MVGR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING ( A )

VIZIANAGARAM
R 24 REGULATION
A Y : 2024 – 25
I/IV B.TECH
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL
Common to all branches
NAME OF THE STUDENT

REGISTER NUMBER

BRANCH
 PHYSICS
Total Contact Hours 40 L T P C
Pre-requisite Higher Secondary School Physics 3 0 0 3
SYLLABUS
Unit I CRYSTAL PHYSICS 8 hrs
Space Lattice- Unit cell- Crystal systems; Bravais lattices; Atomic packing fraction- Simple Cubic-
BCC- FCC structures; Diamond cubic structure- Calculation of lattice constant; Crystal planes-
Directions- Miller indices; Distance between successive h k l planes; X-ray Diffraction- Bragg’s
law; Powder X-ray diffraction method- Applications.
Unit II MAGNETIC AND DIELECTRIC MATERIALS 8 hrs
Magnetic dipole moment – Permeability- Magnetization- Atomic origin of magnetism; Dia, Para,
Ferro, Anti-ferro and Ferrimagnetic materials; Hysteresis- Soft and Hard magnetic materials;
Dielectric constant- Displacement Vector- Dielectric polarization – Relation between the electric
vectors; Electronic polarization; Ionic polarization- Orientation polarization (Qualitative); Internal
field in dielectrics; Clasius-Mossotti relation in dielectrics;
Unit III WAVE OPTICS 8 hrs
Principle of Superposition- Theory of interference fringes; Interference in thin film- Cosine law;
Newton’s rings-Applications; Diffraction at a single slit- Intensity distribution; Diffraction at N-
parallel slits; Polarization by reflection- Brewester’s law; Double refraction; Quarter and Half wave
plates
Unit IV PHOTONICS 8 hrs
Absorption, Spontaneous and Stimulated emission of radiation; Einstein coefficients- Relation
between the coefficients; Laser- Characteristics- Applications; Population inversion (3-level)-
Components of laser system; Ruby laser- Construction- Working- Advantages; Optic fiber- Principle-
Components of fiber; Numerical aperture- Acceptance angle- Acceptance cone; Classification of
optic fiber- Step Index- Graded Index fibers.
Unit V QUANTUM PHYSICS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 8 hrs
Matter Wave- de Broglie wavelength of matter wave; Uncertainty principle- Wave function-
Physical significance; Schrodinger Time-independent wave equation; Particle in a 1D potential box-
Energies and Wave functions; Fermi-Dirac distribution function- Distinction between metals,
insulators and semiconductors; Intrinsic semiconductors- Carrier concentration- Fermi level;
Extrinsic semiconductors- Carrier concentration; Hall effect
LEARNING RESOURCES
TEXT BOOKS:
1 B.K. Pandey and S. Chaturvedi, Engineering Physics, Second edition. Cengage Learning,
2021.
2 M. N. Avadhanulu, P.G.Kshirsagar and TVS Arun Murthy, A Text book of Engineering
Physics, Eleventh edition. S.Chand Publications, 2019.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1 Hitendra K. Malik and A.K. Singh, Engineering Physics, Second edition. Mc. Graw Hill
Publishers, 2017.
2 M.R. Srinivasan, Engineering Physics, Second edition. New Age International Publishers,
2021.
3 Shatendra Sharma and Jyotsna Sharma, Engineering Physics, First edition. Pearson
Education, 2018.
 LESSON SCHEDULE

