from this learning packet will help you make better judgments as a future
educator and, hopefully, as a parent. This unit covers the stages of prenatal development as well as
the dangers of prenatal development, such as teratogens. Finally, brain development from a
neuroscience standpoint is also discussed in this learning packet.

At the end of this learning packet, you are expected to:

1. Discuss the stages of prenatal development and the harmful effects of teratogens;
2. Demonstrate an awareness of the structure and function of the brain; and
3. Formulate evidence-based strategies to facilitate learning while in the womb and
learning in early childhood years.

PREPARATION
Learning Activity no. 1
Activating Prior Knowledge

Read each statement carefully then write 143 if the statement is true. If it is false, write 214.

1. There are three stages in the prenatal development.

2. After the egg is fertilized by the sperm, a single cell is created known as fetus.
3. Teratogens are substances that can cause physical or functional abnormalities in the human
embryo or fetus after the pregnant woman is exposed to the substance.
4. The brain has multiple sections that specialize in the same processes.
5. Neurons are information messengers that uses electrical impulses and chemical signals
to transmit information between different areas of the brain, and between the brain and the rest of
the nervous system.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 1
PRESENTATION

Prenatal development is the process that occurs during the 40 weeks prior to the birth of a
child, and is heavily influenced by genetics. There are three stages of prenatal development:
germinal, embryonic, and fetal. It is also organized into three equal trimesters, which do not
correspond with the three stages. The first trimester ends with the end of the embryonic stage, the
second trimester ends at week 20, and the third trimester ends at birth.

Let us take a look at these three stages of prenatal development through this video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RCPzQ70Bu1k (Running time 4:46) by Psychology Unlocked
(2020).

The video cites that there are three stages of prenatal development. The first stage is the
germinal stage which starts even before the mother-to-be knows that she is pregnant which lasts
two weeks from conception, the union of the sperm and the egg cells. This union results to a single
cell called the zygote. The zygote travels down the fallopian tube to the uterus, where it attaches itself
in the uterine wall. While travelling down the fallopian tube, it rapidly divides and multiplies, a process
called mitosis, which lead to the formation of different organs and body parts. When the zygote
attaches itself in the uterine wall, the placenta is formed. The placenta provides nourishment and
oxygen to the fetus. Mostly everything the mother ingests, including food, liquid, and even medication,
travels through the placenta to the fetus, hence the common phrase “eating for two.” Anything the
mother is exposed to in the environment affects the fetus; if the mother is exposed to something
harmful, the child can show life-long effects.

Every human cell’s nucleus contains 46 chromosomes, a threadlike figure made up of 23 pairs
wherein one member of each pair belongs respectively to the parent. Each chromosome contains an
extraordinary substance called the DNA or the Deoxyribonucleic acid. The genetic code or
information is eventually carried by this DNA. Genes serve as a relative reference or blueprint to other
cells to enable self-reproduction and to manufacture important proteins to sustain life. There are
several genetic principles that have been discovered such as the sex-linked genes, the dominant and
recessive genes, the inherited polygenically characteristics, canalization, and reaction range. The
sex-linked genes refer to the existence of two sex cells out of the 46 chromosomes in a human being
(“Biological Beginnings of Human, 2018).

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 2
 Discovered in 1920, the female has two X chromosomes while the male has an X and Y –
chromosomes. This will consequently determine the resulting sex of the new born. The dominant-
recessive genes principles described the relevant behavior of two genes; the dominant gene usually
overrides the recessive gene (“Biological Beginnings of Human, 2018).

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/prenatal-development/
ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 3
 As discussed in the video, the second stage is the embryonic stage that last from two weeks
to two months. In this stage more and more cells are formed for specialized purposes such as the
spinal cord which is critical for carrying reflexes and communications from the brain to the body and
vice versa. At this stage, the heart is already able to beat and the stomach can produce digestive
fluid. The embryo at this stage is particularly vulnerable to teratogens.

According to Tantibanchachai (2014), teratogens are substances that may produce physical or
functional defects in the human embryo after the pregnant woman is exposed to the substance. For
clarity of understanding, we will refer to the categorization of teratogens in the video. Commonly split
into the 3 D’s for Drugs, Diseases, and Diet. The most common threats to the embryo’s development
at this stage are drugs including alcohol and nicotine; diseases such as German measles which most
people are now vaccinated for, rubella virus, herpes simplex virus, syphilis; and diet specifically
malnutrition.

Why is it not safe to drink alcohol during pregnancy? In this article

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-psychology/chapter/stages-of-development/, it was cited
that alcohol is not safe to drink in any amount during pregnancy. Alcohol use during pregnancy has
been found to be the leading preventable cause of mental retardation in children in the United States
(Maier & West, 2001). Excessive maternal drinking while pregnant can cause fetal alcohol spectrum
disorders with life-long consequences for the child ranging in severity from minor to major. Physically,
children with FASD may have a small head size and abnormal facial features. Cognitively, these
children may have poor judgment, poor impulse control, higher rates of ADHD, learning issues, and
lower IQ scores. These developmental problems and delays persist into adulthood (Streissguth et al.,
2004). Based on studies conducted on animals, it also has been suggested that a mother’s alcohol
consumption during pregnancy may predispose her child to like alcohol (Youngentob et al., 2007).

According to the same article cited above, smoking is also considered a teratogen because
nicotine travels through the placenta to the fetus. When the mother smokes, the developing baby
experiences a reduction in blood oxygen levels. According to the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (2013), smoking while pregnant can result in premature birth, low-birth-weight infants,
stillbirth, and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).

The final stage of prenatal development is the fetal stage, lasting 7 months, this stage is the
longest by far of the three stages of prenatal development. It is this stage that a huge amount of
ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 4
physical

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 5
growth occurs: bones form, sensory organs develop. By the 28th week, all vital systems are operational
and capable of supporting independent life.

Fetal movements that can be watched using an ultrasound are signs of rapid brain
development. So what is going on inside the brain during this important period of prenatal
development? According to Cherry (2020), the brain and the central nervous system become more
responsive during the second trimester.

The central nervous system (CNS) is comprised of the brain and spinal cord. The CNS
receives sensory information from the nervous system and control the body’s responses. The CNS is
differentiated from the peripheral nervous system, which involves all of the nerves outside of the brain
and spinal cord that carry messages to the CNS.

The CNS has three main components: the brain, the spinal cord, and the neurons (or nerve
cells). The brain controls many of the body's functions including sensation, thought, movement,
awareness, and memory. The surface of the brain is known as the cerebral cortex. The surface of the
cortex appears bumpy thanks to the grooves and folds of the tissue. Each groove is known as a
sulcus, while each bump is known as a gyrus.

Let us take a break from reading and watch a video about brain development and function
through https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g6o-dwJiZ6k (Running Time 6:42) by Teacher’s Pet
(2018).

The video started by showing a video of a developing embryo. It stated that a neural tube is
formed then elongated to form the long length of the spinal cord and then enlarges and expands into
the brain at the cranial end. Our brain serves as the control center for our bodies. There are nerves
that are connected directly to the brain as well as the spinal cord which contain even more branching
nerves.

The largest part of the brain is known as the cerebrum and is responsible for complex
functions such as learning, memory, and emotions. In addition, the cerebrum is divided into two
hemispheres, a right hemisphere, and a left hemisphere. The brain's right hemisphere controls
movements on the body's left side, while the left hemisphere controls movements on the body's right
side.
ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 6
 Each hemisphere of the brain is then divided into four interconnected lobes:
 Frontal lobes are associated with motor function, memory, speech, language, problem solving,
judgement, impulse control, social and sexual behavior;
 Parietal lobes are major regions for processing sensations and perceptions, as well as language
processing;
 Occipital lobes are associated with visual processes; and
 Temporal lobes are responsible for processing auditory information

Beneath the cerebrum is a round structure that looks like a miniature brain called the cerebellum
– which coordinates unconscious functions including posture balance and body coordination.
Protecting from the base is the brainstem. Across section of the brain reveals unique shapes and
structures on the inside with key regions like the hypothalamus, medulla oblongata, pituitary gland,
and the deeply hidden, pineal gland.

The hypothalamus regulates hormones via the pituitary gland and regulates body temperature.
The pituitary gland releases hormones synthesized by the hypothalamus and hormones that regulate
many body functions. The pineal gland produces and regulates melatonin which is an important sleep
hormone. The medulla oblongata is responsible for regulating cardiovascular and respiratory
systems.

The video proceeds by giving an example of how the brain process information from when we
sense information through our eyes. Then came to a close with a description of the nucleus
accumbens, the brain's pleasure or reward region, which is found in both cerebral hemispheres.
Things like food and sex causes the release of dopamine, a neurotransmitter which causes feelings
of pleasure and satisfaction. Drugs like cocaine, heroin, and nicotine can also hijack this area by
triggering dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens.

Brain development does not stop once the fetus is born. The brain continues to develop and
change until adulthood, the first 8 years can build a foundation for future learning, health, and life
success. In addition to genes, how well a brain develops depends on many factors, such as proper
nutrition starting in pregnancy, exposure to toxins or infections, and the child’s experiences with other
people and the world. Nurturing care for the mind is critical for brain growth. Children grow and learn
best in a safe environment where they are protected from neglect and from extreme or chronic stress
with plenty of opportunities to play and explore (“Early Brain Development and Health”, 2021).
ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 7
 In a learning course entitled Play, learning and the brain, Perry and Poland (1997) reported on
the effects of sensory stimulation, or the lack of it, on early brain development. Using data form CT
scans, physical measurements and documentary sources they explored the brain development of a
group of neglected children. As an example of what can happen in an extreme case of sensory
deprivation they published the startling images shown below.

These images illustrate the negative impact of neglect on the developing brain. The CT scan
on the left is from a healthy three-year-old with an average head size. The image on the right is from
a three-year-old child following severe sensory-deprivation neglect in early childhood. The child’s
brain is significantly smaller than average and has abnormal development of the cortex and other
abnormalities suggesting under-development and mal-development of the brain.

Now, let us understand how we can facilitate brain development and why, by reading an article
about Brain Plasticity & Early Intervention: Neurons that fire together, wire together by Autism
Spectrum Therapies through this link: https://autismtherapies.com/2018/07/24/brain-plasticity/.

According to the article, learning is about connection. A baby is born with more than 85 billion
neurons in its brain. Neurons are nerve cells in the brain that transmit information between each other
through chemical and electrical signals via synapses thereby forming neural networks, a series
ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 8
of interconnected neurons. This is what is meant by “the wiring of the brain” and “neurons that fire
together, wire together”.

As an infant experiences something or learns something for the first time, a strong neural
connection is made. If this experience is repeated, the connection is reactivated and becomes
strengthened. If the experience is not repeated, connections are removed. In this way, the brain
“prunes” what is not necessary and consolidates the connections that are necessary. During infancy
and the first years of childhood, there is significant loss of neural pathways as the brain starts to
prune away what it doesn’t believe it will need to function. The earlier in a child’s development that we
create that first, correct learning experience the stronger those behaviors and skills are secured in the
brain.

Children with developmental delays often experience the wiring of neurons together in a
manner that is “unhelpful”, causing them to struggle with communication, social skills and other
activities. These “unhelpful” connections need to be changed, which adds to the challenge and takes
time. Technically, learning cannot be undone in the brain, but amazingly, with stimulation, the brain
has the ability to re- process new pathways and build circuits that are helpful and functional. The brain
has a remarkable capacity for change and adaptation, but timing is crucial. The earlier we create the
correct connections in a child’s brain, the stronger those behaviors and skills are secured in the brain.

Intervention is best during early childhood when there are 50 percent more connections
between neurons than exist in the adult brain. When a child reaches adolescence, another period of
pruning begins where the brain starts to cut back on these important brain connections, and neurons
that have not been used much. For children with all types of learning difficulties and developmental
disorders, this understanding of the brain’s plasticity is particularly relevant, because it
emphasizes why the correct type and intensity of early intervention is so critical. If we correctly
understand a child’s skill deficits and design a program that appropriately stimulates the neurons in
the targeted weakened areas of the brain, we can exercise and strengthen those areas of the brain to
develop language, social skills etc.

So how do you train a child’s brain? In order to change the brain’s wiring and make new neural
connections, a new skill needs to be practiced many times so Dr. Gordon recommends starting with
one, simple task and practicing it at least 10 times per day. Measure how long it takes for your child’s
behavior to change. This will help you determine your child’s rate of learning.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 9
 An example of a simple task would be teaching a child to follow a simple instruction using a
preferred item such as asking him to eat his favorite food. You can then move onto a more complex
activity such as requesting eye contact by saying “Look at me” and then something more complex
such as “touch the car” when playing with a toy car, for example. There are many opportunities
throughout the day during normal daily parenting activities (bathing, feeding, diapering, reading, etc.)
during which you can support your child’s development and train his brain to respond to people and
his environment.

One common question is what is possible with the brain after childhood? For many years,
science has told us that brain plasticity is at its peak during childhood. However, experts now believe
that under the correct circumstances, practicing a new skill can change hundreds of millions, if not
billions, of connections between nerve cells in the brain even into adulthood. It is never too late to
start. The most important thing to remember is that learning is what changes the brain and learning
takes practice. Every opportunity to teach a child is an opportunity to shape their brain and change
their future.

As the human brain prepares for adulthood, its development depends strongly on the learning
environment provided during adolescence. Now, let us take a look at an infographic from the Alliance
for Excellent Education through this link: https://mk0all4edorgjxiy8xf9.kinstacdn.com/wp-
content/uploads/2018/09/SAL-Infographic-pg1.pdf.

Before we end the discussion, let me ask you this: what have you learned from the infographic?

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 10
PRACTICE
Learning Activity no. 2
Students as Creators

Based on the discussion of this learning packet, create a multimedia presentation that you will
use to discuss about prenatal development including the harmful effects of teratogens and also about
the structures and functions of the brain. Below will be your topic assignment and the evaluation
criteria for your task.

Group assignment:
Group 1 – First Trimester Group 3 – Third Trimester
Group 2 – Second Trimester Group 4 – Structure and Function of the

Brain Evaluation Criteria:

5 3 1
1. Content Provides a comprehensive Includes an essential discussion Discussion is minimal and does
(40%) discussion of the topic reflecting of the topic. Subject knowledge not provide the reader with clarity.
that knowledge of the subject is appears to be good.
excellent.
2. Creativity
- Graphics All graphics are related to the Some of the graphics are related Graphics does not relate to the
(15%) topic and make it easier to to the topic but occasionally topic and serves as a distraction.
understand. detract from the presentation
content.
- Text Makes excellent use of font, Makes good use of font, color, Font, color, and size does not
(15%) color, and size to enhance the and size to enhance the enhance the presentation.
presentation. presentation.
3. Originality of Based from one’s own ideas. Adapted from someone else’s Copied from someone else’s
presentation work. work.
(30%)

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 11
PERFORMANCE
Assessment Task
Evidence-Based Strategies that Facilitate Learning

Individually, you will provide 5 strategies that is proven by research to facilitate learning while
in the womb and in early childhood years. Use the template below for you to be guided.

Article 1 – Lai, R. (2011). Wagner for the Womb.

https://www.wellesley.edu/sites/default/files/assets/departments/neuroscience/files/studentworks/lai_
wagner_for_the_womb_2011.pdf

Article 2 – Making connections: How children learn.

https://www.open.edu/openlearn/ocw/pluginfile.php/614081/mod_resource/content/1/e500_10_prim_
ey1_04t_3.pdf

While in the Womb Early Childhood

Strategies Evidences Strategies Evidences

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 12
REFERENCES

A. Online Sources

Alliance for Excellent Education. (2018, September). Adolescence is a critical window for learning
[Infographic]. Adolescence Is a Critical Window for Learning.
https://mk0all4edorgjxiy8xf9.kinstacdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/SAL-Infographic-
pg1.pdf

Biological Beginnings of Human. (2018, Aug 11). Retrieved from http://paperap.com/paper-on-

biological-beginnings/

Brain Plasticity & Early Intervention: “Neurons that fire together, wire together.” (2018, July 24).
Autism Spectrum Therapies. https://autismtherapies.com/2018/07/24/brain-plasticity/

Cherry, K. (2020, June 1). Stages of Prenatal Development. Verywell Mind.

https://www.verywellmind.com/stages-of-prenatal-development-2795073

Early Brain Development and Health. (2021, February 22). Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/childdevelopment/early-brain-development.html

Lai, R. (2011). Wagner for the Womb.

https://www.wellesley.edu/sites/default/files/assets/departments/neuroscience/files/studentwor
ks/lai_wagner_for_the_womb_2011.pdf

Making connections: How children learn (1997).

https://www.open.edu/openlearn/ocw/pluginfile.php/614081/mod_resource/content/1/e500_10_
prim_ey1_04t_3.pdf

Prenatal Development. (n.d.-b). Boundless Psychology. Retrieved September 13, 2021, from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/prenatal-development/

Psychology Unlocked. (2020, April 22). Three Stages of Prenatal Development - When does
Psychological Development start? [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RCPzQ70Bu1k

Stages of Development. (n.d.). [Illustration]. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-

psychology/chapter/prenatal-development/

Tantibanchachai, C. (2014). Teratogens. Embryo Project Encyclopedia. ISSN: 1940-5030.

http://embyo.asu.edu/handle/10776/7510.

Teacher’s Pet. (2018, September 11). Brain Development and Function [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g6o-dwJiZ6k

The Open University. (2020, April). An Example of the Effect of Sensory Deprivation on the Brain [CT
scan image]. Play, learning and brain. https://www.open.edu/openlearn/education/educational-
technology-and-practice/educational-practice/play-learning-and-the-brain/content-section- 0?
active-tab=description-tab

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 13
 UNIT 6: PHYSICAL AND MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS DURING
EACH STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT
Compiled by: CHRISTINE C. MABULAY, Dev. Ed. D. - CTU Daanbantayan Campus
ROLINA C. PARAN, Ph. D. - CTU Daanbantayan Campus

Introduction
As biological beings, young children grow at a rapid rate. Although physical development may
seem obvious, however, children cannot attend classroom tasks unless their physical needs
are met first. Meeting the needs of one part of the body - the brain - is especially important because
it regulates learning, behavior and other physical functions.

This unit presents the physical and motor development that children and adolescents
have gone through. It also identifies the factors that can disrupt physical growth and the principles of
motor skill learning for you to understand the brain development in children and adolescents; tell the
typical physical and motor development; identify the factors affecting physical and motor
development; point out how physical well-being impact student success; and suggest activities that
can promote the development of the physical and motor aspects of children and adolescents.

https://www.hellomotherhood.com/stages-of-physical-development-in-children-4471294.html

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 1
https://www.yourtherapysource.com/blog1/2020/04/26/gross-motor-skills-affect-academics/

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. Compare the physical and motor characteristics of children from infancy to

adolescence (CLO 1).
2. Describe how the concepts of physical and motor development can be applied in both
parenting and learning (CLO 2)
3. Identify teaching activities and materials appropriate for each group of learners (CLO 3)

PREPARATION
Physical development is a process associated with increase in structure and size and is
marked by the steady increase in height, weight and muscle mass while motor development is a
progressive change in movement behavior throughout the life cycle.

Physical and motor development provides children with the abilities they need to explore and
interact with the world around them. Physical development is influenced by genetics, size at birth,
nutrition, body build, birth order, temperament, social class, ethnicity, and culture.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 2
 (Adapted from Santrock J.W. Life-Span Development, 8th Edition, 2002)

1. What do you notice about the size of the head in relation to the other parts of the body as a
person grows older?
2. Does physical development begin from the top or below? from the side to the center?

Primary Requirements to Perform Complex Physical Tasks

1. Muscular strength
2. Muscular coordination and control
3. Perception

Developmental moments - those windows of time when parents or caregivers can see the ways in
which a young child is growing and developing new skills and abilities.

https://www.slideshare.net/maamjams/physical-and-motor-development-of-children-and-adolescent

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 3
PRESENTATION
Patterns of Physical Development

1. Normative Development - the typical capabilities of children of a given age within a given cultural
group; it indicates a typical range of what children can and cannot be expected to do and learn at a
given time; and it enables parents and teachers to understand what to expect of a child physically at
different ages

2. Dynamic Development - the sequence and changes that occur in all aspects of a child’s
functioning with the passage of time

Cephalocaudal Trend - is evident after birth when the neonate’s head is bigger than its body.
This continues few months after birth when infants are able to use their upper limbs first before their
lower limbs.