UNIT - 1 TOPICS
1 Space Lattice- Unit cell- Crystal systems 5 Crystal planes- Directions- Miller indices
2 Bravais lattices 6 Distance between successive h k l planes
Atomic packing fraction- Simple Cubic- BCC- X-ray Diffraction- Bragg’s law
3 7
FCC structures
Diamond cubic structure- Calculation of lattice Powder X-ray diffraction method-
4 8
constant Applications.
UNIT - 2 TOPICS
9 Magnetic dipole moment – Permeability- 13 Electronic polarization
Magnetization- Atomic origin of magnetism
10 Dia, Para, Ferro, Anti-ferro and Ferrimagnetic 14 Ionic polarization- Orientation polarization
materials (Qualitative)
11 Hysteresis- Soft and Hard magnetic materials 15 Internal field in dielectrics
12 Dielectric constant- Displacement Vector- 16 Clasius-Mossotti relation in dielectrics;
Dielectric polarization – Relation between the
electric vectors
UNIT - 3 TOPICS
17 Principle of Superposition- Theory of 21 Diffraction at N-parallel slits
interference fringes
18 Interference in thin film- Cosine law 22 Polarization by reflection- Brewester’s law
19 Newton’s rings-Applications 23 Double refraction
20 Diffraction at a single slit- Intensity 24 Quarter and Half wave plates
distribution
UNIT - 4 TOPICS
25 Absorption, Spontaneous and Stimulated 29 Ruby laser- Construction- Working-
emission of radiation Advantages
26 Einstein coefficients- Relation between the 30 Optic fiber- Principle- Components of fiber
coefficients
27 Laser- Characteristics- Applications 31 Numerical aperture- Acceptance angle-
Acceptance cone
28 Population inversion (3-level)- Components of 32 Classification of optic fiber- Step Index-
laser system Graded Index fibers
UNIT - 5 TOPICS
33 Matter Wave- de Broglie wavelength of matter 37 Fermi-Dirac distribution function- Distinction
wave between metals, insulators and
semiconductors
34 Uncertainty principle- Wave function- 38 Intrinsic semiconductors- Carrier
Physical significance concentration- Fermi level
35 Schrodinger Time-independent wave equation 39 Extrinsic semiconductors- Carrier
concentration
36 Particle in a 1D potential box- Energies and 40 Hall effect
Wave functions
 Contents

Unit -1 Crystal physics 1 - 21

Unit -2 Magnetic and Dielectric materials 22 - 42

Unit -3 Wave optics 43 - 73

Unit -4 Photonics 74 - 95

Unit -5 Quantum physics and Semiconductors 96 - 118

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Unit – I Crystal Physics

1.00 Basic concepts

1.Space lattice (3M)

It is defined as an infinite array of points in three dimensions in
which every point has same surrounding as any other point in the
array.

Let ⃗ and be the vectors of equal magnitude taking along

and directions respectively. By repeating this translation of vectors ⃗ and along two
dimensions that generates square array of points as shown in fig.
Let us take any lattice point O as origin and a lattice point at the position P can be represented
by translation vector⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ . Similarly by repeating this translation of three non
coplanar vectors ⃗ , and among three dimensions provides space lattice.
Here ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ where are integers which represent the
number of lattice points among the , directions respectively.
2.Basis (3M)

An atom or group of atoms identical in

arrangement, composition and orientation is
called basis.

The basis consists of two atoms represented by

large and small circles and their orientation as shown in fig. The crystal structure is obtained by
placing the basis on each lattice point in regular fashion such that the center of basis coincides
with each lattice point. Thus space lattice combines with basis that generates crystal structure
i.e. Space lattice Basis Crystal structure .

3. Unit cell (3M)

It is defined as the smallest geometric figure, the

repetition of which in three dimensions will give the
actual crystal structure.

Let us choose a small group of lattice points and

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imagining them to be located in a cell known as unit cell. By repeating this unit cell among
three definite directions in space provides atomic positions in a crystal.
The choice of unit cell is not unique. But it can be chosen in to number of possible ways like
and as shown in fig.
4. Primitive cell and non-primitive cell
If the unit cell contains only one lattice point is called primitive cell but unit cell contains more
than one lattice point is called non primitive cell.

5. Lattice ( Cell ) parameters (3M)

The linear and angular dimensions of unit cell are called lattice parameters.

Let , and be the intercepts of unit cell on , axis are

called linear dimensions or primitives. The angles between the three
crystallographic axes of unit cell are known as angular dimensions
or inter facial angles as shown fig.

Generally are interfacial angles between

respectively. The lattice parameters determine
the actual size and shape of the unit cell.

6 Atomic radius ( r )

It is a half of the distance between two nearest neighboring atoms in a unit cell.

7. Nearest neighboring distance ( 2r )

It is a distance between two nearest neighboring atoms in a unit cell.

8.Coordination number

It is defined as the number of equidistant nearest neighboring atoms directly surrounding to a

given atom is known as coordination number.

9. Atomic packing fraction or Density packing

It is defined as the ratio of volume occupied by the atoms in an unit cell to total volume of

the unit cell . Packing fraction

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10. Inspect the relation between lattice constant and density for cubic unit cell and
deduce relevant expression. (3M)

Consider and be the molecular weight and density of unit cell since the edges of the cube
are equal and constant, it is known as lattice constant.

Mass of the unit cell (1)

Let be the number of atoms per unit cell.

The mass of each atom , Where Avogadro’s number.

Then, total mass of unit cell ( ) (2)

Comparing Eq.(1) and Eq.(2) we have

( ) or ( ) ∴ ( )

1.01 Describe the seven crystal systems with neat diagrams. ( 7M )

Crystal system Lattice parameters Diagram
1. Cubic system

2. Tetragonal system

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3. Orthorhombic
system

4. Monoclinic
system

5. Triclinic
system

6. Rhombohedral
or
Trigonal
system

7. Hexagonal
system and
.

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1.02 What is Bravais lattice? Illustrate Bravais lattices in seven crystal systems ( 7M )
If all points in the lattice have same surroundings is called Bravais lattice. They are Primitive
( ), Body Centered ( ), Face Centered ( ) and Base Centered ( ) respectively.

1. The Cubic system has three

Bravais lattices as shown
in figs.

2. The Tetragonal has two Bravais lattices as

shown in figs.

3. The Orthorhombic system has four Bravais lattices as shown in figs.

4. The Monoclinic system has two

Bravais lattices as shown in figs.

5. The Triclinic system has one Bravais lattice as shown in fig.

6. The Rhombohedral or Trigonal system has one Bravais

lattice as shown in fig.

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7. The Hexagonal system has one Bravais lattice as shown in fig.

1.03 Explain structure and packing fraction of simple cubic crystal (7M)

Effective number of atoms

The unit cell has 8 corner atoms. Since each corner atom is shared
by 8 adjacent unit cells as shown in fig a.

∴ The effective number of atoms per unit cell

Coordination number
Each corner atom is directly linked with six equidistant nearest
neighbouring atoms. Two atoms along -axis, two atoms along - axis
and two atoms along -axis. The total number of atoms surrounded to a
given atom is six and hence coordination number is 6 as shown in fig b.

Atomic radius
It has eight atoms at eight corners of the cube only. All corner atoms
touch each other along edge of the cube. If be side of the cube and
be the radius of atom as shown in Fig c.
∴

Atomic packing fraction

It is the ratio of volume occupied by the atoms in a unit cell to total volume of the unit cell

. Atomic packing fraction

( )
( )
0.52

Thus, atomic packing fraction is about 52% and hence this structure is a loosely packed.
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1.04 Explain structure and packing fraction of body centered cubic crystal (7M)

Effective number of atoms

The unit cell has 8 corner atoms and 1 atom inside the cube. Since
each corner atom is shared by 8 adjacent unit cells and body
central atom does not share by any unit cell as shown in fig b.

∴ The effective number of atoms per unit cell

Coordination number
Each corner atom do not touch each other but every corner atom touches only with body
centered atom. Therefore a body centered atom is surrounded by eight corner atoms and hence
the coordination number is 8.

Atomic radius
The corner atom does not touch each other. But each corner atom
touches the center atom only as shown in fig b.
( )
( ) 3
√
( or ) √ ∴

Atomic packing fraction

It is the ratio of volume occupied by the atoms in a unit cell to total volume of the unit cell .

Atomic Packing fraction

√
( ) √
π 0.68 68%

Thus, atomic packing fraction is equal to 68% so it not closed packed structure.

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1.05 Explain structure and packing fraction of face centered cubic crystal (7M)

Effective number of atoms

The unit cell has 8 corner atoms and 6 face-centered atoms. Since
each corner atom is shared by 8 adjacent unit cells and each face-
centered atom is shared by 2 unit cells as shown in fig a.

∴ The effective number of atoms per unit cell

Coordination number
Every face center atom touches with the corner atom only. It would be simultaneously touching
four corner atoms in the same plane, four corner atoms in the above plane and four corner
atoms in the below plane. Therefore the coordination number is 12.
Atomic radius
The corner atom does not touch each other but each corner atom
touches central atom along the face diagonal as shown in fig b.
( )
( ) or √ ∴
√

Atomic packing fraction

It is the ratio of volume occupied by the atoms in a unit cell to total volume of the unit cell V.

Atomic packing fraction

( )
√
0.74 74 %
√

Thus, atomic packing fraction is equal to 74% and so it is more closed packed structure.