Proximodistal Trend - is evident before birth when the fetus body parts grow from the inside and
move outwards. After birth this can be observed when the child learns how to turn its body which is
an indication that the trunk has attained maturation and is followed by the maturation of muscular
control of the hands and fingers.

Basic Principles of Physical Development

1. Direction in Growth- the appropriate pattern of physical development

a) Large to small muscle development large muscles develop in the trunk, arms and legs before
the muscles in the fingers, hands and wrists
b) Top to bottom muscle development – muscles develop from head to toe
c) Inside to outside- muscles develop from the center of the body then toward the outside of the
body
2. General to Specific Growth- muscle growth begins with more general abilities and becomes more
specific and defined as children grow older
3. Differentiation and Integration in Growth- once the child’s body parts have differentiated; he can
integrate his movements and combine specific movements to perform more complex physical tasks
4. Variations in Growth- children differ in their physical abilities at different ages

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 4
5. Optimal Tendency in Growth- growth in children generally tries to fulfill its potential. If growth is
slowed for a particular reason, the body tries to catch up when it is able to do so.
6. Sequence in Growth- physical development is orderly and occurs in pattern
7. Critical Period in Growth- growth in certain areas of a child’s physical development may be more
important at particular times during childhood. The critical time for the development of motor skills is
between 18-60 months of age (1-5 yrs)
Source: https://www.virtuallabschool.org/infant-toddler/physical-development/lesson-2

Physical Growth Cycles

1. The first period of rapid physical growth or growth spurt goes from conception to 6 months old.
2. The rate of growth gradually slows during toddler and preschool period
3. The second period of rapid growth is during puberty of preadolescence and adolescence.
4. The period of leveling off occurs after puberty until adult growth is achieved.

Types of Physical Movement

1. Locomotor movement- movement of the body from place to place such as crawling, walking,
hopping, jumping, running, leaping and skipping
2. Non-locomotor movement- movement of the body while staying in one place such as pushing,
pulling, turning, wiggling, sitting and rising.
3. Manipulative movement- movement that involves controlled use of hands and feet such as
grasping, opening and closing hands, waving, throwing and catching.

Areas of Motor Development

1. Gross Motor Development- the child’s general ability to move around and use the various parts of
the body. Activities like rolling over, crawling, walking running and jumping are gross motor skills.
These skills usually involve using the entire body or several parts of the body at one time.
2. Fine Motor Development- the child’s ability to use his hands properly. The skills drawing, playing
puzzle and building towers are closely associated with fine motor skills. These skills require smaller
movement and more intricate capabilities.
Source: https://www.kflaph.ca/en/healthy-living/about-physical-activity.aspx

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 5
 Brain Development

1. Neural Development
Neurons are the basic units of the brain and the entire nervous system that receive and
transmit electrical and chemical impulses across many trillions of synapses. Some 100-200 billion of
neurons are already formed by the end of the second trimester of pregnancy, before the brain growth
spurt begins. The first stage of neural development is known as neurulation in which the neural tube
develops. This is usually completed by 3 to 4 weeks of gestation. It is followed by proliferation or
neurogenesis where several hundred thousand neurons are generated or formed each minute.

2. Cell Differentiation and Synaptogenesis

Neurons that are formed at the neural tube of the developing embryo will later migrate along
pathways laid down by a network of guiding cells to form major parts of the brain. The process is
known as migration. Most neurons are in their final location in the seventh month of gestation.
Influenced by the site where they migrate, they then assume specialized functions. Neurons during
this time increase in size, number of dendrites and axon terminals and number of synapses. This final
stage of neurogenesis is called differentiation. For example, if the neurons normally migrate to the
area of the brain that controls hearing it will differentiate to become an auditory neuron.

The process of synaptogenesis, that is the formation of synaptic connections among neurons,
is proceeding rapidly during the brain growth spurt. This brings about interesting facts about the
developing nervous system:
A. An average infant has far more neurons and neural connections than adults do.
B. About half the neurons produced early in life also die early in life (neural degeneration).
C. Surviving neurons form hundreds of synapses and many of them will disappear if the neuron is
not properly stimulated in the process called synaptic pruning.

This reflects the remarkable plasticity (capacity for change) of the young infant’s brain-the fact
that its cells are highly responsive to the effects of experience. Less stimulating environment then
would result to the decline in brain plasticity. This implies that the development of the brain early in
life is not due entirely to the unfolding of a maturational program but a result of both biological
program and early experience.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 6
 3. Role of Experience
Neurons that are not properly stimulated will degenerate- a dramatic illustration of the “use it
or lose it” principle. Therefore, exposing the individual to enriched environments that can provide
variety of stimulation can foster neural development of an immature, plastic brain. Children rose with
lots of companions and many toys to play with have brains that are heavier and display more
extensive networks of neural connections. And those that are raised in stimulating environments and
are moved to a less stimulating environment lose some of their complexity.

4. Brain Development and Growth

Not all parts of the brain develop at the same rate. At birth the most highly developed brain
areas are the lower brain centers or the sub-cortical region. It controls states of consciousness,
inborn reflexes and vital biological functions such as digestion, respiration and elimination.
Surrounding these structures are the cerebrum and the cerebral cortex that are directly implicated in
voluntary bodily movements, perception and higher intellectual activities such as learning, thinking
and production of language. The first areas of the cerebrum to mature are the primary motor areas,
which control simple motor activities such as waving the hands, and the primary sensory areas, which
control sensory processes such as vision, hearing, smelling and tasting. Thus, human neonates are
reflexive, sensory-motor beings because only the sensory and motor areas of the cortex are
functioning well. By 6 months the primary motor areas of the cerebral cortex have developed to the
point that they now direct the movement of the infant.

5. Myelinization
As brain cells proliferate and grow, some glial cells begin to produce a waxy substance called
myelin, which forms a sheath around individual neurons. This sheath acts as insulator that speeds
the transmission of impulses to the various parts of the body. Myelinization, the process in which the
axonin enclosed by myelin sheath, follows a definite chronological sequence that parallels the
maturation of the nervous system. At birth the pathways between the sense organs and the brain are
reasonable well myelinated, thus the neonate’s sensory equipment is in good working condition.
When neural pathways between the brain and the skeletal muscles myelinate in a cepalocaudal and
proximodistal pattern, the child becomes capable of increasingly complex motor activities such as
lifting the head and chest, reaching with arms and hands, rolling over, sitting, standing and eventually
walking and running. However, some of the brain areas are not completely myelinated until the mid to
late teens or early adulthood. For example, the reticular formation and frontal cortex- the brain parts

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 7
that allow us to concentrate for a lengthy periods, are not fully myelinated at puberty. This accounts
why children have short attention span than adolescents and adults.

6. Cerebral Lateralization
The cerebrum is the highest brain center. It is divided into two halves or hemispheres
connected by a band of fibers called corpus callosum. A cerebral cortex-an outer layer of gray matter
that controls sensory and motor processes, perception and intellectual functioning covers each of the
hemispheres. Though they are similar in appearance but they serve different functions and control
different areas of the body. The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body and contains
centers for speech, hearing, verbal memory, reasoning, computing, decision-making, language
processing and expression of positive emotions. On the other hand, the right cerebral hemisphere
controls the left side of the body and contains centers for processing visual spatial information, non-
linguistic sounds such as music, artistry, tactile sensations and expressing negative emotions. Thus
the brain is a laterized organ. Cerebral lateralization also involves a preference for using one hand
or one side of the body more than the other. Lateralization took place gradually throughout childhood
and was not complete until adolescence. Observe preschoolers and adolescents in their lateral
preferences in (1) picking up a crayon, (2) kicking a ball, (3) looking into a small transparent bottle, (4)
placing an ear to a box to hear a sound.
Source:https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK225562/

Brain Development at Adolescence

1. Myelinization of the higher brain centers continues at adolescents increasing their attention
spans and allowing them to process information more quickly.
2. The brain retains some of its plasticity well beyond puberty explaining their capability to
respond to the effects of their experiences.
3. Reorganizations of the neural circuitry of the prefrontal cortex, which is involved in higher-level
cognitive activities as strategic planning, continues until at least age 20.
4. Cognitive advances that teenagers display become possible only after brains undergo a
process of reorganization and fine tuning.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 8
A. Physical Development of Infants and Toddlers (https://www.pgpedia.com/p/physical-
development)

https://www.momjunction.com/articles/physical-development-in-babies_00453778/

Infants first learn to lift their heads and shoulders, then proceed gradually from rolling over to
creeping on their stomachs and finally crawling. As they begin to climb and support their weight in a
standing position, they develop the ability to walk. Fine motor skills for infants require eye-hand
coordination and the ability to grasp an object.

Toddlers can run, climb stairs, and begin to kick and throw balls, although they will have
difficulty catching balls. The fine motor skills become more sophisticated as they can scribble with
crayons, turn book pages, and stack blocks. The dominance of either their right or left hand usually
emerges at this stage.

Infant Reflexes (Corpus, et al. 2018)

1. Sucking reflex- is initiated when something touches the mouth of the child. Is strong in infants as it
is needed to suck a pacifier of the mother’s nipple.

2. Rooting Reflex - Infants turn its head to the direction where the cheek is stroked.

3. Gripping Reflex - Babies will grasp anything that is placed on their palms.

4. Curling Reflex - Infants curl their toes when the inner sole of the foot is stroked.

5. Startle of Moro Reflex - Infants threw their arms out when they hear sudden sounds

6. Galant Reflex - Infants curve their bodies toward the side of the spinal cord which is stroked.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 9
7. Tonic Neck Reflex – Is also known as the fencing position. This is demonstrated when babies’
head is turned to one side, the arm on that side stretches out and the opposite arm bends at the
elbow.

Basic Sensory and Perceptual Processes

1. Smell, Taste and Touch-Newborn are able to smell and can recognize their mother’s odor; they
also taste, preferring sweet substances and responding negatively to bitter and sour tastes.
Infants respond to touch, as observed from their responses to painful stimuli.
2. Hearing- Babies can hear, although they are less sensitive to higher-and lower-pitched sounds
than adults. They can distinguish sounds and use sound to locate objects in space.
3. Seeing – Visual acuity of neonates is poor, but at 1-year can see as adults with normal vision.
4. Integrating Sensory Information - Infants begin to integrate information from different sense
(e.g., sight and sound, sight and touch) Infants are often particularly attentive to information
presented redundantly to multiple senses.

Complex Perceptual and Attention Processes

1. Perceiving Objects-Infants use motion, color, texture and edges to distinguish object. By about 4
months, infants have begun to master size, brightness, shape and color constancy. Infants
perceived depth by means of retinal disparity and other cues such as texture gradient, relative
size and interposition.
2. Attention - this helps select information for further processing. Infants oriented to novel stimulus,
but as it becomes more familiar, they habituate, meaning that they respond less. Compared to
older children, preschoolers are less able to pay attention to a task. Older children are able to pay
attention because they have developed strategies for maintaining attention. Younger children’s
attention can be improved by getting rid of irrelevant stimuli.

Hand Skills of Infants and Toddlers

 Self-Feeding. At 8 months, most babies can hold feeding bottles after the nipples have been
placed in their mouths. At 9 months, they can put the bottle nipples in their mouths and take
them out without help. At twelve months they can drink from a cup when they hold it with both
hands and several months later they can drink from the cup using one hand.
 Self-dressing. At the end of the first year, most babies can pull off their socks, shoes, caps
and mittens. By the middle of the second year they will attempt to put on caps and mittens.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 10
  Self-grooming. Self-bathing is limited mainly to running a cloth or sponge over the face and
body. Before they are two, most babies try to brush their hair and teeth.

Play Skills of Toddlers

Babies learn to jump from an elevated position usually movements resembling walking. They
learn to climb stairs first by crawling and creeping. After they can walk alone, they go up and down
steps in an upright position, placing one foot on a step and then drawing the other foot up after it.
Very few babies are able to learn to ride tricycles at this age and then only when they are held on the
seat. They can learn by splashing with their arms and kicking their legs.

Types of Play
Play is considered a serious child’s business hence, an educational program for young
children inevitably emphasizes play, which for the child is the ideal way to explore, understand and
master his environment. Play must, therefore, be regarded as the essential tool for the child’s
expression, understanding and integration.

The pioneering developmental psychologist Lev Vygotsky thought that, in the preschool
years, play is the leading source of development. Through play children learn and practice many
basic social skills. They develop a sense of self, learn to interact with other children, how to make
friends, how to lie and how to role-play.

The classic study of how play develops in children was carried out by Mildred Parten in the
late 1920s at the Institute of Child Development in Minnesota. She closely observed children between
the ages of 2 and 5 years and categorized their play into six types. Parten collected data by
systematically sampling the children's behavior. She observed them for pre-arranged 1 minute
periods which were varied systematically. The thing to notice is that the first four categories of play
don't involve much interaction with others, while the last two do. While children shift between the
types of play, what Parten noticed was that as they grew up, children participated less in the first four
types and more in the last two - those which involved greater interaction.
(http://www.spring.org.uk/2008/07/6-types-of-play-how-we-learn-to-work.php )

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 11
1. Unoccupied play- the child is relatively stationary and appears to be performing random
movements with no apparent purpose.
2. Solitary play-the child is completely engrossed in playing and does not seem to notice other
children. Seen in children between 2 and 3 years-old.
3. Onlooker play- child takes an interest in other children's play but does not join in. May ask
questions or just talk to other children, but the main activity is simply to watch.
4. Parallel play- the child mimics other children's play but does not actively engage with them.
5. Associative play- now more interested in each other than the toys they are using. This is the first
category that involves strong social interaction between the children while they play.
6. Cooperative play- requires organization for a purpose like when in children the playing has some
goal and children often adopt roles and act as a group.

B. Physical Development of Preschoolers (Early Childhood)

https://slideplayer.com/slide/16165839/

Preschool years is from the period 3-5 years; it covers the years before the child enters formal
schooling and it is significant in the development of the child as this provides the foundation to later
development.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 12
Significant Facts about Physical Development at Preschool Years (Corpus, 2018)

1. Significant changes in physical development are evident at this stage of development.

2. Physical development is marked by the acquisition of gross and motor skills.
3. Children can already express themselves artistically.
4. Children need to be provided with proper nutrition and right amount of sleep.
5. Support from caregivers is required to maximize their growth process.
6. In inclusive classrooms with children with special needs, appropriate adaptations in the classroom
such as materials and activities should be made.

Preschoolers can hop, jump over objects, catch and throw balls more precisely.
Developing more delicate fine motor skills is a challenge that requires patience, which preschoolers
have in short supply. Their central nervous system is still in the process of maturing to sufficiently
relay complex messages from the brain to their fingers(https://www.pgpedia.com/p/physical-
development).

As to their gross motor skills, children who are 3 to 4 years old can climb up stairs using a
method of bringing both feet together on each step before proceeding to the next step (in
contrast, adults place one foot on each step in sequence). However, young children may still need
some "back-up" assistance to prevent falls in case they become unsteady in this new skill. Children of
this age will also be stumped when it's time to go back down the stairs; they tend to turn around and
scoot down the stairs backwards. 3 to 4 year olds can jump and hop higher as their leg muscles grow
stronger. Many can even hop on one foot for short periods of time.

Also at this age (3 to 4 years), children develop better upper body mobility . As a result,
their catching and throwing abilities improve in speed and accuracy. In addition, they can typically hit
a stationary ball from a tee with a bat. As whole body coordination improves, children of this age can
now peddle and steer a tricycle. They can also kick a larger ball placed directly in front of their bodies.

By ages 4 to 5, children can go up and down the stairs alone in the adult fashion (i.e.,
taking one step at a time). Their running continues to smooth out and increase in speed. Children of
this age can also skip and add spin to their throws. They also have more control when riding their
tricycles (or bicycles), and can drive them faster (https://www.gracepointwellness.org).

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 13
 In terms of their motor skills, by ages 2 to 3 years, children can create things with their
hands. They can build towers out of blocks, mold clay into rough shapes, and scribble with a crayon
or pen. Children of this age can also insert objects into matching spaces, such as placing round pegs
into round holes. 2 to 3 year-olds often begin showing a preference for using one hand more often
than the other, which is the beginning of becoming left or right-handed.

Around ages 3 to 4 years, children start to manipulate clothing fasteners, like zippers and
snaps, and continue to gain independence in dressing and undressing themselves . Before they
enter school, most children will gain the ability to completely dress and undress themselves (even
though they may take a long time to finish the task). At this age, children can also begin using
scissors to cut paper. Caregivers should be sure to give children blunt, round-edged "kid" scissors for
safety reasons!

Three to 4 year- olds continue to refine their eating skills and can use utensils like forks
and spoons. Young children at this age can also use larger writing instruments, like fat crayons, in a
writing hold rather than just grasping them with their fist. They can also use a twisting motion with
their hands, useful for opening door knobs or twisting lids off containers. Because children can now
open containers with lids, caregivers should make certain that harmful substances such as cleaners
and medications are stored out of reach in a locked area to prevent accidental poisonings.

During ages 4 to 5 years, children continue to refine fine motor skills and build upon
earlier skills. For instance, they can now button and unbutton their clothes by themselves. Their
artistic skills improve, and they can draw simple stick figures and copy shapes such as circles,
squares, and large letters. Drawing more complex shapes, however, may take longer.

C. Physical Development of Primary Schoolers (Middle Childhood)

https://www.dirolep.com/product/diversified-
education.html

According to Corpuz, et al. (2018),

middle childhood is the stage when children
begin their elementary school grades
(Grades 1-3) where their physical growth is
slow and steady. Also, during this stage
they attain good muscle control, develop eye-hand coordination, acquire good personal
ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 14
hygiene and develop awareness of good safety habits. Children at this period are extremely
active.Hence, they should not be provided with sedentary activities or made to sit still for the entire
day. Instead, they should be provided with activities that will enable them to use up their excess
energies. If not, they will most likely display nervous habits such as fidgeting, nail biting and pencil
chewing. Since they easily get bored and exhausted, children’s activities should be alternated
between strenuous and relaxing.

An average increase in height (for both boys and girls) of two inches will enable them to
do different activities with greater accuracy. An average weight gain of 6.5 pounds per year will
also be observed at this period. They have slimmer appearance compared to their preschool years as
there is a shift in accumulation and location of their body fat, although girls tend to develop additional
fat cells relative to muscle cells. A child’s legs are longer and more proportioned to the body than
before.

Childhood years is considered as the peak of their bone formation in which the bones
grow longer and broader. Parents and teachers must therefore provide them with physical
exercises and good dietary habits that will promote healthy and strong bones. Calcium is important in
the development of their bones as their bones have more water and protein like-materials and less
minerals. Bone and muscle growth is not also completed at this period. Their baby teeth will also be
replaced with permanent teeth.

Large muscle control is better developed than the fine motor. Because of this, some may
encounter difficulty in holding a pencil or coloring inside the lines. Thus, writing time must be limited to
avoid the development of negative attitude towards writing. Moreover, children should not be
engaged in physical activities that use too much pressure as this may hamper the growth of
muscles, bones and ligaments. Teachers who may test child’s strength through strenuous activities
may provide more coordinated physical activities/competitions or rotate players during games.

Because children’s motor skills have already developed, they are now capable of
performing various activities such a catching ball using one hand, tying shoelaces, managing to zip
and button shirts or shorts, skip, hop, jump, tumble, roll and dance.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 15
 At this stage children are able to:

1. gain control over their major muscles;

2. have a good sense of balance;

3. enjoy doing real life tasks;

4. less pretend and fantasize;

5. perform unimanual (use one hand) and bimanual (use two hands);

6. develop graphic activities (writing and drawing);

7. print names and copy simple designs, letters and shapes;and

8. hold pencils, crayons, utensils correctly with supervision;

Different Motor Skills

1. Coordination - series of movements organized and timed to occur in a particular way to bring
about a particular result. It is required in complex movement.
2. Balance – ability to maintain equilibrium or stability of the body in different positions.
 Static balance – maintaining equilibrium in a fixed position like when standing in one foot.
 Dynamic balance – maintaining equilibrium while moving
3. Speed – ability to cover a great distance in the shortest possible time
4. Power – ability to perform a maximum effort in the shortest possible period. Large scale body
movements are vital at this period. Males develop their motor skills slightly faster than girls except in
balance and precise movements.