1.06 Explain structure and packing fraction of diamond (7M)

The diamond cubic unit cell is considered as inter penetration of

two FCC carbon unit cells from one another along a body diagonal

by a distance of the cube edge. Thus the origin of first unit cell

is at ( 0, 0, 0 ) and second unit cell is at ( , , ) as shown in fig a.

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The atomic positions of unit cell are projected on bottom face of cube as shown in fig b. The
heights of atomic positions of 1st unit cell is 0 , and 2nd unit cell is , denoted in terms of

cube edge.
Effective number of atoms
It has eight corner atoms and six face centered atoms and four more
atoms are located inside the unit cell. Each corner atom is shared by
eight unit cells and each face centered atom is shared by two unit
cells. ∴ The effective number of carbon atoms per unit cell

Coordination number
Each carbon atom is directly linked with four equidistant nearest neighbouring carbon atoms.
Therefore the coordination number is 4.
Atomic radius

The two carbon atoms at ( ) and ( ) will touch along the body diagonal, then

the nearest neighboring distance is obtained by

√
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) and hence atomic radius

Atomic packing fraction

It is the ratio of volume occupied by the atoms in a unit cell to total volume of the unit cell V.

Atomic packing fraction

√ √

Thus, atomic packing fraction is equal to 34% and it is more loosely packed structure.
1.07 Crystal planes & directions

A crystal is made up an aggregate of a large number of equidistance parallel planes passing

through a lattice points known as crystal planes. For a given lattice planes can be chosen in
different ways. Spacing between successive planes is different for different sets of parallel
planes. It is essential to indicate certain directions and planes inside the crystal for crystal
analysis as shown in figs.

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It is possible to describe certain planes and directions with respect to the crystal lattice using a
set of three integers referred to as Miller Indices.

Origin is never considered on the plane or plane is never considered on origin.

1.08 What are the Miller indices? How they are obtained
and write their significance. (7M)

The Miller Indices is defined as a reciprocal of the intercepts

made by the plane on the three axes which are reduced in to
smallest integers.

Consider a plane intersecting the three axes at , and

respectively. The corresponding intercepts are , and . We use the following procedure
to obtain Miller Indices of the plane .

i) Find the intercepts of the plane on three axes. Let there be , and respectively.
ii) Express these intercepts as multiples of the lattice parameters .

iii) Take the ratio of reciprocals of the coefficients of intercepts

iv) Convert these reciprocals in to whole numbers by multiplying each with their to
get the smallest whole number. This gives the Miller Indices ( h k l ) of the plane.

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1.09 What are the important features of Miller indices (7M)

i) They do not define a single plane, but set of parallel planes.

ii) A plane passing through the origin is defined as in terms of parallel plane having non
zero intercepts.
iii) A plane parallel to one coordinate axis has Miller index is zero for that direction.
iv) All equally spaced parallel planes have the same index numbers ( )
v) The ratio of the indices is only important i.e. ( ) plane same as ( ) plane.
vi) When the intercept of the plane on any axis is negative a bar is put on the
corresponding Miller index.
vii) A plane parallel to one of the coordinate axes has an intercept at infinity.
viii) If a normal is drawn to plane ( h k l ) , the direction of the normal is also [ ]

1.10 Sketch the following planes & directions within a cubic unit cell

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1.11 Derive an expression for inter planar spacing between successive parallel planes
in terms of Miller indices ( ) (7M )

The shortest distance between two successive parallel

planes is known as inter planar spacing.

Let be the one of the equally spaced parallel planes

represented by Miller indices ( ) . Suppose the
reference plane passes through origin and the next plane
making intercepts on the coordinate axes , and

equal to , and respectively.

A normal is drawn to the plane from the origin

as shown in fig. The distance of the plane from the origin is the inter planar spacing
Let the angles made by the normal with , , and axis be , and respectively.

= and
⁄

According to the law of direction cosine is

Substituting the values,

We get ( ) ( ) ( ) 1

[ ]

For orthorhombic system

√

For cubic system √

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1.12 State and explain Bragg’s law (7M)

It states that X- rays reflected from set of equi spaced parallel planes of a crystal interfere
constructively, then path difference is equal to integral multiples of wave length of X-rays.

Let us consider a crystal made up of equidistant parallel planes of atoms with inter planar
separation When a beam of monochromatic - rays
of wave length λ incident at a glancing angle θ on set of
parallel planes of a crystal. As - rays penetrate the
crystal they are reflected by the atoms in all directions as
shown in fig.

Consider a ray reflected at atom in the direction

from the plane 1 and another ray reflected at atom in the direction from the plane 2
respectively. The length of path is greater than the length of the path R.

To find the path difference between the rays R and draw normal and on the -
ray . The path difference between these rays is equal to ( ). The reflected ray will
be in phase or out of phase will depend on path difference.

In sin ∴ sin

In sin ∴ sin

Hence the path difference + 2 sin

The reflected rays in phase with each other then the path difference must be an integral
multiples of wave length of - rays. i.e. 2d sin nλ where 0, 1, 2, 3,… is the order
of diffraction.

1.13 Why does crystal act as three dimensional grating for X-rays (3M)

In a crystal atoms are arranged at lattice points in a regular fashion. The distance between
successive atoms in the order of 1 . In a crystal atomic centers are not in one plane but are
distributed in 3dimnetional space. Hence, crystal act as three dimensional grating with X-rays. .
But in optical grating the centers of atoms are limited to one plane.

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1.14 Discuss the Powder X-Ray diffraction method. ( Debye - Scherer method ) (7M)
Construction
It consits of a source of monochromatic X-rays of wavelength , be the two
parallel narrow slits. The fine
polycrystalline powder specimen is filled
in a thin capillary tube and mounted
vertically at the center of cylindrical
camera of radius .
A strip of photographic film is wrapped
inside the cylindrical camera to record the
diffraction pattern as shown in fig a.
Working
A fine beam of X-ray from source is allowed to fall on a powder specimen. It contains a
large number of small crystallites with random orientations, almost all the possible values of
and values are available. Bragg’s condition will be satisfied for a set of parallel planes the
diffracted rays are in the form of cone with its apex at the specimen and semi vertical angle
2 .
Different cones are recorded on a photographic
film in the form of a pairs of symmetric arcs and
their centers coincide on either exit hole or
entrance hole. As the diffraction angle
increases the curvature of arcs also changes and
become a straight line at and between
to the curvature of arcs is reversed as shown in fig b.
Theory
Let be the distance on a film between particular pair of arcs and corresponding diffraction

angle is equal to or

If ….etc. are the distances between symmetrical arcs on the film then ,

, …. etc.

The inter planar distance is estimated by using the Bragg’s law for first order diffraction.

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Limitations of powder method.
It does not deal with particle size
The exposure times are long and that closely spaced arcs are not resolved.
1.16 Predict X-ray diffraction rules for parallel planes with Miller indices (h k l) in SC,
BCC and FCC. (3M)
) Simple cubic structure
i) Miller Indices and of parallel planes have any value.
ii) The ratio of should be 1:2:3:4:5:6:8: …,
) Body centered cubic structure
i) Sum of Miller Indices and of parallel planes is always even number.
ii) The ratio of should be 2:4:6:8:10:12:14:16:….,
) Face centered cubic structure
i) Sum of Miller Indices and of parallel planes all are even or odd number.
ii) The ratio of should be 3:4:8:11:12:16: ……..,
1.17 What are the applications of X-ray diffraction method. (3M)
1. To differentiate between crystalline and non-crystalline materials.
2. To determine the orientation of single crystals.
3. To determine the structure of crystalline materials.
4. To determine the electron distribution within the atoms.
1.18 Visible range of wavelengths cannot be used for crystal structure analysis
(3M)
For diffraction the wavelength of light used should be matches with the inter atomic distance.
So we cannot use the visible light as its wavelength is 400 nm to 700 nm. X-rays are having
wavelength of around an angstroms which is same as the inter atomic distance of the crystal.
1.19 Explain significance of X- ray diffraction ( 3M )
1. It can be used to analyze physical properties such a crystal structure of solid and liquid
samples.
2. It can be used to determine either the lattice parameters, arrangement of individual atoms in a
single crystal.
3. It can be used to determine the phase analysis of polycrystalline materials.