Factors Affecting Physical Development

1. Obesity- Prevalence of overweight children from 5-10 years old has already increased from 5.8
% in 2003 to 9.1 % in 2013. This factor is linked to several health-related issues such as diabetes and
cardiovascular diseases later in life.

2. Childhood Nutrition - adequate nutrition is vital for the continuous development of the various
body parts. The fuel for growth comes from the foods children eat and the liquids they drink. In the
Philippines, poverty is the primary reason for malnutrition among school-aged children. To address
this problem, schools are already implementing the school-based feeding program.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 16
 3. Sleep - Children at this stage are required to go to bed earlier and take 9 to 11 hours of sleep
since they do not have midday naps or siesta in school. Inadequate sleep may lead to some
behavioral problems such as mood swings, hyperactivity, cognitive problems and ability to
concentrate which may affect their school performance.

Implications to Education and Parenting

1. Encourage children to join in summer activity or sport that interest them.
2. Advocate for healthy school food products.
3. Provide a balance between rigorous and quiet classroom activities
4. Create an exercise plan for the children.
5. Maintain a daily sleep schedule and bedtime routine.
6. Make children’s bedroom conducive for sound and peaceful sleep.

D. Physical Development of Intermediate Schoolers (Late Childhood)

https://encryptedtbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:
ANd9GcTePKIRjw2svp4pypzULsRm96vlFZ3oh
Yrn1A&usqp=CAU

According to Corpuz, et al (2018),

late childhood is the preteens stage as this
covers the ages 9 to 12 years of age.
Physical changes during this stage are
fairly unpredictable, steady and gradual.
Increased familiarity in school works and other school tasks and activities enable them to
enhance their motor skills. They have more control over their bodies and are becoming more
active. They have more liberty to choose the sports or hobbies they like. They always seem to
be in a hurry as they get busy in school work, interacting with friends, exploring other possibilities.
They may also enter the stage of puberty where they experience physical changes and
becomes sexually mature. They may become conscious about their physical appearance. Girls
become conscious about their weight and eat less while boys become conscious of their
stature and muscle size and strength. This can also bring insecurities to the children thus parents
and teachers must provide appropriate activities to guide them into the right direction. These may
include activities that will promote healthy growth, provide a feeling of accomplishment or reduce the
risk of certain diseases.
ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 17
 When it comes to their motor skills, their muscle and bone movements are now becoming
more coordinated. By 10 or 11 years, they will be learning to play sports such as swimming,
basketball, volleyball and running. These skills become their source of pleasure and great
achievement. However, boys tend to be more nimble or skillful than girls when it comes to
large muscles activities. However, they are not yet fully physically mature. They become
overwhelmed or exhausted when made to sit or stand for too long than when they will be made to
run, jump or play actively. This is because they need more time to refine their skills hence, they prefer
active than passive movements.

As to their motor skills, they now show greater coordination in writing. The font size of
the letters becomes smaller and more even. They produce good quality crafts or have greater control
in playing instruments like piano and guitar where girls surpass the boys.

Implications to Education and Parenting

1. Provide ample opportunities for physical exercise and sports in the home and school.
2. Encourage children to participate in varied worthwhile activities until they are able to discover the
ones they are interested in.
3. Develop a strong emotional attachment with the children to address their insecurities and social
concerns.
4. Provide them with healthier food choices as they have now more control in eating.

E. Physical Development of High School Learners (Adolescence)

https://howtoadult.com/physical-characteristics-high-
school-students-8157910.html

Adolescence is the period of transition between

childhood and adulthood. Children who are entering
adolescence are going through many changes
(physical, intellectual, personality and social
developmental). Adolescence begins at puberty,
which now occurs earlier, on average, than in the
past. The typical age range is from 12 to 18 years.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 18
Three Main Physical Changes That Come With Adolescence
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/7060-adolescent-development

1. The growth spurt (an early sign of maturation)

2. Primary sex characteristics (changes in the organs directly related to reproduction)

3.Secondary sex characteristics (bodily signs of sexual maturity that do not directly involve
reproductive organs)

Physical Changes During Adolescence

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/adolescence/

Puberty is the period of several years in which rapid physical growth and psychological
changes occur, culminating in sexual maturity. The onset of puberty typically occurs at age 10 or
11 for females and at age 11 or 12 for males; females usually complete puberty by ages 15 to 17,
while males usually finish around ages 16 to 17. Females tend to attain reproductive maturity about
four years after the first physical changes of puberty appear. Males, however, accelerate more slowly
but continue to grow for about six years after the first visible pubertal changes. While the sequence of
physical changes in puberty is predictable, the onset and pace of puberty vary widely. Every person’s
individual timetable for puberty is different and is primarily influenced by heredity; however
environmental factors—such as diet and exercise—also exert some influence.

The adolescent growth spurt is a rapid increase in an individual’s height and weight
during puberty resulting from the simultaneous release of growth hormones, thyroid
hormones, and androgens. Males experience their growth spurt about two years later than
females. The accelerated growth in different body parts happens at different times, but for all
adolescents it has a fairly regular sequence. The first places to grow are the extremities (head,
hands, and feet), followed by the arms and legs, and later the torso and shoulders. This non-uniform
growth is one reason why an adolescent body may seem out of proportion. During puberty, bones
become harder and more brittle.

Before puberty, there are nearly no differences between males and females in the distribution
of fat and muscle. During puberty, males grow muscle much faster than females, and females
experience a higher increase in body fat. The ratio between muscle and fat in post-pubertal males
is around 1:3, while for males it is about 5:4. An adolescent’s heart and lungs increase in both size

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 19
and capacity during puberty; these changes contribute to increased strength and tolerance for
exercise.

Principles of Learning Motor Skills

https://web.uvic.ca/~thopper/WEB/archive247/term2/week3/principleslearning.htm
1. Principle of Interest - A student's attitude toward learning a skill determines for the most part the
amount and kind of learning that takes place.
2. Principle of Practice - Practicing the motor skill correctly is essential for learning to take place.
3. Principle of Distributed Practice - In general short periods of intense practice will result in more
learning than longer, massed practice sessions.
4. Principle of Skill Specificity - A student's ability to perform one motor skill effectively is
independent of his/her ability to perform other motor skills.
5. Principle of Whole-Part Learning - The complexity of the skill to be learned and the leaner's
ability determine whether it is more efficient to teach the whole skill or break the skill into component
parts.
6. Principle of Transfer- The more identical two tasks are the greater the possibility that positive
transfer will occur. Practice conditions should match the conditions in which the motor skill is going to
be used.
7. Principle of Skill Improvement - The development of motor skills progresses along a continuum
from least mature to most mature. The rate of progression and the amount of progress within an
individual depends upon the interaction of nature and nurture.
8. Principle of Feedback - internal and external sources of information about motor performance is
essential for learning to take place.
9. Principle of Variable Practice - Block practice aids in performance while variable practice aids in
learning. Variable practice causes an increase in attention

There are 3 types of motor learning:

Blocked practice is a method in which the participant will work on the same task/technique in
one session and will repeat this over and over again and this is performed until the player has
undertaken a predetermined level of competence. It is typical of some drills in which a skill is
repeated over and over, with minimal interruption by other activities.

Variable practice is a type of learning technique which involves variations of the same skill
being performed. This type of practice is similar to blocked, however, the player can perform various

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 20
versions of the same skill. This practice is a practice sequence in which the same tasks or
movements are repeated but where one aspect of the execution is changed from one repetition to
another.

Random practice is very different to blocked and variable as this type allows the player to
perform one type of task and then move onto the next straight way. There are multiple skills
incorporated into this type of practice and allows the performer to work on many different aspects of a
sport rather than just working on one specific activity such as dribbling in football.

PRACTICE
Learning Activity no. 1
Comprehension Check

A. Read each item carefully and choose your answer from the given options.
1. The cephaocaudal growth pattern shows
A. Development of the upper limbs before the lower limbs
B. Development of the lower limbs before the upper limbs.
C. Simultaneous development of the upper and lower limbs
D. Development of muscular control of trunk and arms before the fingers.

2. Which factor according to research can impede the physical development of infants and
toddlers?
A. Depressed environment C. Early brain stimulation
B. Early brain stimulation D. Being a member of a big family

3. Why does a primary school-aged child look slimmer than a pre-school child?
A. Because the location and accumulation of body fats shift
B. Because they have less muscle tissues
C. Because their bones are leaner
D. Because their appetite is poor.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 21
 4. What is the general physical characteristic of a primary-school child?
A. Prefers to sit than play
B. Starts to walk and sit without being supported
C. Has difficulty balancing and often falls down
D. Are extremely active

5. What can teachers do when children get teased for their physical appearance?
A. Teach the child being teased to fight back.
B. Let the teasing slide and continue with the class activity
C. Have a private talk with the offending student and figure out why he is teasing.
D. Bring the offending student to the guidance counselor

B. In the Philippines as in other countries, problems exist such as teenage pregnancy, abortion, early
marriage, and child trafficking. Major pubertal and biological changes during adolescence call for
social management at home, the school and society.

Write a personal journal on your experiences as an adolescent and how you were able to
overcome issues related to the period, such as self-esteem, body image, boy-girl romantic
relationship, etc.

Individual Informal Essay Rubric

40 30 20 10

Features Expert Accomplished Capable Beginner

Quality of Piece was written in Piece was written in Piece had little style Piece had no style
Writing an extraordinary an interesting style or voice or voice
style and voice and voice
Gives some new Gives no new
Very informative Somewhat information but information and very
and well-organized informative and poorly organized poorly organized
organized
Grammar, Virtually no spelling, Few spelling and A number of So many spelling,
Usage & punctuation or punctuation errors, spelling, punctuation punctuation and
Mechanics grammatical errors minor grammatical or grammatical grammatical errors
errors errors that it interferes with
the meaning

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 22
PERFORMANCE
Assessment Task
Poster Presentation

1. Make your own photo essay about the physical development of preschoolers. Observe
preschoolers in action and take their pictures. Describe the gross and fine motor skills that you saw
them do.

Photo Essay Grading Rubric

Invention: Each picture clearly speaks to the topic, and the caption supports this meaning (brings it
out). There are no pictures that seem irrelevant to the topic, or that don’t belong. Your intro sets up
the essay in an interesting and compelling, yet neutral way. Strong essays make me see things in a
new light, surprise me, contain detail-oriented as well global points of view, are thoughtful and, above
all, personal. They are able to communicate this personal vision well to a general audience.
Arrangement: This category evaluates the coherence and cohesiveness of your story. Do the photos
on the whole, taken together, tell a story that feels complete? Does each picture connect, stylistically
as well as content wise, with the picture before it and after it? Does your storyboard explain or make
obvious these connections?

Style/mechanics: Is there is an overarching style that connects your pictures? Are your captions well
written, evocative, grammatically correct? Are your photos thoughtfully composed and designed? Did
you use the software of your choice well to achieve a polished, professional, aesthetically pleasing
essay?

2. Using a short bond paper, paste a picture of yourself when you were an early-school age
child (around Grade 1 to 3). Write a description on the given areas.

Height

Weight

Body Shape

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 23
 Activities you
could do

a. Based on the observations you have made, what can you conclude are the
general physical characteristics of children in their primary school years?

b. What do you think are the necessary skills that will help them to be physically ready for
primary schooling?

REFERENCES
Books:

Corpuz,Brenda(2018). The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles. Lorimar
Publishing Inc.
Santrock J.W. Life-Span Development, 8th Edition, 2002.

Online Readings:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/adolescence/
https://encryptedtbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTePKIRjw2svp4pypzULsRm96vlFZ3o
hYrn1A&usqp=CAU
https://www.dirolep.com/product/diversified-education.html
https://encryptedtbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTePKIRjw2svp4pypzULsRm96vlFZ3ohYrn1
A&usqp=CAU
https://www.hellomotherhood.com/stages-of-physical-development-in-children-4471294.html
https://www.kflaph.ca/en/healthy-living/about-physical-activity.aspx
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/7060-adolescent-development
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK225562/
https://www.pgpedia.com/p/physical-development
https://www.slideshare.net/maamjams/physical-and-motor-development-of-children-and-adolescent

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 24
https://www.virtuallabschool.org/infant-toddler/physical-development/lesson-2
https://www.yourtherapysource.com/blog1/2020/04/26/gross-motor-skills-affect-academics/

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 25
 UNIT 7: THEORIES ON DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONE AND
ECOLOGIAL SYSTEM THEORY
Compiled by: CHRISTINE C. MABULAY, Dev.Ed.D. CTU-Daanbantayan Campus

and ROLINA C. PARAN, Ph. D. - CTU Daanbantayan Campus

Introduction

https://study.com/cimages/videopreview/videopreview-full/arnold-gesell-biography-and-theory-of-child-
development_177761.jpg

Prior to the early twentieth century, scientific observations of children were not
common. Arnold Gesell was one of the first psychologists to systematically describe children’s
physical, social, and emotional achievements through a quantitative study of human development
from birth through adolescence.

He focused his research on the extensive study of a small number of children. He began with
pre-school children and later extended his work to ages 5 to 10 and 10 to 16. From his findings,
Gesell concluded that mental and physical development in infants, children, and adolescents are
comparable and parallel orderly processes.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 1
 The results of his research were utilized in creating the Gesell Development Schedules,
which can be used with children between four weeks and six years of age. The test measures
responses to standardized materials and situations both qualitatively and
quantitatively.https://study.com/academy/lesson/arnold-gesell-biography-theory-of-child-development.html

Gesell’s observations of children allowed him to describe developmental milestones in ten

major areas: motor characteristics, personal hygiene, emotional expression, fears and
dreams, self and sex, interpersonal relations, play and pastimes, school life, ethical sense,
and philosophic outlook. His training in physiology and his focus on developmental milestones led
Gesell to be a strong proponent of the “maturational” perspective of child development.
https://schoolworkhelper.net/growth-and-development-theory-arnold-gesell-1880-1961/

Otherwise known as the Human Ecology Theory, the Ecological Systems theory states that
human development is influenced by the different types of environmental systems.

https://www.google.com/search?q=Urie+Bronfenbrenner&sxsrf

Formulated by famous psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner, this theory helps us understand

why we may behave differently when we compare our behavior in the presence of our family and our
behavior when we are in school or at work.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 2
 This theory, published in 1979, has influenced many psychologists in terms of the manner of
analyzing the person and the effects of different environmental systems that he encounters. The
ecological systems theory has since become an important theory that became a foundation of other
theorists' work.(Corpus, 2018).

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. Compare the physical and motor characteristics of children from infancy to
adolescence (CLO 1).
2. Describe how the concepts of physical and motor development can be applied in both
parenting and learning (CLO 2)
3. Identify teaching activities and materials appropriate for each group of learners (CLO 3)

PREPARATION
The term child development theory refers to the ideas of early pioneers in the field about
children and their growth, including their cognitive, emotional and physical development. Much of the
work of these physicians, psychologists and other scientists still influences our educational, physical
and psychological approach to young people today, like B.F. Skinner's work with psychological
conditioning. Let's take a look at Arnold Gesell's work.

What is an example of a developmental theory?

In general, developmental theories view development as progress from simple to more
complex understandings of the self and the world over time. ... For example, prior to achieving
"object permanency", babies do not understand that objects (toys, people) continue to exist even
when out of sight.

What is the main idea of Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory?

Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory focuses on the quality and context of the
child's environment. He states that as a child develops, the interaction within these environments
becomes more complex. This complexity can arise as the child's physical and cognitive structures
grow and mature.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 3
PRESENTATION

Who Is Arnold Gesell?https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/maturational-theory

Arnold Gesell was born on June 21, 1880 in Alma, Wisconsin. He became interested in child
development while attending Clark University in Worcester, MA, and studying under professor G.
Stanley Hall, an early psychologist. Gesell received his doctorate from Clark in 1906, then went on to
study at the Yale Psycho-Clinic in New Haven, CT. He later received a Doctor of Medicine (M.D.)
from Yale in 1915, an education he used to study his passion, child development.

Gesell's theory is known as a maturational-developmental theory. ... Gesell observed and

documented patterns in the way children develop, showing that all children go through similar and
predictable sequences, though each child moves through these sequences at his or her own rate or
pace.
In the early 20th century clinical psychologist and pediatrician Arnold Gesell developed a theory of
child development, based on observations of children who followed both normal and exceptional
patterns of behavior. He made observations from birth to adulthood. This research influenced what
we know about developmental milestones.
Key Principles of Gesell's Maturation Theory:
 Children develop through similar and predictable sequences. However, Gesell noticed that
they did so at their own pace, and suggested this development starts to occur before the child’s birth.
 The pace that the individual develops through the sequences is influenced by internal factors,
such as physical and mental development and genetics.
 He disagreed with theorists who suggested that development was solely down
to environmental factors.
 If a child experienced delayed development that, according to Gesell, would be due to
heredity.
 A child should only be taught to complete tasks when they are physically and mentally ready to
do so. Teaching a child to do something that is in advance of their developmental age would do them
more harm.
Application of Gesell's Maturation Theory: https://www.tutor2u.net/hsc/topics/gesells-
maturation-theory
Children display a range of behavior in cycles.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 4
 18 months to 4 ½ years: The child experiences temper tantrums. They do become more easy- going, but en
5 to 8 years: The child becomes more confident in who they are and can make friends. According to the theo
9 to 17 years: The child displays many worries and anxieties during the odd numbered years, but during the
Criticisms of Gesell's Maturation Theory:
Psychologists, such as Piaget, argue that the child is influenced more by the environment they live in.
More recent research has suggested that Gesell’s milestones are incorrect. We now know that babies can fo
Gesell only used white, middle class parents and their children in his sample.

Gesell Theory
Gesell’s theory is known as a maturational-developmental theory. It is the foundation of nearly
every other theory of human development after Gesell. Early in the 20th century, Dr. Gesell observed
and documented patterns in the way children develop, showing that all children go through similar
and predictable sequences, though each child moves through these sequences at his or her own rate
or pace.
This process is comprised of both internal and external factors. The intrinsic factors include
genetics, temperament, personality, learning styles, as well as physical and mental
growth. Simultaneously, development is also influenced by factors such as environment, family
background, parenting styles, cultural influences, health conditions, and early experiences with peers
and adults. Gesell was the first theorist to systematically study the stages of development, and the
first researcher to demonstrate that a child’s developmental age (or stage of development) may be
different from his or her chronological age.

The Cyclical Spiral https://www.coursehero.com/file/30218114/Gesells-maturation-theorypptx/

Gesell emphasized that growth always progresses in a pattern through predictable stages or
sequences. Sequential development begins within the embryo and continues after birth. While an
individual progresses through these stages at his or her own pace, the sequence remains the
same. According to Gesell, growth can be thought of as a cyclical spiral. Each cycle of the spiral
encompassing the time it takes to move through six stages, or half-year increments. Notice that the
time to complete a cycle of the six stages is quite rapid in early life and slows down with

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 5
age. Gesell’s cycles of development are divided into six well-defined stages which are repeated
throughout life. One cycle includes the following stages: Smooth, Break-Up, Sorting Out, Inwardizing,
Expansion, and Neurotic “Fitting Together”. See figure below of the cycles of development.

https://study.com/cimages/videopreview/videopreview-full/arnold-gesell-biography-and-theory-of-child-
development_177761.jpg

Gesell’s research established normative trends for four areas of growth and development, namely
(1) Motor, (2) Adaptive (Cognitive), (3) Language, and (4) Personal-Social behavior. Originally
published as the Gesell Developmental Schedules in 1925, these developmental schedules, most
recently updated in 2010, continue to serve and guide pediatricians and psychologists throughout the
world today.

American psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner was critical of previous theories of child

development. He argued that studies of children in unfamiliar laboratory environments with one other
person, usually a stranger, were ecologically invalid (See Mary Ainsworth’s 1970 experiment of the
‘Strange Situation’).

Bronfenbrenner (1974) claimed most earlier studies were ‘unidirectional’, meaning that the
laboratory studies observed the influence of A on B (e.g. a stranger/mother with a child), rather than
looking at the possible influence of the child on the stranger/mother, or any other third parties
influence.https://www.simplypsychology.org/Bronfenbrenner.html

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 6
 Bronfenbrenner maintained that these laboratory features of research are not characteristic of
environments that children actually live and develop in.