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Solved examples

1. Lithium crystallizes in BCC structure. Calculate the lattice constant, given that the
atomic weight and density for Lithium are 6.94 and 530kg/ m3 respectively. Given
Avogadro number (3M)

Given data Effective number of atoms in bcc n 2 , Atomic weight M 6.94 amu

density 530 Kg/ m3 and Avogadro number

Solution ( ) Where is Avogadro’s number

( ) ∴ 3.517

2.Calculate the distance between two nearest copper atoms in the FCC structure. Copper has
density 8.96 gm/cm3 and the atomic weight 63.5 amu. Avogadro’s number is 6.023
gm/mole. (3M)

Given that Copper is cubic crystal with FCC lattice constant is given by ( )

Where M is the molecular weight, thedensity of the crystal, 4 effectivenumber of

atoms. Solution ( )

The nearest neighbor distance in FCC lattice is

√

Therefore we have 7.17

√

3.Nickel exhibits FCC crystal structure. Determine its atomic radius and mass density.
Given lattice constant and atomic weight of Ni are 3.52Å and 58.71 amu respectively.
Given Avogadro number is 6.023 X 1023 atoms/gm-mole ( 3M)
Sol : Given that lattice constant , atomic weight
Effective number of atoms for fcc Avogadro number 6.023 X 1023
atoms/gm-mole.

Atomic radius in fcc unit cell

√

Lattice constant ( ) and hence and (1)

( )
gm /cm3

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4.A substance with FCC has density of 6200 kg/m3 and of molecular weight 60.2 amu.
Examine its lattice constant „a‟. Given Avogadro number is 6.02 X 1026 atoms/kg-mole.
Sol : Density of the substance 6200 kg/m3 , molecular weight 60.2 amu
Effective number of atoms in fcc and Avogadro number 6.023 X 1026
atoms/kg-mole. (3M)

Lattice constant ( ) ( )

5.Chromium has BCC structure. Its atomic radius is 0.1249nm. Find the free volume of per unit
cell. (3M)

Sol: In BCC length of the cube

√

Volume of the unit cell ( )

The effective number of atoms in a unit cell is 2
Volume of two atoms ( )

Free volume Volume of unit cell – Volume of two atoms

( )
6.NaCl crystallizes in FCC structure and its density is 2180 kg/m3. If the atomic weight of
Sodium and Chlorine is 23 amu and 35 amu respectively. Calculate the distance between two
adjacent atoms. Given Avogadro number 6.023 X 1026 atoms/kg-mole. (3M)
Sol : Given atomic weight of Na and Cl is equal to M = 23 + 35 = 58 amu
Effective number of atoms n = 4 , density
Avogadro number N = 6.023 atoms/kilo mole

( ) ( )

The nearest neighboring distance between two atoms

2r = a /√ = /√ /
7.Silicon crystallizes in diamond cubic structure. The atomic weight and atomic radius
of silicon is 28.06 and 1.176Å respectively. Evaluate the density of silicon crystal in
kg/m3. Given Avogadro number N = 6.023 atoms/kilo mole (3M)
Sol: Given atomic weight of silicon and atomic radius
and effective number of atoms and Avogadro number N = 6.023
atoms/kilo mole
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Lattice constant ( ) and (1)

√
The atomic radius in diamond cubic structure and hence lattice constant

Density ( )
kg/m3

8.Sodium crystallizes in a cubic lattice. The edge of the unit cell is 4.3 A. The density of
sodium is 963 kg/m3, its atomic weight being 23 amu Interpret the type of unit cell the
sodium crystal forms. Avogadro number N = 6.023 atoms/kilo mole (3M)
Sol : Given that edge of the unit cell ,
density , atomic weight M = 23 amu and Avogadro number
N = 6.023 atoms/kilo mole

Lattice constant ( ) and (1)

( )
The effective number of atoms

Sodium crystallizes in BCC structure.

9.The distance between the (110) planes in BCC structure is 0.235nm. Determine the edge of
the unit cell and atomic radius. (3M)

Sol: Given that Miller indices of a plane ( h k l ) = ( 1 1 0 )

Inter planar distance d = 0.235nm √

Edge of the unit cell √ √

√
Atomic radius

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10.Monochromatic X-rays of wavelength 1.5 Å are incident on a crystal face with inter
planar spacing 1.6 Å. Evaluate the maximum order Bragg‟s reflection which can be
observed (3M)
Sol : Wave length of X-ray and inter planar spacing
Maximum order Bragg’s reflection can be observed for diffraction angle 900 .
and hence maximum order of diffraction

11.The Bragg’s angle for reflection from (111) plane in a FCC crystal is For X-
rays wavelength 1.54 . Determine inter planar spacing. (3M)
Sol: Given data Plane ( h k l ) ( 111 ) Glancing angle
Wavelength of X-ray cm

Bragg’s law d

Inter planar spacing,

12.Monochromatic X-rays of wavelength 1.5 are incident on a crystal face with inter
planar spacing 1.6 Find the maximum order of Bragg’s reflection which can be
observed. (3M)
Sol : Given that X-ray wavelength cm, Inter planar spacing
cm , Maximum order of Bragg’s reflection

Bragg’s law or

Two orders of diffraction is possible.