Bronfenbrenner recognized there are multiple aspects of a developing child’s life that interacts
with and affects the child. His work looked beyond individual development, taking into account wider
influencing factors and the context (or ecology) of development. He proposed the ‘Ecological Systems
Theory’ based on these dynamic interactions that the environments have on the developing child.

Bronfenbrenner’s (1974) perspective has some resemblance to the works of Albert Bandua’s
social learning theory and Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory in which the environment is explicitly or
implicitly considered as a crucial mechanism in development.

Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory views child development as a complex system

of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment, from immediate settings of
family and school to broad cultural values, laws, and customs.

To study a child's development then, we must look not only at the child and her immediate
environment, but also at the interaction of the larger environment as well.

Bronfenbrenner divided the person's environment into five different systems: the microsystem,
the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macrosystem, and the chronosystemm.

The microsystem is the most influential level of the ecological systems theory. This is the most
immediate environmental settings containing the developing child, such as family and
school.Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory has implications for educational practice.

Bronfenbrenner’s (1974) perspective has some resemblance to the works of Albert Bandura’s
social learning theory and Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory in which the environment is explicitly or
implicitly considered as a crucial mechanism in development.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioecological_model

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 7
 Bronfenbrenner (1977) suggested that the environment of the child is a nested arrangement of
structures, each contained within the next. He organized them in order of how much of an impact they
have on a child.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioecological_model. He named these structures the
microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and the chronosystem. Because the five
systems are interrelated, the influence of one system on a child’s development depends on its
relationship with the others.

Urie Bronfenbrenner's theory on how the social environment affects human development has
had a far-reaching impact on psychological research. His theory isn't perfect, but it’s one of the best
explanations we have on the subject. Keep reading to learn about why this theory is so important.

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory is one of the most accepted explanations

regarding the influence of social environments on human development. This theory argues that the

environment you grow up in affects every facet of your life. Social factors determine your way of
thinking, the emotions you feel, and your likes and dislikes.

From the beginning, Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory has been a starting point for
researchers in many different disciplines. For example, developmental psychology and sociology
draw directly from this theory. Bronfenbrenner shared his idea with the world for the first time in 1979
in his
book titled The Ecology of Human Development. In this article, you’ll learn about the theory’s basic
arguments.

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory

Urie Bronfenbrenner noticed that a child’s nature depends on the context they grew up in.
Thus, he decided to study what factors had the most effect on childhood development.
Bronfenbrenner considered that the environment was made up of four interrelated systems. He added
a fifth system later on in his career.

Because the five systems are interrelated, the influence of one system on a child’s
development depends on its relationship with the others. Bronfenbrenner organized them in order of
how much of an impact they have on a child.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 8
 If you change your environment, you change. If you move to another country with a
different culture, your identity will certainly change. The same can happen if your social role within one
of the systems changes.

Here are the five systems of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory:https://www.learning-

theories.com/bronfenbrenners-bioecological-model-bronfenbrenner.html
1. Microsystem
The microsystem is made up of the groups that have direct contact with the child. Family and
school are some of the most important ones, although there can be many other groups. The
relationship between this system and a child’s development is obvious. However, the influence can go
both ways.
The parents’ beliefs certainly affect who the child will end up becoming. But the child is also
capable of changing their family members’ beliefs as well. The same thing happens at school and all
the other groups that make up the microsystem.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 9
2. Mesosystem
The second system in Bronfenbrenner’s theory is made up of the relationships between the
groups from the first system. The parent-teacher relationship, for example, has a direct impact on the
child.
3. Exosystem
The third level also involves factors that affect a child’s life. However, the elements of this
system don’t have a direct relationship with them. One example of an exosystem would be the
company where the child’s parents work. This would affect the parents’ point of view, how much free
time they have, and their well-being. Consequently, the company impacts the child’s

as
4. Macrosystem
It contains those cultural elements that affect the child and everyone around them. A couple of
examples would be cultural values or an official religion.
In this case, the macrosystem influences development because it determines how the other systems
can express themselves. Again, this is a case of indirect influence. It affects development because it
changes the groups that directly affect the child.
5. Chronosystem
Bronfenbrenner added this system to his theory later on. It refers to the stage of life that the
person is in regarding the situations they’re going through. For example, the death of a loved one has
a very different impact on a young person as opposed to an elderly person.
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory isn’t perfect, but you can apply it to numerous
fields of study. In spite of the fact that it doesn’t take biological factors into account, it’s one of
best explanations regarding the influence of social environment on an individual’s

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 10
PRACTICE

Learning Activity no. 1

Sentence Completion

A- Read the following questions. Recall your childhood. You may also ask your parents for
some information. Write your answers on the graphic organizer below.
B- Answer the following sentence completion items.
1. When I was 5 years old, my parents _.
2. As a child, my unforgettable playmates were .
3. When I was in elementary, I regularly watched the television show .
4. When I was growing up, we went to church in .
5. I cannot forget my teacher who .
6. When I was growing up, I was away from .
7. When I was in high school, I was close to .
8. As a child, I can recall this big news about .
9. The most serious challenge our family experienced was .
10 The most important thing that I learned from my elementary school was .

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 11
 C- Write each answer you gave in the Activity on the circle where it belongs.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 12
PERFORMANCE

Assessment Task
Reflection Time

A- Looking at your answers in the practice phase of this Unit, describe how these people
or circumstances have influenced your attitudes, behavior and habits.

B- Read a research or study related to Gesell’s theory. Fill out the matrix below.
Problem Research Methodology Findings Conclusions

Source: (bibliographical entry format)

How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 13
REFERENCES
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioecological_model
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/maturational-theory
https://study.com/academy/lesson/arnold-gesell-biography-theory-of-child-development.html
https://study.com/cimages/videopreview/videopreview-full/arnold-gesell-biography-and-theory-of-
child-development_177761.jpg
https://schoolworkhelper.net/growth-and-development-theory-arnold-gesell-1880-1961/
https://www.simplypsychology.org/Bronfenbrenner.html
https://study.com/cimages/videopreview/videopreview-full/arnold-gesell-biography-and-theory-of-
child-development_177761.jpg

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 14
 UNIT 8: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Compiled by: GLYNNE P. BATE, Dev. Ed. D.- CTU Moalboal Campus

INTRODUCTION

Cognitive development means how children think, explore and figure things out. It is the
development of knowledge, skills, problem solving and dispositions, which help children to think about
and understand the world around them.

It is quite important to have knowledge and understanding of how individuals cognitive aspects
develop and actually use their mental process in learning situations. Looking at the cognitive
development from the time of birth up to the present age of the individual will be of great benefit for
teachers and pre-service teachers. In this unit, we shall study the theories on cognitive development,
intelligence and individual differences and language development to have better understanding of the
nature of the learners.

At the end of this learning packet, you are expected to:

1. Compare and contrast Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s cognitive development theory;
2. Explain the different theories of intelligence;
3. Discuss the stages and milestones of language development; and
4. Match learning activities to learners cognitive stage

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 1
PREPARATION
Learning Activity No. 1
Setting the Mood

Look at the semantic map below. Write down words which come to your mind when
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT is mentioned.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

2. Interview your parents and gather information about you own language acquisition and answer the
following questions.

2.1 How old are you when you began to speak?

2..2 What were your first words?

2.3 When did you speak a full sentence?

3. Click the link below and take 56-items assessment questionnaire

https://www.literacynet.org/mi/assessment/findyourstrengths.html

3.1 What did you discover about yourself? What are your strengths?

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 2
PRESENTATION
Cognitive Development Theories

The study of cognitive development is dominated by the theories of two key psychologists-
Piaget and Vygotsky. Other theories have been developed but they usually have foundations based
upon these key theories.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was one of the most influential theorists in the field of cognitive
development. Piaget was a philosopher, biologist, educationalist and psychologist. He made the
decision to study scientifically the way in which children develop knowledge.

Basic Cognitive Concepts

 Schema - This refers to the cognitive structures by which individuals intellectually adapt to
and organize their environment. It is an individual’s way to understand or create meaning
about a thing or experience.
 Assimilation - This is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or previously
created cognitive structure or schema.
 Accommodation - This is the process of creating a new schema.
 Equilibration - This is a state of achieving proper balance between assimilation and
accommodation.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage1. Sensori-motor stage. The first stage that corresponds from birth to infancy. This is
the stage when a child who is initially reflexive in grasping, sucking and reaching becomes more
organized in his movement and activity. The term sensori-motor focusses on the prominence of the
senses and muscle movement through whichthe infant comes to learn about himself and the world.

Object permanence. This is the ability of the child to know that an object still exist even
when out of sight. Object of permanence is an important foundation for later development.
The concept that objects have an existence that is separate from the child and permanent
enables the child to conceive of objects and actions that are not intheir immediate
environment.
ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 3
 Sensorimotor intelligence. This is an early stage of intelligence. It is intelligence so action,
the infant “thinks” with action.

Mental invention. This is the capacity to think out an action before representing it. The infant
is capable of “representation”-that is, he has the capacity for imagining theenvironment other
than as he directly perceives it.

Imitation. This is the capability to copy behaviors begins with behaviors that arealready part of
the child’s repertoire.
https://edugage.com/what-is-the-sensorimotor-stage-of-development/

Stage 2. Pre-Operational stage. The preoperational stage covers from about two to seven
years old, roughly corresponding to the preschool years. Intelligence at this stageis intuitive in
nature. At this stage, the child can now make mental representations andis able to pretend, the
child is now ever closer to the use of symbols.

Symbolic Function. This is the ability to represent objects and events. It is a process
whereby children learn to create their own symbols and to use existing symbol systems to
represent and operate on the environment.

Egocentrism. This is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view andto assume
that everyone also has his same point of view.

Irreversibility. This refers to a person’s inability to mentally reverse actions.

Animism. This is the tendency of children to attribute human like traits or characteristics to
inanimate objects.

Transductive reasoning. This refers to the pre-operational child’s type ofreasoning that is
neither inductive nor deductive.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-lifespandevelopment/chapter/piagets-
preoperational-stage-of-cognitive-development/

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 4
 Stage 3. Concrete-Operational Stage. This is the first stage of operational or logical
thought, in which schemata allow students to realize that there is stability in the physical world and
that reasoning about the physical world can proceed logically. Because the logical schemata are still
new at this stage, students can best see them when considering objects and events that are
concrete. Many educators refer to the concrete operation stage as the “hands on” period of
cognitive development. Although the child can reason, his or her ability to reason is limited to
tangible objects and direct experiences.

Decentering. This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects
and situations.

Reversibility. Is the ability to mentally reverse events, the child can now follow that certain
operations can be done in reverse.

Conservation. This is the ability to know that certain properties of objects like number, mass,
volume, or area do not change even if there is a change in appearance.

Seriation. This refers to the ability to order or arrange things in a series based on one
dimension such as weight, volume, or size.
https://www.verywellmind.com/piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development-2795457

Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage. This is the final stage in Piaget’s theory-begins roughly
around eleven or twelve years of age and continues into and throughout adulthood. Abstract
reasoning is the hallmark of the formal operation stage.

Hypothetical Reasoning. This is the ability to come up with different hypothesis about a
problem and to gather and weigh data in order to make a final decision or judgement. This
can be done in the absence of concrete objects. The individuals can now deal with “What if”
question.

Analogical Reasoning. This is the ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and
then use that relationship to narrow down possible answers in another similar situation or
problem. The individual in the formal operations stage can make an analogy.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 5
 Deductive Reasoning. This is the ability to think logically by applying a generalrule to a
particular instance or situation.

From Piaget’s findings and comprehensive theory, we can derive the following principles:

1. Children will provide different explanations of reality at different stages of cognitive development.
2. Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or situations that engage learners and
require adaptation (i.e. assimilation and accommodation)
3. Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate level of motor or mental
operations for a child of given age; avoid asking students to perform tasks that are beyond their
current cognitive capabilities.
4. Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present challenges.

Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development

Sociocultural theory views human development as a socially mediated process in which

children acquire their cultural values, beliefs, and problem-solving strategies through collaborative
dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society. Vygotsky has developed a sociocultural
approach to cognitive development. He developed his theories at around the same time as John
Piaget was starting to develop his ideas (1920's and 30's) (McLeod (2020).

Although they both believe that learners are curious and active participants in their own
development and learning yet they also differ in their views on how human cognition develops.

The table below contrasts the theories of Vygotsky and Piaget in their key areas. Read and be
able to differentiate their theories.

The Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding

What Is the Zone of Proximal Development?

The zone of proximal development refers to the difference between what a learner can do
without help and what he or she can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.
Thus, the term “proximal” refers to those skills that the learner is “close” to mastering.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 6
 Vygotsky's Definition of ZPD
The concept, zone of proximal development was developed by Soviet psychologist and social
constructivist Lev Vygotsky (1896 – 1934). The zone of proximal development (ZPD) has been
defined as:
"the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem
solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under
adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers" (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86).

Vygotsky believed that when a student is in the zone of proximal development for a particular
task, providing the appropriate assistance will give the student enough of a "boost" to achieve the
task.

More Knowledgeable Other

The more knowledgeable other (MKO) is somewhat self-explanatory; it refers to someone who
has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task,
process, or concept.

Although the implication is that the MKO is a teacher or an older adult, this is not necessarily
the case. Many times, a child's peers or an adult's children may be the individuals with more
knowledge or experience.

Social Interaction
According to Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child occurs through social
interaction with a skillful tutor. The tutor may model behaviors and/or provide verbal instructions for
the child. Vygotsky refers to this as cooperative or collaborative dialogue. The child seeks to
understand the actions or instructions provided by the tutor (often the parent or teacher) then
internalizes the information, using it to guide or regulate the

What is Scaffolding?
Scaffolding consists of the activities provided by the educator, or more competent peer, to
support the student as he or she is led through the zone of proximal development.

Support is tapered off (i.e. withdrawn) as it becomes unnecessary, much as a scaffold is

removed from a building during construction. The student will then be able to complete the task again
ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 7
on his own.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 8
Vygotsky and Language
Vygotsky believed that language develops from social interactions, for communication
purposes. Vygotsky viewed language as man’s greatest tool, a means for communicating with the
outside world.

According to Vygotsky (1962) language plays 2 critical roles in cognitive development:

1. It is the main means by which adults transmit information to children.
2. Language itself becomes a very powerful tool of intellectual adaptation.

Vygotsky (1987) differentiates between three forms of language: social speech which is
external communication used to talk to others (typical from the age of two); private speech (typical
from the age of three) which is directed to the self and serves an intellectual function; and finally
private speech goes underground, diminishing in audibility as it takes on a self-regulating function and
is transformed into silent inner speech (typical from the age of seven).

For Vygotsky, thought and language are initially separate systems from the beginning of life,
merging at around three years of age. At this point speech and thought become interdependent:
thought becomes verbal, speech becomes representational. When this happens, children's
monologues internalized to become inner speech. The internalization of language is important as it
drives cognitive development.

"Inner speech is not the interior aspect of external speech - it is a function in itself. It still
remains speech, i.e. thought connected with words. But while in external speech thought is
embodied in words, in inner speech words dies as they bring forth thought. Inner speech is to a
large extent thinking in pure meanings" (Vygotsky, 1962: p. 149).

Vygotsky (1987) was the first psychologist to document the importance of private speech. He
considered private speech as the transition point between social and inner speech, the moment in
development where language and thought unite to constitute verbal thinking. Thus private speech, in
Vygotsky's view, was the earliest manifestation of inner speech. Indeed, private speech is more
similar (in its form and function) to inner speech than social speech.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 9
 Private speech is "typically defined, in contrast to social speech, as speech addressed to the
self (not to others) for the purpose of self-regulation (rather than communication)" (Diaz, 1992, p.62).
Unlike inner speech which is covert (i.e. hidden), private speech is overt.
The four levels on which the MKO scaffolds operate (Corpuz, et. al 2018)
1. I do, you watch.
2. I do, you help.
3. You do, I help.
4. You do, I watch.

Intelligence and Individual Differences

Concept of Intelligence. Alfred Binet began as an associationist for whom intelligence was a vague,
general faculty of "knowing" which underlay all psychological phenomena. In 1894 he repudiated
associationism, and decided that psychology could progress only through the study of individual
differences. These differences are differences in intelligence—both qualitatively and quantitatively.
Binet developed the very first intelligence tests to help the French government identify schoolchildren
who needed extra academic assistance. He was the first to introduce the concept of mental age or a
set of abilities that children of a certain age possess. Since that time, intelligence testing has emerged
as a widely used tool that has led to developing many other tests of skill and aptitude. However,
it continues to spur debate and controversy over the use of such testing, cultural biases that may be
involved, influences on intelligence, and even the very way we define intelligence.

General Intelligence. British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863–1945) described a concept he

referred to as general intelligence or the g factor. After using a technique known as factor analysis to
examine some mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests were
remarkably similar.

Primary Mental Abilities. Psychologist Louis L. Thurstone (1887–1955) offered a differing theory of
intelligence. Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused on
seven different primary mental abilities.4

 Associative memory: The ability to memorize and recall

 Numerical ability: The ability to solve arithmetic problems
 Perceptual speed: The ability to see differences and similarities among objects
ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 10
  Reasoning: The ability to find rules
 Spatial visualization: The ability to visualize relationships
 Verbal comprehension: The ability to define and understand words
 Word fluency: The ability to produce words rapidly

Multiple Intelligence Theory. One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of
multiple intelligence. Gardner proposed that the traditional idea of intelligence, based on IQ testing,
did not fully and accurately depict a person's abilities. His theory proposed eight different
intelligences based on skills and abilities that are valued in different cultures:

⚫ Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence : The ability to control your body movements and to handle
objects skillfully
⚫ Interpersonal intelligence: The capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods,
motivations, and desires of others
⚫ Intrapersonal intelligence: The capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings,
values, beliefs, and thinking processes
⚫ Logical-mathematical intelligence: The ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and the
capacity to discern logically or numerical patterns.
⚫ Musical intelligence: The ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre
⚫ Naturalistic intelligence: The ability to recognize and categorize animals, plants, and other
objects in nature
⚫ Verbal-linguistic intelligence: Well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds,
meanings, and rhythms of words
⚫ Visual-spatial intelligence: The capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize
accurately and abstractly.

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence. Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental

activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection, and shaping of real-world environments
relevant to one's life."

While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability, he
suggested that some of Gardner's types of intelligence are better viewed as individual talents.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 11
Sternberg proposed what he referred to as "successful intelligence," which involves three different
factors:

 Analytical intelligence: Your ability to evaluate information and solve problems

 Creative intelligence: Your ability to come up with new ideas
 Practical intelligence: Your ability to adapt to a changing environment

Cognitive Information Processing Theory. The multi-store model of memory (also known as the
modal model) was proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968) and is a structural
model. They proposed that memory consisted of three stores: a sensory register, short-term memory
(STM) and long-term memory (LTM).

The Memory Stores. Each store is a unitary structure and has its own characteristics in terms
of encoding capacity and duration.

Encoding is the way information is changed so that it can be stored in the memory. There are
three main ways in which information can be encoded (changed):

1. visual (picture)
2. acoustic (sound),
3. semantic (meaning).

Capacity concerns how much information can be stored.

Duration refers to the period of time information can last in the memory stores.
Sensory Memory
• Duration: ¼ to ½ second

• Capacity: all sensory experience (v. larger capacity)

• Encoding: sense specific (e.g. different stores for each sense)

The sensory stores are constantly receiving information but most of this receives no attention
and remains in the sensory register for a very brief period.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 12
 In the sensory memory, information arrives from the 5 senses such as sight (visual
information), sounds and touch. The sensory memory store has a large capacity but a very brief
duration, it can encode information from any of the senses and most of the information is lost through
decay.

Attention is the first step in remembering something, if a person’s attention is focused on one of the
sensory stores then the data is transferred to STM.

Short Term Memory

• Duration: 0-18 seconds

• Capacity: 7 +/- 2 items

• Encoding: mainly auditory

The STM store has a duration of up to 30 seconds, has a capacity of 7+/-2 chunks and mainly
encodes information acoustically. Information is lost through displacement or decay. Maintenance
rehearsal is the process of verbally or mentally repeating information, which allows the duration of
short- term memory to be extended beyond 30 seconds. An example of maintenance rehearsal would
be remembering a phone number only long enough to make the phone call.

This type of rehearsal usually involves repeating information without thinking about its meaning
or connecting it to other information. Continual rehearsal “regenerates” or “renews” the information in
the memory trace, thus making it a stronger memory when transferred to the Long Term store. If
maintenance rehearsal (repetition) does not occur, then information is forgotten, and lost from short
term memory through the processes of displacement or decay.

Long Term Memory

• Duration: Unlimited

• Capacity: Unlimited

• Encoding: Mainly Semantic (but can be visual and auditory)

The LTM has unlimited capacity and duration and encodes information semantically. Information
can be recalled from LTM back into the STM when it is needed.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 13
 If the information is given meaning (elaborative rehearsal) it is passed on to the LTM.
Elaborative rehearsal involves the process of linking new information in a meaningful way with
information already stored in long-term memory. For example, you could learn the lines in a play by
relating the dialogue and behavior of your character to similar personal experiences you remember.
Elaborative rehearsal is more effective than maintenance rehearsal for remembering new information
as it helps to ensure that information is encoded well. It is a deeper level of information-processing.

Language Development
Language and communication skills are critical to a child’s development. Good communication
makes them better able to engage in socialization as well as learn from formal classroom instruction
and the environment around them. Communication involves both speech and language. Speech is
the verbal means of communication, and language is using shared rules to put words together to
express thoughts and feelings. Since parents are a child’s first teacher, knowledge of language
development in children improves a parent’s ability to interact with their child to stimulate and guide
them to understand and communicate with their environment. There are four main components of
language: Phonology involves the rules about the structure and sequence of speech sounds.
Semantics consists of vocabulary and how concepts are expressed through words. Grammar
involves two parts. The first, syntax, is the rules in which words are arranged into sentences. The
second, morphology, is the use of grammatical markers (indicating tense, active or passive voice,
etc.). Pragmatics involves the rules for appropriate and effective communication. Pragmatics involves
three skills: using language for greeting, demanding, etc. changing language for talking differently
depending on who it is you’re talking to following rules such as turn-taking and staying on topic From
birth on, children are programmed to develop speech and language. The first five years are most
critical, but language development continues throughout early childhood and into adolescence.
During the first five years, stimulation of language development is essential as the brain is developing
new nerve cells as well as multiple connections between these cells to serve the function of
expressive and receptive language. Lack of stimulation during this time could result in a child making
slower progress or end up with poor communication skills. Later, we provide some tips for parents on
how to help with language development, but some simple suggestions are to spend lots of time
talking, singing, and reading to your child. In the early stages of language development, the brain is
programmed to attend to speech sounds and begin to mimic them. Early on, babies like to make
sounds up on their own. Later they attempt to repeat sounds and words they’re exposed to from their
environment. Children usually say their first words between nine and 18 months old. The most

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 14
common first words are either “mama” or

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 15
“dada.” What’s interesting is no matter what language children are taught, the first words usually
reference either mother or father. By about 18 months, a child usually has a vocabulary of 50 to 150
words. Children at this age begin to put a couple of words together to form a sentence sometimes
referred to as “telegraphic speech,” such as “Mommy ball” or “Mommy throw ball.” By two-years-old,
they can typically use over 300 words and understand about 1,000 words. Around three years of age,
children begin to use language for all kinds of things. They’re not only trying to get what they want by
asking, but they’re also talking about past experiences and even beginning to use it to pretend. By
preschool (4 ½) they’re beginning to understand and use the rules of language to express possession
of something, connect thoughts and quantify. Their language is becoming more like that of adults. In
elementary school, children continue to expand their use of oral language and are also learning to
read a write. As children progress through middle school and high school, they continue to expand
their vocabulary, refine their grammatical skills and write in more complexities as well as continue to
develop reading comprehension skills.

Stages of First Language Acquisition

When we talk about language acquisition, a common point of reference is the stages of first
language acquisition that nearly all babies go through.

 Pre-talking. This stage takes place from birth to around six months of age. During this time,
the child does not speak, but is beginning to understand short words and phrases that are
central to their needs and interests.
 Babbling. The babbling phase occurs from around six to eight months old. In this phase, the
infant begins to “babble” and makes noises and syllables that are not yet words. Physically,
teeth begin to appear and the muscles in the mouth required for speech begin to develop.
 Holophrastic.The holophrastic stage is significantly longer, occurring between nine and
eighteen months old. During this phase, the infant begins to learn and speak single words. In
the beginning, these words are strongly centered around basic needs and interests as well as
names or identifiers like “mama” and “dada.”
 Two-word. This stage takes place from eighteen to twenty-four months old. Once children
have developed single word speech, they begin to pair groups of words together into mini-
sentences and phrases like “I want” or “give me.”
 Telegraphic. The telegraphic stage takes place from two to three years old. Over time,
children begin to expand their two-word phrases into short sentences. They also begin to

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 16
 utilize lexical

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 17
 morphemes to make the words they use fit the sentence. For example, they understand to use
the plural “boys” instead of “boy” when referring to a group of boys.
 Multi-word. Past the age of three, most children fall into the multiword stage. In this final stage
of language acquisition, children now learn to use functional morphemes to change the
meaning of the words they use. Examples include the words but, in, the, and that.

Language Development Timelines

Infant (Birth to 18 months)

Birth to 6 Months

⚫ Vocalization with intonation

⚫ Responds to his name
⚫ Responds to human voices without visual cues by turning his head and eyes
⚫ Responds appropriately to friendly and angry tones

Six to 12 Months

⚫ Uses one or more words with meaning (this may be a fragment of a word)
⚫ Understands simple instructions, especially if vocal or physical cues are given
⚫ Practices inflection Is aware of the social value of speech
⚫ Is aware of the social value of speech

12 to 18 Months

⚫ Has a vocabulary of approximately 5-20 words

⚫ Vocabulary made up chiefly of nouns
⚫ Some echolalia (repeating a word or phrase over and over)
⚫ Much jargon with emotional content Is able to follow simple commands

Toddler (18 months to 3years)

18 To 24 Months

⚫ Can name a number of objects common to his surroundings

⚫ Is able to use at least two prepositions, usually chosen from the following: in, on, under

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 18
⚫ Combines words into a short sentence—largely noun-verb combinations (mean) length of
sentences is given as 1.2 words
⚫ Approximately 2/3 of what a child says should be intelligible
⚫ The vocabulary of approximately 150-300 words
⚫ Rhythm and fluency are often poor Volume and pitch of voice are not yet well-controlled
⚫ Can use two pronouns correctly: I, me, and you—although me and I are often confused
⚫ "My" and "mine" are beginning to emerge
⚫ Responds to such commands as “show me your eyes (nose, mouth, hair)”

Two to Three Years

⚫ Use pronouns I, you, and me correctly

⚫ Is using some plurals and past tenses
⚫ Knows at least three prepositions, usually in, on, under
⚫ Knows chief parts of the body and should be able to indicate these if not name them
⚫ Handles three-word sentences easily
⚫ Has around 900-1000 words About 90% of what the child says should be intelligible
⚫ Verbs begin to predominate Understands most simple questions dealing with his environment and
activities
⚫ Relates his experiences so that they can be followed with reason
⚫ Able to reason out such questions as “what must you do when you're sleepy, hungry, cool, or
thirsty?”
⚫ Should be able to give his sex, name, age
⚫ Should not be expected to answer all questions even though he understands what is expected

Preschooler (3-5 years)

Three to Four Years

⚫ Knows names of familiar animals

⚫ Can use at least four prepositions or can demonstrate his understanding of their meaning when
given commands
⚫ Names common objects in picture books or magazines
⚫ Knows one or more colors
⚫ Can repeat 4 digits when they're given slowly
ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 19
⚫ Can usually repeat words of four syllables
⚫ Demonstrates understanding of over and under
⚫ Has most vowels and diphthongs and the consonants p, b, m, w, n well established
⚫ Often indulges in make-believe
⚫ Extensive verbalization as he carries out activities
⚫ Understands such concepts as longer, larger, and when a contrast is presented
⚫ Readily follows simple commands even though the stimulus objects are not in sight
⚫ Much repetition of words, phrases, syllables, and even sounds

Four to Five Years

⚫ Uses possessives Uses double negatives Joins sentences

⚫ Can answer how, who, and when questions
⚫ Follows up to 4 step directions Uses the third person Tells simple jokes Says his full name
⚫ Knows an average of 900 words
⚫ Shows rapid language development
⚫ Uses sentences that are three to four words long
⚫ Mispronounces 40 percent of speech sounds
⚫ Enjoys listening to stories
⚫ Understands more words than he is able to use
⚫ Asks simple who and what questions
⚫ Tells simple events in sequence
⚫ Demonstrates beginning phonological awareness (hearing and recognizing the sounds of
language)
⚫ Uses words to express ideas and feelings
⚫ Usually follows requests and can be reasoned with

Five to Six Years

⚫ In addition to the above consonants these should be mastered: f, v, sh, zh, th, l
⚫ He should have concepts of 7
⚫ Speech should be completely intelligible and socially useful Should be able to tell one a rather
connected story about a picture, seeing relationships between objects and happenings

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 20
School Age (6-8 years)

Six to Seven Years

⚫ Should have mastered the consonants s-z, r, voiceless th, ch, wh, and the soft g, as in George
⚫ Should handle opposite analogies easily: girl-boy, man-woman, flies-swims, blunt-sharp, short-
long, sweet-sour, etc.
⚫ Understands such terms as: alike, different, beginning, end, etc.
⚫ Should be able to tell time to quarter hour
⚫ Should be able to do simple reading and to write or print many words

Seven to Eight Years

⚫ Begins to use reference books

⚫ Enjoys reading aloud
⚫ Enjoys mysteries, adventure stories, and biographies
⚫ Adjusts language and vocabulary to fit an audience, topic, or purpose
⚫ Develops vocabulary from textbooks and personal reading
⚫ Gives precise directions and instructions for more complex activities and tasks
⚫ Tells and retells stories in a formal storytelling format using descriptive language, story elements,
and voice to create interest and mood
⚫ Demonstrates effective listening skills by exhibiting appropriate body language
⚫ Uses a variety of simple and compound sentences of varied lengths

PRACTICE
Learning Activity No.2

Review Questions

1. Illustrate the differences and similarities between Piaget and Vygotsky theories using a Venn
Diagram.
2. Describe the different theories of intelligence.
3. Describe the different memory structures.
4. What are the stages of language acquisition?

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 21
PERFORMANCE
Assessment Tasks
What Have You Learned?

A. Compare and contrast Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories based on the given variables.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Piaget’s Cognitive

View Development View

Learning is….

Development is driven by…

Context

Knowledge

Stages?

Link on
(learning/development)

Language

Speech

B. Summarize the essence of the theories of intelligence according to the following format

Name of Theorist Theory Essence

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 22
C. Write in the grid the significance and differences between and among the memory structures.

Memory Structure Significance Differences

1. Sensory Memory

2. Short-term Memory

3. Long term memory

D. Multiple Choice
1. At 4 months old, what is the stage of language development?
A. Two-word sentences C. Rapid development of complete sentences
B. One-word expressions D. Babbling of different sounds
2. It involves the rules about the structure and sequence of speech sounds.
A. Grammar C. Pragmatics
B. Phonology D. Semantics
3. Regardless of culture, children begin to learn language around the same time all over the world.
At about what age is this?
A. Between 6 to 8 months C. Between 2 and 4 years
B. Between 8 and 28 months D. Between 5 and 7 years
4. By the age of 4-5 years, children will know approximately how many
words” A. 90 C. 900
C. 90,000 D. 900,000
5. At this stage, the child begins to utilize lexical morphemes to make the words they use fit
the sentence.
A. Babbling C. Holophrastic
B. Telegraphic D. Multi-word

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 23
REFERENCES
A. Books

Anonat, Rosa Dematera (2009) Child and Adolescent Development.Books atbp. Publishing Inc.

Bee, Helen L. (2007). The developing child.11th ed. Boston: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.

Corpuz, Brenda B.,et. al (2018). The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles.
Lorimar Publishing Inc.: Quezon City, Metro Manila.

Gordon, A. M. and Brone, K. W. (2017). Beginnings and Beyond.

Foundations in Early Childhood Education, 10th Edition. Cenage Learning: United States of
America.

Hallahan, D., Kauffman, J.M., Levine, L. E and Munsch. (2016). Child Development from Infancy to
Adolescence. An Active Approach. SAGE Publications, Inc. Thousand Oaks
California.

Santrock, J.W. (2016). Essentials of Life-span Development, Fourth Edition. New York,
NY;McGraw-Hill Education.

B. Online Sources

Assessment: Finding Your Strength. (n.d.). Multiple Intelligences for Adult Literacy and Education.
Retrieved September 9, 2021, from
https://www.literacynet.org/mi/assessment/findyourstrengths.html

Kendra. (n.d.). Theories of Intelligence in Psychology. Verywellmind. Retrieved September 4, 2021,

from https://www.verywellmind.com/theories-of-intelligence-2795035

Language Development in Children. (n.d.). Child Development Institute. Retrieved September 7,

2021, from https://childdevelopmentinfo.com/child-
development/language_development/#gs.be1z3q

The 4 Stages of Cognitive Development. (n.d.). Verywellmind. Retrieved September 7, 2021, from
https://www.verywellmind.com/piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development-2795457

What is the Sensorimotor Stage of Development? (n.d.). Edugage.Com. Retrieved September 6,

2021, from https://edugage.com/what-is-the-sensorimotor-stage-of-development/

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 24
 UNIT 9: BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORIES AND
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
Compiled by: PURITY V. MATA

INTRODUCTION

Our interaction with our environment enables us to gain new knowledge and alter our
behavior. Knowledge acquisition and behavior change are critical components not only in our current
roles but also in future careers. The various learning theories are explored in this unit, as well as how
learning occurs, and the elements that influence the learning process. In this unit, you will be able to
learn various behavioral learning theories and different approaches to learning.

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. Identify the learning approaches used in teaching through situational analysis;
2. Discuss behavioral theories and the different approaches to learning through poster
presentation; and
3. Exemplify an application of the different approaches to learning in the teaching-learning
process.

PREPARATION
Learning Activity no. 1
Learning or Not?

Read each statement carefully then identify whether there is learning involved or not. Write L if
there is learning involved and NL when no learning occurred.

1. A new student avoids being late to class after seeing a classmate being reprimanded by the
teacher for coming late.
2. Demonstrating addition of double-digit numbers.
3. Having the ability to create an infographic about the Corona virus.
4. Seeing an ex-lover and your reaction to him/ her was neutral.
5. Being able to balance the bicycle after several trials.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 1
PRESENTATION

Learning encompasses not just the acquisition of a new skill or academic subject, but also
emotional growth, social interaction, and even personality development. We learn what we should be
afraid of, what we love, how to be courteous, and how to be intimate, among other things. Given the
pervasiveness of learning in our lives, it’s no surprise that we’ve already examined a variety of
examples, such as how youngsters learn to perceive the world around them, identify their own sex,
and govern their behavior according to adult standards. But now we are going to look at learning in a
more systematic way. Let us first start by answering the question, what is learning?

As an overview to the topic, watch the video by the ThePeakLearner (2015) through this link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s7MTibO4vvw (Running Time 1:59).

The video presents 3 definitions of learning. Firstly, it defines learning as a change in

knowledge, skills, and behavior that results from our experiences. This change is a result of our
interaction with our environment. As discussed in the video, the process of change involves 3 stages:
(a) sensing the environment, (2) adapting our response to the environment, and (3) recording the
experience. Sensing the environment means filling in a gap between our past experiences and the
current situation. This gap must exist for learning to occur. Adapting our response means integrating
new information into past learning and the ability to derive meaning from a new information through
association and inference must exist for learning to occur. Recording the experience entails
repeatedly making the new (neural connection) connection so that it can be used in the future. This
ability to use a new connection multiple times is required for learning to take place. Learning is about
creating and strengthening neural connections in the brain.

The second definition of learning involves the three domains of learning by Benjamin Bloom.
This domains are: (a) cognitive, (b) psychomotor, and (c) affective). This implies that we have the
ability to alter our thoughts, behaviors, and feelings.

The video’s final concept of learning involves our personal experiences. Experience is what
differentiates the change generated by learning from any other types of changes. For learning to
occur, the change must come from an interaction with the environment. To put in another way,
learning is the process of adapting based on our experiences.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 2
 Skills You Need (2021) cited that learning occurs when we are able to:
 Gain a mental or physical grasp of the subject;
 Make sense of a subject, event or feeling by interpreting it into our own words or actions.
 Use our newly acquired ability or knowledge with existing abilities and understanding.
 Do something with the new knowledge or skill and take ownership of it.

Going back to Learning Activity no. 1, can you identify whether learning is a change in (a)
cognitive, (b) psychomotor, or (c) affective?

If you get a perfect score, it means you are now ready to our next topic which is about
Approaches to Learning which you can read at https://www.skillsyouneed.com/learn/learning-
approaches.html. Basically, there are three main learning approaches and most learning theories fall
into one or more of these approaches. These are:
 The Behaviorist Approach which is concerned with learners responding to some form of
stimulus.
 The Cognitive Approach which is based on knowledge and knowledge retention.
 The Humanist Approach which is based on explanations of individual experience.

For you to grasp a comprehensive understanding of the learning approaches, we will now
discuss them in detail, starting with the Behaviorist Approach. This approach to learning centers
around the belief that appropriate behavior can be taught by constantly repeating a task while
receiving feedback from the facilitator. Positive feedback encourages and reinforces success while
negative feedback and immediate correction discourages the repetition of a mistake or undesirable
behavior.

Ivan Pavlov conducted a famous dog experiment in 1927. By linking the time of their feeding to
the sound of the bell, he “taught” the animals to salivate when they heard it ring. He eventually
stopped feeding them this manner, but when the bell rang, the dogs continued to salivate. In other
words, the learned behavior was a result of a sequence of events experienced, rather than a
conscious thought process. He was the first to uncover what is now known as "classical conditioning."
This kind of conditioning can be made more effective by reinforcement (B.F. Skinner). Reinforcement
can work both in positive and negative ways. A positive reinforcer is anything that strengthens the
desired response. In learning, examples of positive reinforcer are verbal praise, a good mark, or a

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 3
feeling of achievement.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 4
On the other hand, if verbal praise is withheld, this will have a negative effect and reduces the
motivation to learn.

Edward L. Thorndike, a pioneer in behaviorism and in studying learning, stated that learning is
the result of the associations formed between the stimulus and response (S-R). Such associations or
“habits” become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. This is
called Connectionism Theory which states that learning has taken place when a strong connection
or bond between stimulus and response is formed.

There are three primary laws to this theory:

 Law of Effect – a connection between S-R is strengthened when the consequence is positive
(reward) and this connection weakens when the consequence is negative.
 Law of Exercise – the more S-R bond is practiced, the stronger it will become.
 Law of Readiness – the more readiness the learner has to respond to the stimulus, the stronger
will be the bond between them.

A progression of early behaviorism theory is the Social Learning Theory or Observational

Learning by Albert Bandura. It proposes that people can learn, both directly and indirectly, by
observing others. This theory also emphasize that we learn not only how to perform a behavior but
also what will happen to us in a specific situation if we do perform it.

Bandura added that people are reinforced for modelling the behavior of others. He suggested
that the environment also reinforces modeling. This is in several possible ways:
 The observer is reinforced by the model. For example, a student who changes dress to fit in
with a certain group of students has a strong likelihood of being accepted and thus reinforced
by that group.
 The observer is reinforced by a third person. The observer might be modeling the action of
someone else, for example, an outstanding class leader or student. The teacher notices this
and compliments and praises the observer for modeling such behavior thus reinforcing that
behavior.
 The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences. Many behaviors that we learn
from imitating others produce satisfying or reinforcing results. For example, a student in my
multimedia class could observe how the extra work of a classmate does is fun. This student in

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 5
 turn would do the same extra work and also experience enjoyment.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 6
  Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observer’s behavior vicariously. This is known
as vicarious reinforcement. This is where the model is reinforced for a response and then the
observer shows an increase in that same response. Bandura illustrated this by having students
watch a film of a model hitting an inflated clown doll. One group of children saw the model
being praised for such action. Without being reinforced, the group of children began to also hit
the doll.

The following are the cognitive factors in social learning:

 Learning without performance: Bandura makes a distinction between learning through
observation and the actual imitation of what has been learned.
 Cognitive processing during learning: Social learning theories contend that attention is a critical
factor in learning.
 Expectations: As a result of being reinforced, people form expectations about the
consequences that future behaviors are likely to bring. Reinforcement increases a response
only when the learner is aware of that connection.
 Reciprocal causation: Bandura proposed that behavior can influence both the environment and
the person. In fact, each of these three variables: the person, the behavior, the environment
can have influence on each other.
 Modeling: There are different types of models. There is a live model, the actual person
demonstrating the behavior. There is also a symbolic model, which can be a person or action
portrayed in some other medium such as the television, videotape, or computer programs.

The general principles of social learning theory are:

 People can learn by observing the behavior of others and the outcomes of those behavior.
 Learning can occur without a change in behavior.
 Cognition plays a role in learning.
 Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition between behaviorist learning
theories and cognitive learning theories.

Similarly, Social Constructivism which was developed by Lev Vygotsky believed that learning
is a social activity. It is something we do together, in interaction with each other, rather than an
abstract concept (Dewey, 1939 as cited in McLeod, 2008).

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 7
 For example, Vygotsky (1978 in McLeod 2008), believed that community plays a central role in
the process of “making meaning”. For him, the environment in which children grow up will influence
how they think and what they think about. Moreover, he suggested that every function in the child’s
cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level and, later on, on the individual level; first,
between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological).

A key feature of effective teaching in social constructivism is scaffolding, where the adult
continually adjust the level of his or her help in response to the learner’s level of performance. Tam
(2000 in McLeod 2008) lists the four basic characteristics of constructivist learning environments,
which must be considered when implementing constructivist teaching strategies:
 Knowledge will be shared between teachers and students.
 Teachers and students will share authority.
 The teacher’s role is one of a facilitator or guide.
 Learning groups will consist of small numbers of heterogenous students.

Contrary to strict theories of behaviorism, Insight Learning by Wolfgang Kohler suggests that
we learn not only by conditioning, but also by cognitive processes that cannot be directly observed.
He described his experiments with apes where the apes could use boxes and sticks as tools to solve
problems.

In the box problem, a banana is attached to the top of a chimpanzee’s cage. The banana is out
of reach but can be reached by climbing upon and jumping from a box. Only one of Kohler’s apes
(Sultan) could solve this problem.

In each of these problems, the important aspect of learning was not reinforcement, but the
coordination of thinking to create new organizations (of materials). Kohler referred to this behavior as
insight or discovery learning.

His theory suggested that learning could occur when the individual perceives the relationships
of the elements before him and reorganizes these elements and comes to greater understanding or
insight. This could occur without reinforcement, and once it occurs, no review, training, or
investigation is necessary. Significantly, insight is not necessarily observable by another person.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 8
 A much more difficult problem involved the stacking of boxes. This problem required the apes
to stack one box on another, and master gravitational problems by building a stable stack. Kohler
gave the apes sticks which they used to rake food into the cage. Sultan, his very intelligent ape, was
able to master a two-stick problem by inserting one stick into the end of the other in order to reach the
food.

In contrast to behaviorist theories which sees the learner as a passive participant who
responds in a predetermined way, the Cognitive Approaches to Learning are concerned with the
role of the active mind in processing learning opportunities.

Under this approach is the Information Processing Theory which is based on the idea that
humans process information they receive, rather than merely responding to stimuli. The article written
by McLeod (2008) cited the computer as a metaphor or analogy to which cognitive psychologists
could compare human mental processing.

Essentially, a computer codes, stores, uses information and produces an output. For example,
the eye receives visual information and codes information into electric neural activity which is fed
back to the brain where it is “stored” and “coded”. This information can be used by other parts of the
brain relating to mental activities such as memory, perception and attention. The output might be, for
example, to read what you can see on a printed page.

Hence the information processing approach characterizes thinking as the environment

providing input of data, which is then transformed by our senses. The information can be stored,
retrieved and transformed using “mental programs”, with the results being behavioral responses.

Learning, according to Dewey (1938), entails 'learning to think.' He claims that learning entails
more than just executing a task or activity; it also necessitates reflection and subsequent learning.
The goal of thought, according to Dewey, is to achieve a state of balance, which allows a person to
solve issues and prepare for further inquiry.

Dewey, who is often connected with 'progressive education,' criticised traditional systems of
teaching focused on information reinforcement with the student playing a passive role, implying that
this style of learning was superficial. He claims that learning takes place only when the student

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 9
participates actively in the process. Students must be able to critically reflect on material offered in

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 10
order for learning to take place; they must be able to 'experience' the knowledge, which can be
facilitated by drawing on prior experience. As a result, Dewey may be considered one of the most
prominent proponents of experiential learning.

Experiential Learning Theory, as the name suggests, involves learning from experience. It
was proposed by David Kolb who was influenced by the work of John Dewey, Kurt Lewin, and Jean
Piaget. According to Kolb, this type of learning can be defined as “the process whereby knowledge is
created through the transformation of experience. Knowledge results from the combinations of
grasping and transforming the experience.” This theory takes a more holistic approach and
emphasizes how experiences, including cognition, environmental factors, and emotions, influence the
learning process (Cherry, 2020).

Kolb states that in order to gain genuine knowledge from an experience, the learner must have
four abilities:
 The learner must be willing to be actively involved in the experience;
 The learner must be able to reflect on the experience;
 The learner must possess and use analytical skills to conceptualize the experience; and
 The learner must possess decision making and problem solving skills in order to use the new
ideas gained from the experience.

Bloom, another cognitive theorist, believed that learning took place in both the ‘cognitive
domain,' which is concerned with memory and comprehension, and the ‘affective domain,' which is
concerned with how feelings and emotions change as a result of learning. According to Bloom,
parallel learning across the cognitive and affective domains occurs in a cumulative manner,
depending on the level of difficulty.

In addition, Chakma (2021) in https://onlinenotebank.wordpress.com/2021/04/11/cognitive-

approach-to-learning/ noted that in this approach learning is considered as an inner psychological
functioning such as perception, concept formation, attention, memory and problem-solving. The major
tenets of this approach are as follows:
 Learning is an active process involving change in the cognitive structure.
 Learning requires cognitive effort and accurate conceptual understanding.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 11
 The changes in the cognitive structure take generally in basically three ways. They are:
 Differentiation – learning begins by differentiating aspects of oneself and of one’s environment.
For example, an infant perceives every woman as his/ her mother. Later on he/ she
differentiates between mother, aunt, sister, etc. Thus the cognitive structure becomes more
specific.
 Generalization – concrete particular instances are given and the children reach general
conclusion or generalization. After differentiating the concept, the child gradually categorize the
differentiated concepts on the basis of specific unifying characteristics known as
generalization. For example, the child first learns to differentiate various things as men,
women, animals, birds, etc. and later on he/ she unifies these differentiated concepts to form a
single concept – living things. Thus generalization is reach.
 Restructuration – As the processes of differentiation and generalization take place, the
individual restructures his/ her cognitive structure to accommodate these differentiated and
generalized concepts to gain control of him/ her and the world. The child learns that all living
things do not behave as human beings do. Thus, the concept of living things is restructured.

Moving forward, we will now discuss the humanistic approach to learning. In the latter half of
the twentieth century, it was felt that both psychoanalysis and behaviorism tried to describe the
human being to their best, however, both have failed to study the human being as ‘human being’.
According to Sharp (2012) humanistic learning approaches are based on humanistic concepts and
are most notably based on the work of Abraham Maslow (1908–1970), who is considered as the
father of the movement, and Carl Rogers (1902–1987). They focus on the learner as an individual
and believe that education is about educating the "whole person," taking into account a person's
interests, aspirations, and enthusiasm so that their full potential can be realized. More specifically,
this approach states that the student is the authority on how they learn, and that all of their needs
should be met in order for them to learn well. For example, a student who is hungry will not have as
much attention to give to learning. So school offer meal to students so that need is met, and they can
focus on education. Humanistic Psychology focuses on the idea that learners bring out the best in
themselves, and that humans are driven by their feelings more than rewards and punishments. This
belief that humans are driven by feelings cases educators who understand humanistic psychology to
focus on the underlying human, emotional issues when they see bad behavior, not to just punish the
bad behavior. This encourages teachers to create a classroom environment that helps students feel
comfortable and safe so they can focus on their learning. Emotions are at the center of humanism

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 12
psychology (“What is humanistic learning theory in education?”, 2020).

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 13
 The five basic principles of humanistic education can be summarized as follows:
 Students’ learning should be self-directed.
 Schools should produce students who want and know how to learn.
 The only form of meaningful evaluation is self-evaluation.
 Feelings, as well as knowledge, are important in the learning process.
 Students learn best in a non-threatening environment.

PRACTICE
Learning Activity no. 2
Situational Analysis

Read the situations carefully and identify the learning approach used in each of the situations.
Use the following as your legend: A – Humanistic Approach
B – Behaviorist Approach
C – Cognitive Approach

1. After students presented their outputs, the teacher praised them for a job well done.
2. Teacher X provided students with options on what they want to perform as a summative
activity.
3. Practicum is a requirement for teacher education students before graduation. This gives
them the opportunity to explore, learn, and apply their learning in the field.
4. One week before the exam, Teacher G conducted a drill for her students to master
multiplication.
5. Teacher M first demonstrate students how to do a particular science experiment before
letting them do it on their own.
6. To understand the behavior of animals, Teacher K brought his students to a field trip.
7. By the end of the semester, Teacher Z allow students to rate their own performance, gave
them time to reflect on their areas of strength and weakness.
8. Teacher P emphasizes that members of the group should contribute for collaborative output.
9. Instead of reprimanding students for their low scores, Teacher A ask students what they
failed to do and what should be done to improve their scores.
10. Students were given ample time to practice their role play.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 14
PERFORMANCE
Learning Activity no. 3
Poster Presentation

With your group, read the journal article assigned to you. Then come up with a poster
presentation. Let me define what a poster presentation is so that you will know what to do. You can
also read more about it through this link https://www.monash.edu/rlo/assignment-
samples/science/poster-presentation.

A poster presentation is a way to communicate your research or your understanding of a topic

in a short and concise format. It usually includes two elements - a poster and a brief (usually no more
than 2 minutes) explanation. You will need to analyze and evaluate information, synthesize ideas and
creatively demonstrate your understanding of a topic or the findings of your research.

This will be your assigned journal article:

Group 1 – The Effects of Social Constructivist Approach on the Learners’ Problem Solving and
Metacogntive Levels by Bay, E., Bagceci, B., and Cetin, B. (2012).
https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/25850948.pdf

Group 2 – The Implementation of Behavioristic Learning Theory in Senior High School by Sokip,
Akhyak, Kozin, and Soim (2018). https://www.journalijar.com/uploads/695_IJAR-26224.pdf

Group 3 – The Impact of Learner-Centered Teaching on Students’ Learning Skills and Strategies by
Dano-Hinosolango, M.A. and Vedua-Dinagso, A. (2014). https://infonomics-society.org/wp-
content/uploads/ijcdse/published-papers/volume-5-2014/The-Impact-of-Learner-Centered-Teaching-
on-Students-Learning-Skills-and-Strategies.pdf

For your poster presentation, there will be a group evaluation (GE), peer evaluation (PE), and
teacher evaluation (TE) following the adapted rubrics below which you can also access at
https://www.mtsu.edu/scholarsweek/SWscoringrubric.pdf. Your final grade will then be computed as
the average of all 3 ratings.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 15
 Poster Presentation Scoring Rubric
10 7-9 4-6 1-3
Criteria Excellent Good Fair Poor GE PE TE AVE
Exceptionally Attractive in Somewhat Distractingly
attractive in terms of attractive, messy or very
Over-all
terms of design, layout, although some poorly
Appearance
design, layout, and neatness elements are designed; not
and neatness messy attractive
Contains all Lacks 1 in any Lacks 2 in any Lacks 3 in any
the elements of the elements of the elements of the elements
(problem
statement,
Poster Content methodology,
result and
discussion,
implication to
education)
Exceptionally Well organized Somewhat Disorganized
organized, but in some organized; and illogical
appears areas lacks lacks flow from flow
Organization logical, with flow from one one section to
and Flow clear flow of section to the the next
ideas from one next
section to the
next
Student can Student can Student can Student
accurately accurately accurately appears to
answer all answer most answer some have
questions questions questions insufficient
related to facts related to facts related to facts knowledge
Presentation in the poster in the poster in the poster about the facts
and the and the and the in the poster or
processes processes processes the processes
used to create used to create used to create used to create
the project the project the project the project
Notes/ HPS=
Comments/ Over-all score 40
Remarks

REFERENCES

Journal Articles

Bay, E., Bagceci, B., & Cetin, B. (2012). The Effects of Social Constructivist Approach on the Learners’
Problem Solving and Metacognitive Levels. Journal of Social Sciences, 3, 343–349.
https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/25850948.pdf

Sokip, Akhyak, Kozin, and Soim (2018). The Implementation of Behavioristic Learning Theory in
Senior High School. International Journal of Advance Research, 7 (2): 874-878.
https://www.journalijar.com/uploads/695_IJAR-26224.pdf

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 16
Dano-Hinosolango, M.A. and Vedua-Dinagsao, A. (2014). The Impact of Learner-Centered Teaching
on Students’ Learning Skills and Strategies. International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary
Subjects in Education, 5 (4): 1813-1817.

Online Sources

Chakma, D. (2021). Cognitive Approach to Learning.

https://onlinenotebank.wordpress.com/2021/04/11/cognitive-approach-to-learning/

Chakma, D. (2021). Humanistic Approach to Learning

https://onlinenotebank.wordpress.com/2021/04/12/humanistic-approach-to-learning/

Cherry, K. (2020). The Experiential Learning Theory by David Kolb.

https://www.verywellmind.com/experiential-learning-2795154

McLeod, S. (2008). Information Processing. https://www.simplypsychology.org/information-

processing.html

McLeod, S. (2008). Constructivism as a Theory for Teaching and Learning.

https://www.simplypsychology.org/constructivism.html

Poster Presentation Scoring Rubric (n.d.) https://www.mtsu.edu/scholarsweek/SWscoringrubric.pdf.

Sharp A. (2012) Humanistic Approaches to Learning. In: Seel N.M. (eds) Encyclopedia of the
Sciences of Learning. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-
6_530

SkillsYouNeed (2021). What is Learning? https://www.skillsyouneed.com/learn/learning.html

SkillsYouNeed (2021). Learning Approaches. https://www.skillsyouneed.com/learn/learning-

approaches.html

Tenets of Humanism. (2021). University of Wyoming.

http://www.uwyo.edu/aded5050/5050unit9/education.asp

ThePeakLearner (May 27, 2015). What is Learning? 3 Key Points to Remember [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s7MTibO4vvw

The Poster Presentation (n.d.) Monash University. https://www.monash.edu/rlo/assignment-

samples/science/poster-presentation

What is humanistic learning theory in education. (2020). Western Governors University.

https://www.wgu.edu/blog/what-humanistic-learning-theory-
education2007.html#openSubscriberModal

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 17
 UNIT 10: SOCIO-EMOTIONAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Compiled by: MARTHA JOYCE G. GARCIANO – CTU San Francisco Campus
and REGINA ENCARNACION-SITOY – CTU Main Campus

INTRODUCTION
The development of the child also involves three more dimensions: socio-emotional and moral
dimensions. These dimensions greatly influence the other forms of a child’s development.

This unit presents the theories, concepts and characteristics of Socio-emotional and Moral
aspects of development. Interestingly, such development is influenced by the interaction between the
factors of the environment and the individual child with which he eventually builds his emotions and
his ability to distinguish between what is right and wrong. Included in this unit are the various theories
and concepts of Socio-emotional development, as well as Moral development, and the implications
on the learning, care and parenting of these children and adolescence.

At the end of this learning packet, you are expected to:

1. Describe the socio-emotional and moral development of children and adolescents;
2. Draw implications of socio-emotional and moral development concepts and factors on
the child’s learning, care and parenting; and
3. Formulate written narratives on the actual experiences in relation to real classroom
setting.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 1
PREPARATION

Learning Activity No. 1

Preliminaries: Self- Reflection

Name: Date Performed:

Course & Year: Score: (HPS: 15)

Objectives:
After reading the following poem, the students will be able to:
1. Identify important aspects that influence their own socio-emotional and moral
development;
2. Categorize these important aspects as to positive or negative influences on their
own development;
3. Relate these aspects to the formation of their own morality.

Task: 1. Read the Poem carefully.

2. Take notice of important aspects that you can relate based from own experiences.
3. Assess such important aspects as to their influences on your development as
an individual.
4. Examine these aspects as to how they shaped your conscience or morality.

Children LeARN WhAT They Live

If a child lives with criticism, he learns to condemn…
If a child lives with hostility, he learns to fight…
If a child lives with fear, he learns to be apprehensive…
If a child lives with pity, he learns to feel sorry for himself…
If a child lives with ridicule, he learns to be shy…
If a child lives with jealousy, he learns to feel guilt…
But…
If a child lives with tolerance, he learns to be patient…
If a child lives with encouragement, he learns to be confident…
If a child lives with praise, he learns to be appreciative…
If a child lives with acceptance, he learns to love…
If a child lives with honesty, he learns what truth is…
If a child lives with fairness, he learns justice…
If a child lives with security, he learns to have faith in himself and those about
him… If a child lives with friendliness, he learns the world is a nice place in which to
live… With what is your child living?

-Dorothy L. Nolte, Trained Family Counselor

(Adapted from “The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles” by Brenda B. Corpuz,
and et al, 2018)

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 2
Answers:

1. Write an important aspect on each tag-board. (One point each)

2. Categorize the identified important aspects as positive or negative influence on your own
development. (One point each)

Positive Influence Negative Influence

3. How do these identified aspects influence your concept of what is right and wrong?
(Criteria for Scoring: content= 3 pts.; organization of thought=2 pts. Total= 5
pts)

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 3
PRESENTATION

A. Socio-emotional Development

The Poem “Children Learn What they Live” expresses the kind of home and school
environment that parents and teachers produce determines the quality of the development of children
(corpus, et. al., 2018). It contains elements that are important in the socio-development of the child,
which are: attachment, temperament, and emotional understanding.

Social Development is a process by which a child learns to interact with others around them.
As they develop and perceive their own individuality within their community, they also gain skills to
communicate with other people and process their actions. Social development most often refers to
how a child develops friendships and other relationships, as well how a child handles conflict with
peers. A child’s ability to interact in a healthy way with the people around her can impact everything
from learning new words as a toddler, to being able to resist peer pressure as a high school student,
to successfully navigating the challenges of adulthood. Healthy social development can help the child
develop language skills, build self-esteem, strengthen learning skills, resolve conflicts, and establish
positive attitude. SCAN @ https://www.scanva.org/parent-resource-post/social-development-in-
children/

Emotional development, on the other hand, involves learning what feelings and emotions are,
understanding how and why they occur, recognising your own feelings and those of others, and
developing effective ways for managing those feelings. https://tinyurl.com/yj282zpb

Summary of the Socio-emotional Development of Children and Adolescents

(Corpuz et.al., 2018):

Socio-emotional development is very crucial in the early years of life. Varied theories explained that
the development in the early years of life has an impact in the behavior and adjustments of the child
in the adult life. Let us view the socio-emotional development of the child in the different stages of life.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 4
Infancy and Toddlerhood. The child:
 expresses different basic emotions
 demonstrates ability to self-regulate feelings/emotions and follows schedules as well as rules
and regulations
 comprehends and displays self-appraisal emotions like shame, pride, guilt
 is receptive to the different emotions of other people and shows empathy
 expresses knowledge of self and basic roles of people in his/her immediate environment
 forms healthy attachments to primary caregivers and other significant adults and children in
his/her life
 plays and has positive interactions with other children
 has positive relations and interactions with adults
 takes social cues from the environment and adjusts his behaviour accordingly
 recognizes and respects similarities and differences in people, language, culture

Preschoolers. The child:

 expresses basic emotions
 has self-regulation of feelings/emotions
 displays self-appraisal emotions
 is receptive to other’s emotion and has empathy
 has emerging sense of self
 talks about parts of the body and their functions
 forms attachments
 interactions with other children
 interaction with adults is stronger
 establishes sensitivity to others
 appreciates diversity

Primary Schoolers. The child:

 school experiences become the priority
 acquires self-esteem, confidence and ability to interact positively with others in the environment
 increase in self-concept
 increase in awareness of other’s needs and desires
 considers loyalty, reliability, responsibility and kindness

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 5
  belongs to a peer group, most probably, of the same gender
 gains self-control

Intermediate Schoolers. The child:

 gains social support from other children of different ages and gender
 acquires self-competence, self-identity, self-concept
 distinguishes himself from others
 takes on different perspectives
 develops emotional intelligence
 has greater ability to show or conceal emotions
 has the ability to redirect feelings
 has develop genuine empathy
 spends more time in peer interaction, peer relationships
 increases the sense of belongingness
 seeks peer acceptance

Adolescence. The child:

 develops social cognition in the context of family structure, the school, the community, and the
media
 develops human emotions that can arouse or slow down challenges of life
 possesses positive and negative emotions
 develops inaccurate observable emotions which may become a problem if uncontrolled
 has the ability to regulate his own emotions, and understand emotions of others
 develops insecurities in relation to social media

Role of Caregivers in the Socio-emotional Development (Corpuz, et.al., 2018)

To ensure a sound socio-emotional development in children, the following suggestions are given to
Parents, Teachers, and Caregivers:
 Have a good spirit and encouraging when interacting with the child.
 Smile often.
 Hug the child, pat the child on his/her back, hold his/her hands.
 Comfort the child.
 Repeat or make comments or try to answer what the child is saying or asking.
 Encourage the child to talk or communicate or repeat phrases normally.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 6
  Praise, encourage the child.
 Greet each child with his/her name each day.
 Be sincere and respect each child.
 Read to the child storybooks about friendships and different feelings.
 Develop routines that encourage working together and getting along.
 Help the child learn to make rules and play simple games by providing opportunities for them
to play in small groups.
 Let them play games that involve social interaction and team work.
 Teach him to request, bargain, negotiate, and apologize.
 Help children understand and cope with strong feelings by giving them words that they can use
to express how they feel.
 Use dolls, puppets or pictures to demonstrate to children how to express feelings appropriately.
 Acknowledge how the child feels.
 Catch children doing good. Affirms the efforts they make to accomplish something. Be specific
in your praise.
 Read storybooks that deals about friendships.
 Support the child in the development of his/her interests, inclinations and hobbies.
 For Teachers, develop routines that encourage working together and getting along.

Implications To Child Care, Education and Parenting (Corpuz, et.al., 2018)

Socio-emotional competence should be viewed in the context of the child’s developmental age.
What the teachers, parents, and health care givers should do are the following:
 Gain understanding of the child’s socio-emotional strengths and weaknesses by observing the
child’s behaviour at home.
 Work collaboratively with the child’s parents and health-care providers to expand one’s insights
on the child’s development.
 Provide a supportive setting where children have opportunities to practice emotional regulation
and social skills with peers.
 Give children activities when they can practice taking turns, sharing and playing cooperatively.
 Be a role model of healthy emotions and expressing these emotions appropriately.
 Demonstrate calmness and staying in control of one’s own feelings.
 Encourage children to talk about their feelings without doing it forcefully.
 Provide opportunities for children to build relationships with teachers and fellow classmates.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 7
  Remind children that friendship s have their ups and downs and that occasional.
 Design activities that allow children to work on their own and discover activities and hobbies
that they enjoy.
 Model healthy relationships.
 Promote positive changes.
 Conduct interventions to assist the children, especially the adolescents, on risky and
inappropriate behavior while promoting positive development.

B. Development of Self and Social Understanding

As the person grows, his personality is also formed. There are different views as to how
individual personality develops.

1. Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud)

Click the image to view a video on Sigmund Freud.

Image taken from https://www.history.com/.image/t_share/MTU3ODc4NjAzNTIzNjk2MzUx/hith-10-things-sigmund-freud-501585595-2.jpg

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) opined in his Psychoanalytic theory as that “what a child
experiences in early years of life have somehow influenced his personality in adulthood” (Owens,
2006). There are five distinct and sequential stages of Freud’s development theory, where needs are
to be met in each stage. Each stage has specific erogenous zones or sensitive areas of the human
body which provide pleasure and satisfaction when needs are met, otherwise fixation occurs. If
fixation occurs, the person tends to reduce tension by resorting to behavior that could have been
significant during earlier stages of development (Owens, 2006).

According to Freud (Owens, 2006), how well a child comes through each stage, depends on
how the child’s sexual impulses and behavior are handled. How we are raised by our parents was
crucial to our own development, which directly or indirectly affect our future endeavors in life.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 8
 Personality development in childhood takes place during these stages. To learn more about
the Psychoanalytic Theory of Sigmund Freud, you can log in at
https://www.simplypsychology.org/psychosexual.html

The following table presents the stages of development postulated by Sigmund Freud.

Table 1. Stages of the Psychoanalytic Theory of Sigmund Freud

Stage Behavior Fixation Developmental Outcome/ Personality Erogenous Zone

Oral (Birth to 18 Child gums, Child weaned from As adult, will be dependent, gullible,
Months mouths, bites bottle too early or ready “to swallow anything (Oral
old)) everything in too late aggressive); excessive eating, mouth
sight; oral drinking, kissing, and smoking
pleasures behaviors (Oral receptive); Oral
through rooting Personality; if properly developed,
and sucking will develop sense of trust and
comfort
Anal (18 months- Bowel Child is severely As adult, overly neat, always on
3 Years old) movement and toilet-trained or time, stingy, perfectionist, controls
controlling undertrained feelings (anal retentive), stubborn, anus
bladder (control of bodily never disobeys orders, excessive
needs) sloppiness, messy, disorganized
(anal expulsive); develop sense of
accomplishment and
independence,
capability and productiveness,
orderliness
Phallic (3-6 years Awareness of Child fails to Sexual deviances; weak or
old) sexual organs; identify with the confused sexual identity
interested in same-sex parent genitals
what makes (Oedipal and
boys and girls Electra complexes)
different
Latency (6 years A period of No psychosexual Boys and girls peer group; Sexual energy
old – suspended or fixation occurs heterogeneous relationships; is directed to
puberty) repressed sexual identity; develop social and physical and
sexual activity communication skills , self- intellectual
and urges, confidence, and defense pursuits, and
energies shift to mechanisms social life
physical and
intellectual/
academic
activities
Genital (puberty Sexual interests Role confusion If development has been Finding a
onwards) once again successful, during the early stages, lifetime
awaken towards it leads to marriage, mature partner,
opposite sex sexuality, and the birth and rearing vocation,
of children; develop well-balanced profession,
life, warm and caring personality career paths

.Freud described personality structures as having three components, the id, the ego and the
superego. The experiences of the child during the growth periods influence the development of a well-

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 9
adjusted personality. Table 2 summarizes the personality structure of Freud, while Table 3 describes
the structure of the human mind that plays a very important role in the development of the personality.

Table 2. Components of Personality

Components of Personality Characteristics
-this is what we are born with
-very essential for the gratification of the baby’s needs
Id -Pleasure principle: immediate gratification or satisfaction of
(babyhood)
one’s own needs
-Instincts-
-not oriented towards considering reality nor the needs of others
-I love myself; I, me, my, concept.
-Reality principle: awareness of the needs of others
-conscious of surroundings and environment
Ego
(toddlerhood/preschooler) -practical application and considers the best response to
-Reality- Situations (decision making)
-You, they, we, concept
-Moral aspect

Superego -developed from experiences as the child grows and develops

(end of phallic stage and -likened to conscience, and considers or influence what is
onward)
-Morality- considered to be right or wrong
-you, they, we, what is right and wrong, concept

Table 3. The Topographic Model of the Human Mind

Freud’s Structure of Human
Characteristics
Mind
-awareness of everything
Conscious
-comprises a very small part of personality
-comprised of information readily available when needed, but
Preconscious/Subconscious
not actively available in the conscious mind
-largely comprised the human thoughts

Unconscious -experiences, beliefs, feelings, impulses

-experienced of extreme anxiety, pain and strong emotions

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 10
2. Psychosocial Theory (Eric Erikson)

Click the image to view a video on Erik Erikson.

Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was a developmental stage theorist

who took Freud’s controversial theory of psychosexual development
of Freud and modified it as a psychosocial theory. Erikson
emphasized that the ego makes positive contributions to
development by mastering attitudes, ideas, and skills at each stage
of development. This mastery helps children grow into successful,
Image taken from Blendspace.com
contributing members of society. During each of Erikson’s eight
stages, as reflected in Figure 1, there is a psychological conflict that must be successfully
overcome in order for a child to develop into a healthy, well-adjusted adult, these are
presented in Table 4.

Figure 1. Stages of Psychosocial Development

https://www.verywellmind.com/erik-eriksons-stages-of-psychosocial-development-2795740

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 11
 The figure presents how development proceeds in a series of stages from infancy to maturity
or old age. Erikson’s theory described the impact of social experiences across the whole lifespan, and
explained how social interaction and relationships played a role in the child’s growth and development
(Cherry, 2021 @verywellmind.com/erik-erikson)

Table 4. The Stages of Psychosocial Development

STAGE PERIOD PSYCHOSOCIAL RELATIONSHIP EXPERIENCES POSITIVE NEGATIVE
OF LIFE CRISIS WITH , DECISIONS, RESOLUTION RESOLUTION
CHOICES
I 0 to 18 Trust vs mistrust Maternal person To get Reliance on caregiver Fear, anxiety, and
months To give in return Development of trust in suspicion
the environment Lack of care, both
physical and
psychological by
caretaker leads to
mistrust in the
environment
II 18 Autonomy vs Paternal person To hold on Sense of self-worth Loss of self-esteem
months – shame/doubt To let go Assertion of choice and Sense of external
3 yrs will control may
Environment produce self-
encourages doubt in others
independence,
leading to sense of
pride
III 3 to 6 Initiative vs guilt Family To make The ability to learn to The inability to control
years To make like initiate activities newly-developed
To enjoy achievement power
and competence Realization of poten-
tial failure leads to
fear of punish-
ment and guilt
IV 6 to 12 Industry vs Neighbors To make things Learning the value of Repeated frustration
years inferiority School To make together work and failure lead to
Acquiring skills and feelings of
tools of technology inadequacy and
Competence helps to inferiority that
order life and to may affect their
make things work view of
life
V 12 to 18 Identity vs role Peer group To be oneself Experiments with Pressures and
years confusion To share being various roles in demands may
oneself developing mature lead to confusion
individuality about self
VI 18 to 24 Intimacy vs Partners in To lose and find A commitment to others Withdrawal from such
years isolation friendship oneself in Close heterosexual intimacy, isolation,
Sex competition another relationship and self-absorption
procreation and alienation
from others
VII 24 to 54 Generalitivity vs Partner To make be The core an concern for Self-indulgence and
years self-absorption To take care of the next generation resulting in
Widening interest in psychological
work and ideas impoverishment
VIII 54 years Integrity vs Mankind To be Acceptance of one’s Disappointment with
to death despair Through having life Realization of the one’s life and
been inevitability of death desperate fear of
To face not being Feeling of dignity and death
meaning of
existence

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 12
 One of the strengths of Erikson's theory is its ability to tie together important psychosocial
development across the entire lifespan. Although support for Erikson's stages of personality
development exists, critics of his theory provide evidence suggesting a lack of discrete stages of
personality development. For further learning, you may log in at
https://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik- Erikson.html

3. Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)

Click the image to view a video on Albert Bandura.

Albert Bandura’s (1925) Social Learning Theory acknowledges

that human beings imitate the behaviors of others and have cognitive,
symbolic capacities that allow them to regulate their own behavior, and,
to some degree, control their environment rather than being completely
controlled by it.

Image taken from Wikipedia

He further stresses that many kinds of behavior are learned simply by observations and
imitation, or emulating, based on self-interest. Children learn from models how the observed behavior
might aid or hinder them in fulfilling their needs in the future. He, further, gave additional weight to the
children’s ability to decide for themselves which behaviors to model (cognition to modelling), based
on their own personal standards. Whatever a person learns from observing others as they perform
tasks is influenced by processes such as attention and memory.

Cognitive processes play a central role in regulating what children attend to, how they describe
or think about what they see, and whether they repeat it to themselves or lodge it in memory, that
some developmental trends in imitation become apparent. Young infants’ modelling or imitative
behaviors, are mainly instantaneous, whereas older children, because of their more sophisticated
cognitive functioning, can store and recall after extended periods of time. As language and memory
skills become more advanced, children’s abilities to profit from models are enhanced. Children
without an adequate coding system will fail to store what they have seen or heard. Older children are
able to pay attention to pertinent cues in a modelling situation.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 13
 Maturity is also an important consideration. It needs maturity to enable to understand or
perform a more complicated task.

The following are four sets of processes to produce a behavior that matches that of a model.
First, a child’ experience in particular situation influences his ability to achieve a modelled behaviour.
Second, whatever skills are retained from what a child has observed are a collection of cognitive
skills. Third, the reproduced behavior is dependent on other cognitive skills that includes feedback
from others. Fourth, the motivation to produce the behaviour is influenced by various incentives; his
own standards, and his tendency to compare himself with others.

C. Development of Motivation and Self-Regulation

1. Content Theories

a. Hierarchy of Needs (Abraham Maslow)

Humanist psychologists teach that to understand psychology, we must look at

individuals and their motivations. Abraham Maslow's "hierarchy of needs" exemplifies this
approach: a system of needs, such as food, love and self-esteem, determines a person's
behavior to various extents. Meeting these needs leads to a sense of self-satisfaction and
solves psychological problems.
Click the image to view a video on the hierarchy of needs.

Figure 2. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 14
 b. ERG Theory (Alderfer)

Alderfer’s ERG theory of motivation builds on Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and states
that humans have three core types of need: Existence, Relatedness and Growth. These
needs may be of different levels of priority for different individuals, and their relative
importance for an individual may vary over time. (Summary by The World of Work Project:
https://worldofwork.io/2019/02/alderfers-erg-theory-of-motivation/)

Alderfer’s ERG Theory of Motivation states that individuals can be motivated by multiple
levels of need at the same time, and that the level which is most important to them can
change over time. In other words, an individual’s priorities and motivations may be fluid
and can move between the existence, relatedness and growth levels of need over time.
They can move upwards, and they can move downwards.

Click the image to view a video on the ERG Theory.

Figure 3. ERG Theory

Image taken from worldofwork.io

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 15
 In Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, individuals need to have satisfied one level of needs
before moving on to the next one. For example, they need to have satisfied their safety
needs before being motivated by social belonging. Alderfer disagreed. In his model,
individuals do not need to have satisfied their existence needs before being motivated by
their relatedness need.

In fact, Alderfer went further and said that different individuals potentially prioritize the
needs in different orders based on their life views. A standard example of this could be the
starving actor who’s motivated by growth through their art, potentially at the expense of
their existence (i.e. they can’t pay their rent but are pursuing their passion).

Alderfer also noted that how individuals perceive their progression in relation to each of
the levels of need is important. If an individual feels they are making great progress at
relatedness, they may be increasingly motivated by growth even though their relatedness
need has not been fully satisfied. Similarly, if an individual feels frustrated with the progress
they are making in relation to growth, they may abandon it and redouble their motivation in
relation to relatedness.

c. Theory of Needs (McClelland) [excerpt taken from mindtool.com]

In the early 1940s, Abraham Maslow created his theory of needs . This identified the
basic needs that human beings have, in order of their importance: physiological needs,
safety needs, and the needs for belonging, self-esteem and "self-actualization".

Later, David McClelland built on this work in his 1961 book, "The Achieving Society."
He identified three motivators that he believed we all have: a need for achievement, a need
for affiliation, and a need for power. People will have different characteristics depending on
their dominant motivator.

According to McClelland, these motivators are learned (which is why this theory is
sometimes called the Learned Needs Theory).

McClelland says that, regardless of our gender, culture, or age, we all have three
motivating drivers, and one of these will be our dominant motivating driver. This dominant
motivator is largely dependent on our culture and life experiences.
ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 16
 These characteristics are as follows:

Table 5. McClelland’s Theory of Needs

Dominant Motivator Individual’s Characteristics
Achievement  Has a strong need to set and accomplish challenging goals.
 Takes calculated risks to accomplish their goals.
 Likes to receive regular feedback on their progress
and achievements.
 Often likes to work alone.
Affiliation  Wants to belong to the group.
 Wants to be liked, and will often go along with whatever the rest of
the group wants to do.
 Favors collaboration over competition.
 Doesn't like high risk or uncertainty.
Power  Wants to control and influence others.
 Likes to win arguments.
 Enjoys competition and winning.
 Enjoys status and recognition.

2. Process Theories

a. Reinforcement Theory (Skinner)

Click the image to view a video on B.F. Skinner.

Derived from the theory of Thorndike, Skinner analyzed

reinforcing stimuli based on the law of effect. Skinner also
emphasized the effects of the subject’s action among the causes
of behavior. To illustrate, a baby lies in his crib. When he
happens to smile, the mother goes and plays with him. Later, his

Image taken from Biography.com

father does the same thing. As this sequence is repeated, the
baby learns that his behavior (smiling) can produce a desirable
consequence (loving attention from a parent); and so, he keeps smiling to attract his parents’
attention. An originally accidental behavior (smiling) has become a conditioned response.

This kind of learning is what we call operant conditioning because the individual learns
from the consequences of “operating” on the environment. Unlike classical conditioning,
operant conditioning involves voluntary behavior, such as Terrell’s smiling.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 17
 Skinner, who formulated the principles of operant conditioning, found that an organism
will tend to repeat a response that has been reinforced and will suppress a response that
has been punished.

Reinforcement is a consequence of behavior that increases the likelihood that the

behavior will be repeated – in the baby’s case, his parents’ attention reinforces his smiling.

Punishment is a consequence of behavior that decreases the likelihood of repetition. If the

baby’s parents frowned when he smiled, he would be less likely to smile again. Whether a
consequence is reinforcing or punishing depends on the person. What is reinforcing for one
person may be punishing for another. For example, a child who likes being alone, being
sent to his or her room could be reinforcing rather than punishing. Skinner proposed that in
terms of effect, punishment is not the opposite of reinforcement. For Skinner, punishment
leads to 3 undesirable effects: (1) Punished responses only disappear temporarily; (2)
Emotional predisposition such as guilt or shame may be conditioned through the use of
punishment; and (3) Any behavior that reduces the aversive stimulation accompanying the
punishment will be reinforced.

Reinforcement could either be positive or negative. Positive reinforcement consists of

giving a reward, such as food, gold stars, a bonus, or praise- or playing with a baby.
Negative reinforcement consists of taking away something the individual does not like
(known as an aversive event), such as loud raspy noise. Negative reinforcement is
sometimes confused with punishment. However, they are different. Punishment suppresses
a behavior by bringing on an aversive event (such as spanking a child or giving an electric
shock to an animal), or by withdrawing a positive event (such as watching television.
Negative reinforcement encourages repetition of a behavior by removing an aversive event.
When the toddler in the process of toilet training tells his parents he has soiled his diaper,
the removal of the smelly, sticky diaper may encourage the child to signal again the next
time he has an “accident”.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 18
 Table 5: Examples of Positive and Negative Reinforcement

Discriminative Response Consequence Type of Type of

Stimulus Consequence Reinforcement
Vendo machine Aileen puts change Aileen receives Aileen’s behavior Positive
in the machine and candy produces new
pushes the button stimulus
Father nags Andrew studies his Nagging stops Andrew’s behavior negative
Andrew to study lessons for 2 weeks has been followed by
for his lessons to everyday the withdrawal of a
get good grades stimulus

D. Moral Development Theories

Socialization brings about communicating ethical standards to a developing child. His behavior
is shaped by the acquired concept of what is right and wrong. The “right” way to behave is
determined by one’s level of moral development. Morality develops in sequential pattern; the
growth of moral reasoning follows certain stages of development.

1. Moral Development Theory (Jean Piaget)

Click the image to view a video on Jean Piaget.

Piaget (1965) was interested in studying children’s conceptions

about rules and the role that intent plays in children’s thinking about
moral transgressions. Piaget proposed that there are two broad stages
of moral development: Moral Realism and Moral Relativism.

Moral Realism is characterized by the naïve assumption on the

part of the children that rules are external, absolute and unchanging.
Image taken from Britannica
Children in the moral realism stage tend to judge behaviour in absolute
terms; behaviour is totally right or totally wrong. Moreover, the young child feels that everyone
sees and judges the morality of the people and behaviour exactly the same way he or she
does.

Further, the children see themselves as inferior to adults and, from a mixture of fear,
affection, and admiration, they adopt their parents’ moral beliefs unquestioningly. In the
process, they adopt an inflexible moral code based on obedience.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 19
 Morality at this stage is essentially conformity to social prescriptions. Around age 10,
this absolute view gives way to a more relative one, as children become capable of moral
relativism or autonomous morality.

Moral Relativism. The shift from moral realism to moral relativism occurs primarily as a result
of changes in cognitive ability as well as the child’s broadened social experiences. As children
become members of a group, their moral judgments may become less absolute and
authoritarian and more dependent on the needs and desires of the group; when that occurs
moral relativism replaces moral realism. The shift from moral realism to moral relativism is
summarized in the following table.

Table 6. Piagetian Stages of Moral Reasoning

Stage Age Range in Characteristics
years
Premoral Up to 4 -No understanding of rules or of the bases of
right and wrong
Moral Realism 4 to 9 or 10 -Actions judged by material outcome.
(heteronomous morality) -Rules emanate from authority, can’t be
changed.
-Wrong is whatever adults forbid
Moral Relativism From 9 or 10 -Actions judged according to intentions.
(autonomous morality) -Rules made by people; can be changed by
mutual agreement
-Wrong is transgression of moral principles

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 20
 2. Cognitive Theory of Moral Development (Lawrence Kohlberg)

Click the image to view a video on Lawrence Kohlberg.

Lawrence Kohlberg spent many years researching how an individual

develop his or her own moral codes. First, Kohlberg was born into
wealth on October 25, 1927 in Bronxville, New York. Even though he
was wealthy, he chose to become a sailor; and after World War II, he
helped to smuggle Jews through the British blockade of Palestine.
Image taken from nursing-
theory.org

Kohlberg was a psychologist who applied the developmental

approach of Jean Piaget, who he studied under, to the analysis of changes in moral
reasoning. Kohlberg was a professor at Harvard University and did most of his research in
the said institution.

Kohlberg believed and was able to demonstrate through studies that people progressed
in their moral reasoning (i.e., in their bases for ethical behavior) through a series of stages.
He believed that there were six identifiable stages which could be more generally classified
into three levels and he believed that individuals could only progress through these stages
one stage at a time. That is, they could not "jump" stages. They could not, for example,
move from an orientation of selfishness to the law and order stage without passing through
the good boy/girl stage. They could only come to a comprehension of a moral rationale one
stage above their own. Thus, according to Kohlberg, it was important to present them with
moral dilemmas for discussion which would help them to see the reasonableness of a
"higher stage" morality and encourage their development in that direction. The last
comment refers to Kohlberg's moral discussion approach. He saw this as one of the ways
in which moral development can be promoted through formal education. Note that Kohlberg
believed, as did Piaget, that most moral development occurs through social interaction. The
discussion approach is based on the insight that individuals develop as a result of cognitive
conflicts at their current stage.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 21
 3 main levels of moral development:
1. Level One (Preconventional Morality) – children’s judgments are based on external criteria.
Standards of right or wrong are absolute and laid down by authority
Stage 1 behaviour is based on the desire to avoid severe physical punishment by a
superior power. Judgment about what is right or wrong is based on
consequences to him. If an act incurs punishment, then it is wrong.

2. Level Two (Conventional Morality) – children’s judgments are based on the norms and
expectations of the group
Stage 2 actions are based largely on satisfying one’s own personal needs. The child will
help someone else if that person will help him in return.

Stage 3 good behavior is that which pleases others and judgments are based on
intentions. Children conform to rules to win the approval of others and to maintain
good relationships.

Stage 4 what is right is what is accepted. If the social groups accepts rules as appropriate
for all group members, children will conform to them to avoid social disapproval
and censure.

3. Level Three (Post Conventional Morality) – the individual recognizes the arbitrariness of social
and legal conventions. The individual attempts to define moral values that are separate from
group norms.
Stage 5 behaviour recognizes the laws as arbitrary and changeable. For aspects of life not
governed by laws, right and wrong are personal decisions based on agreement
and contracts.

Stage 6 morality is based on respect for others rather than on personal desires. The
individual conforms to both social standards and to internalized ideals to avoid
self- condemnation rather than to avoid social censure.

Kohlberg used a method called clinical interview in his study of how children develop moral
reasoning. The problem asked was this:

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 22
 In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that
the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town
had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten
times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $2000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick
woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but could only get
together about $1000, which was half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was
dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said, “No I
discovered the drug and I’m going to make money from it.” So, Heinz got desperate and
considered breaking into the man’s store to steal the drug for his wife. Should Heinz steal the
radium?

The table below shows how people in each stage of Kohlberg’s Moral Reasoning usually
respond to Heinz dilemma.
Table 7: Heinz Dilemma
Levels Stages of Typical Answers to Heinz Dilemma
Reasoning
Level I: Stage 1: Pro: “He should steal the drug. It isn’t really bad to take it. It isn’t as it he hadn’t
Preconventional Orientation asked to pay for it first. The drug he’d take is worth only $200; he’s not
morality toward really taking a $2,000 drug.”
(ages 4 to 10) punishment and
obedience Con: “He shouldn’t steal the drug. It’s a big crime. He didn’t get permission; he
used force and broke and entered. He did a lot of damage and stole a very
expensive drug.”
Stage 2: Pro: “It’s all right to steal the drug, because his wife needs it and he wants her to
Instrumental live. It isn’t that he wants to steal, but that’s what he has to do to save her.”
purpose and
exchange/
instrumental Con: “He shouldn’t steal it. The druggist isn’t wrong or bad; he just wants to make
relativist a profit. That’s what you’re in business for – to make money.”
orientation
Level II: Stage 3: Pro: He should steal the drug. He is only doing something that is natural for a
Conventional Interpersonal good husband to do. You can’t blame him for doing something out of love
morality concordance or for his wife. You’d blame him if he didn’t love his wife enough to save her.”
(ages 10 to 13 "good boy-nice
or beyond) girl" Con: “He shouldn’t steal. If his wife dies, he can’t be blamed. It isn’t because he’s
heartless or that he doesn’t love her enough to do everything that he legally
can. The druggist is the selfish or heartless one.”
Stage 4: Social Pro: “You should steal it. If you did nothing you’d be letting your wife die. It’s your
concern and responsibility if she dies. You have to take it with the idea of paying the
conscience / druggist.”
"law and order"
orientation Con: “It is a natural thing for Heinz to want to save his wife, but it‘s still always
wrong to steal. He knows he’s taking a valuable drug from the man who
made it.”

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 23
Level III: Post Stage 5: Social Pro: “The law wasn’t set up for these circumstances. Taking the drug in this
conventional contract situation isn’t really right, but it’s justified.”
morality (early legalistic
adolescence, or orientation Con: “You can’t completely blame someone for stealing, but extreme
not until young circumstances don’t really justify taking the law into your own hands. You
adulthood, or can’t have people stealing whenever they are desperate. The end may be
never) good, but the ends don’t justify the means.”

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 24
 Stage 6: Pro: “This is a situation that forces him to choose between stealing and letting his
Universal wife die. In a situation where the choice must be made, it is morally right to
ethical-principle steal. He has to act in terms in the principle of preserving and respecting
orientation life.”

Con: “Heinz is faced with the decision of whether to consider the other people
who need the drug just as badly as his wife. Heinz ought to act not
according to his feelings for his wife, but considering the value of all the
lives involved.”

Kohlberg’s six stage model of moral development is an excellent tool for understanding
students at different stages of moral understanding. By understanding this theory of moral
development, teachers can help to guide the moral characters of their students and help them to
become the best that they can be (Wilber, 2019).

3. Moral Rules (Elliot Turiel)

Click the image to view a video on Elliot Turiel.

Elliot Turiel (1983) maintains that even very young children

can distinguish moral rules from what are dictated by conventions
and are accepted ways of doing things. This is seen in standards of
dressing and even in speech. Moral rules manifest a concern for the
Image taken from naeducation.org welfare of others and are not influenced by opinion.

Moral acts such as hurting someone or hitting somebody as part of a game cannot be
legitimized actions. The youngest children however were less clear about acts leading to
psychological harm, such as name calling as part of a game (Acero, 2008).

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 25
 4. Theory of Moral Development (Carol Gilligan)

Click the image to view a video on Carol Gilligan.

Carol Gilligan (1989) speaks of moral development which strikes a

balance between male-oriented theories as expound by Kohlberg’s and
Freud’s theories, and insights from interviews with females. Based from
Gilligan’s findings, most females think of morality more personally than
males do. They usually are more ethical. To them, morality is to be
treated in terms of their responsibility to others rather than as the rights of
Image taken from
http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_R6i
q-84O09U/TEul1Acx-
individuals. Females are more compassionate by nature and are careful
vI/AAAAAAAAAEY/vSuyZ4IL
eyQ/s1600/CarolGilligan2.jpg and fair in their actions.

Gilligan adds that females tend to see themselves in terms of their relationships with
others. On the contrary, males have the tendency to view themselves as distinct and separate
from others. The concepts of separation and connectedness translate into their approaches to
morality. The assumption that one is separate from others emphasizes the need for rules to
regulate the conduct of human behaviour and actions of each with respect to others. The
assumption that one is connected to others recognizes the responsibility each has for other
(Acero, 2008).

Table 7. Distinction of Males and Females

Moral Characteristics Males Females
Morality Less personal Personal
Relationship Distinct and separate View themselves in terms of
from others their relationship with others
Compassion Less compassionate More compassionate
Responsibility Conceived as not doing Meeting the needs of others as
something that would in caring for the sick
transgress on the rights of
others as when one is
guilty of a physical
assault.

Sex is therefore a differentiating factor although, as Gilligan points out, any attempt to
chart moral development as a single sequence is bound to present only half the picture. The

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 26
 moral development in females is traced through three levels, each showing a different
resolution to the conflict between responsibility to self and responsibility to others.

First Level: The primary concern is with oneself. When one sees caring for oneself as selfish
and not congruent to the responsibility to others, transition to the next level happens.

Second Level: Females equate morality with goodness, self-sacrifice, and caring for others.
The transition to the next level occurs when they meet problems in their relationships resulting
from their exclusion from their own care.

Third Level: Morality is equated with care for both themselves and others.

Further resources on the theories of moral development can be read here:

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 27
PRACTICE

Learning Activity No. 2

Concept Mapping of Socio-Emotional and Moral Development

Group No. and Name: Date Performed:

Course & Year: Score: (HPS: 20 pts)

Objectives:
After the collaborative activity, the students will be able to:
1. organize the theories and concepts of socio-emotional and moral development
using a Concept Map;
2. briefly explain the characteristics of each theory.

Task: 1. You are placed into small groupings through break-out rooms. Assigned groups are as
follows:
Group 1, 3: “Development of Self and Social Understanding”
Group 2, 4: “Development of Motivation and Self-Regulation”
Group 5: “Moral Development”

2. Work cooperatively with each other, expecting all members to contribute ideas.
3. Using a Concept Map, organize the theories of socio-emotional and moral
development.
4. Briefly explain what each theory is all about.
5. Include in the explanation the implication of each theory to child care
and parenting style.
6. Be able to present the group output orally before the class using slide-sharing.

Answers:

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 28
 Concept Map Scoring Rubric
Criteria Exemplary Exceeds Standard Adequately Meets Below
(5 pts) (4 pts) Standard Standard
(3 pts) (1-2 pts)
Structure *Well organized; *Thoughtfully organized; *Somewhat organized; *Choppy and
*Logical format; *Easy to follow most of the *Somewhat incoherent; confusing.
*Contains main concepts; time; *Contains only a few of
*Contains an appropriate *Contains most of the main the main concepts.
number of concepts; concepts;
*Map is “treelike” and not *Contains an adequate
stringy; number of concepts;
*Follow standard map *Follows the standard map
conventions. conventions.

Content *Linking words demonstrate *Linking words easy to *Linking words are clear *Difficult to
superior conceptual follow but at times ideas but present a flawed follow;
understanding; are unclear; rationale; *No links.
*Links are precisely *Links are not precisely *Links are not labelled.
labeled. labelled.

Cooperation *Work extremely well with *Worked very well with *Attempted to work well *Little or no
each other; each other; with others; teamwork.
*Respected and *worked to get everyone *At times “off tasks” and
complemented each other’s involved. not everyone was
ideas. actively involved.

Presentation *Excellently presented that *Clearly presented and the *Attempted to present *Difficulty in
the audience can connect audience was able to the output and the presenting the
with; connect with; audience was able to output is very
*Exemplary communication *Very good communication connect with; much evident.
skills; skills; *Good communication
*Confidence is very much *Confidence is manifested. skills;
evident. *Confidence sometimes
falters.
Total Score: Description Legend:
20= Exemplary
Description: 16= exceeds Standards
12= Adequately Meets Standard
4-6= Below Standard
Comments/ Suggestions for Improvement

Source: NCSEC (2000) http://pubs.sciepub.com/jbms/2/5/4/Table/3

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 29
 Learning Activity no. 3
Classroom in a Film

Group No. & Name: Date Performed:

Course & Year: Score: (HPS: 30)

Objectives:
At the end of the activity, the students will be able to:

1. identify challenges encountered by the teacher in an actual classroom setting;

2. explain the reason of the chosen course of action by the teacher;
3. conceptualize teaching-learning activities and materials appropriate for
such situation.

Task:
1. Students will be grouped and expected to work cooperatively.
2. They will watch and analyze the movie entitled “Mr. Holland’s Opus”
@ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gF_Zk9h5vug

3. In a written narrative, they will answer the following questions:

a. What specific problems can be identified with regards to classroom
setting, teaching-learning process, audio-visuals used in teaching?
b. What course of action was employed by the teacher?
c. Why did the teacher employ such actions?
d. Conceptualize helpful interventions that can help enhance the growth
and development of the child.

Parts of the Narrative Output:

I. Introduction
II. Body which includes the answers to the questions
III. Concluding Statement
.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 30
 Narrative Writing Scoring Rubric

Criteria Excellent Very Good Good Fair

(5 pts) (4 pts) (3 pts) (1-2 pts)

Introduction Well-developed Introduction creates Introduction Background details

introduction that interest and clearly adequately explains are a random
engages the reader states the position. the background, but collection of
and creates interest. may lack detail. information, unclear,
Contains detailed or not related to the
background topic.
information.
Body Well-developed main Three or more main Three or more main Less than three main
points directly related points are related to points are present. points, and/ or poor
to the idea. Supporting the idea, but one may The narrative shows development of ideas.
examples are concrete lack details. The the events, but may The narrative is
and detailed. The narrative shows lack details undeveloped, and tells
narrative is developed events from the rather than shows, the
with a consistent and author's point of view story.
effective point-of-view, using some details.
showing the story in
detail.
Organization Logical progression of Logical progression of Organization is clear. No discernable
ideas with a clear ideas. Transitions are Transitions are organization.
structure that present equally present. Transitions are not
enhances the ideas. throughout essay present.
Transitions are mature
and graceful.
Style Writing is smooth, Writing is clear and Writing is clear, but Writing is confusing,
skillful, coherent. sentences have varied sentences may lack hard to follow.
Sentences are strong structure. Diction is variety. Diction is Contains fragments
and expressive with consistent. appropriate. and/or run-on
varied structure. sentences.
Diction is consistent Inappropriate diction.
and words well
chosen.
Conclusion Conclusion effectively Conclusion effectively Conclusion is Conclusion does not
wraps up and goes summarizes topics. recognizable and ties summarize main
beyond restating the up almost all loose points.
content. end.
Mechanics Punctuation, spelling, Punctuation, spelling, A few errors in Distracting errors in
capitalization are capitalization are punctuation, spelling, punctuation, spelling,
correct. No errors. generally correct, with capitalization. (3-4) capitalization.
few errors. (1-2)
Total Score:

Description: Legend: 30 pts= Excellent

24 pts= Very Good
18 pts= Good
6-12 pts= Fair

Comments/Suggestions:

https://ira.virginia.edu/sites/ias.virginia.edu/files/humanities_narrativeessay.pdf

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 31
PERFORMANCE
Summative Test

Click the picture to direct you to a Google Docs file. Download the file, answer it, and submit to
your subject instructor.

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 32
REFERENCES

Acero, Victoria D., Castro, Herminia O., & Javier, Evelyn S. (2008). Child and Adolescent
Development. Manila: Rex Book Store.

Anonat,R (2014). Child and Adolescent Development-Updated and Revised Edition. Books Atbp.
Publishing Corp.

Borobado, Heidi Grace L., Corpus, Brenda B., Lucas, M. Rita D., & Lucido, Paz I. (2018). The Child
and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

Cherry, Kendra. (2021). Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development. Retrieved at

https://www.verywellmind.com/erik-eriksons-stages-of-psychosocial-development-2795740

Coutinho, Edson. (2014). Concept Maps: Evaluation Models for Educators. Retrieved at
http://pubs.sciepub.com/jbms/2/5/4/Table/3

Freud, Sigmund. (2012). Psychoanalytic Theory. Retrieved at

https://www.slideshare.net/kinaa1/psychoanalytic-theory-sigmund-freud

Google. Emotional Development. Retrieved at https://tinyurl.com/yj282zpb

Lumen, Education, Society, and the K-12 Learner. (n.d.). Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial
Development. Retrieved at
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/teachereducationx92x1/chapter/eriksons-stages-of-
psychosocial-development/

Lumenlearning.com (n.d.). Theories of Moral Development. Retrieved at

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/adolescent/chapter/theories-moral-development/

McLeod, Saul. (2017). Developmental Psychology. Retrieved at

https://www.simplypsychology.org/developmental-psychology.html.

McLeod, Saul. (2018). Eric Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development. Retrieved at

https://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html

McLeod, Saul. (2019). Freud’s 5 Stages of Psychosexual Development. Retrieved at

https://www.simplypsychology.org/psychosexual.html

Mindtools.com (n.d.) McClelland’s Human Motivation Theory: Discovering What Drives Members of
Your Team. Retrieved at https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/human-motivation-
theory.htm

Rubric for Assessment of the Narrative Essay. Retrieved at

https://ira.virginia.edu/sites/ias.virginia.edu/files/humanities_narrativeessay.pdf

SCAN of Northern Virginia. (n.d.) Social Development in Children. Retrieved at

https://www.scanva.org/parent-resource-post/social-development-in-children/

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 33
Ufuk Altan. (2017). 3 Ways Subconscious Mind Learns. Retrieved at
https://medium.com/@UfukAltan/3-ways-subconscious-mind-learns-e8962ae85cf0

Wilber, Jennifer. (2019). How to Apply Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development in the Classroom as
a Teacher. Retrieved at https://owlcation.com/academia/How-to-Apply-Kohlbergs-Theory-of-
Moral-Development-in-the-Classroom-as-a-Teacher

World of Work Project. (n.d.). Alderfer’s ERG Theory of Motivation. Retrieved at

https://worldofwork.io/2019/02/alderfers-erg-theory-of-motivation/

Video links:
Sigmund Freud: https://youtu.be/TtH5Zh-2YM0
Erik Erikson: https://youtu.be/aYCBdZLCDBQ
Albert Bandura: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UbruJh0MODI
Maslow: https://youtu.be/O-4ithG_07Q
BF Skinner: https://youtu.be/ne6o-uPJarA
Jean Piaget: https://youtu.be/trLFUxqQX3k
Lawrence Kohlberg: https://youtu.be/bounwXLkme4
ERG Theory: https://youtu.be/upBHae2J-LI
Elliot Turiel: https://youtu.be/6p_tJGfavKA
Carol Gilligan: https://youtu.be/HctzZwwueL4
Mr. Holland’s Opus: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gF_Zk9h5vug

ED 111 The Child and Adolescent Learners and the Learning Principles 34