13. Consider two sets of planes with Miller indices ( 1 1 1 ) and ( 2 2 0 ) in a cubic
crystal. Analyze the conditions under which these planes intersect or are parallel to
each other. (3M)
Sol : Miller indices of 1st plane ( ) ( )
Miller indices of 2nd plane ( ) ( )

The angle between two planes is given by

√( )( )

= 34.91
√( )( ) √

The two planes are intersecting at an angle

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Model questions
1. A) Space lattice B) Basis C) Unit cell D) Primitive cell E) Lattice parameters F)Atomic
packing fraction G) Miller indices H) Bragg’s law
2. Deduce the expression for lattice constant of a crystal in terms of density and molecular
weight.
3. Represent the lattice parameters and interfacial angles corresponding to the seven crystal
systems with neat diagrams.
4. What is Bravais lattice? Illustrate Bravais lattices in seven crystal systems
5. Show that Simple cubic crystal system has more void space than Body Centered
Cubic System.
6. Illustrate the FCC unit cell and determine its atomic packing fraction. Show that
FCC is tightly packed in comparison with the Simple cubic unit cell.
7. Calculate the atomic packing fraction of BCC crystal system. “BCC unit cell is
loosely packed when compared to the FCC unit cell!” Prove the statement is true.
8. What are the Miller indices? How they are obtained? Write their important features.
9. What is inter planar spacing and derive its expression in terms of Miller indices and lattice
constants for the cubic crystal lattice.
10. State and explain the Bragg's law of X-ray diffraction.
11. Explain the Debye-Scherrer method of X-ray diffraction for crystal structure analysis with
suitable diagrams.

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Unit II Magnetic and Dielectric materials

2.00 Basic concepts

1. Magnetic dipole moment

It is defined as the product of the pole strength and the
magnetic length of a magnet . . Its
direction is from south pole to north pole.
2.Magnetic flux ( )

It is defined as the number of magnetic field lines passing through a given closed surface. It
provides the measurement of the total magnetic field that passes through a given surface area.

3.Magnetic induction or Magnetic flux density ( )

It is defined as the number of magnetic lines of force passing normally through unit area of the

material Units Weber/m2 or Tesla

4.Magnetizing field (or) Magnetic field intensity ( )

The magnetic field intensity is the force experienced by a unit north pole placed in the magnetic
field region. Units Ampere /m
5.Permeability ( μ )
It is defined as the ratio of magnetic induction and magnetic field intensity at a given point in
that medium. μ Units Henry/m

6.Relative permeability ( )
It is defined as the ratio of the permeability of a medium and the permeability of free space.
, where 4π Henry/m

7.Magnetization or Intensity of magnetization ( M or I )

It is defined as the average magnetic moment per unit volume of the material. i.e. I N ̅
where N is the number of atoms or molecules per unit volume, ̅ is the average dipole
moment . ( or)
The process of inducing a magnetic moment in the material by application of external magnetic
field is called magnetization.

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8.Magnetic susceptibility ( χ )

It is defined as the ratio of intensity of magnetization and applied magnetic field intensity.
Χ

9. Derive relation between magnetic susceptibility ( χ ) and relative permeability ( )

( 3M )
When an external magnetic field is applied on a magnetic material, it gets magnetized. The
magnetic induction inside the material is sum of two terms. i) Due to external field and ii)
Due to induced magnetization of the material itself. The net magnetic induction inside the
material is given by ( ) (1)
Where is the permeability of free space.

The magnetic flux density due to magnetic field applied in the material is given by

B (2) Where is the permeability of the material.

Comparing Eq.(1) & Eq.(2) we get ( ) ( )

∴ ( ) (3)

( ) (4)

We know that relative permeability and magnetic susceptibility

Eq.(4) becomes or χ 1 (5)

2.01 What is Bohr magneton. How it is related to magnetic moment of an electron (7M)
( OR )

Obtain the magnetic moment for an electron of charge e mass m revolving around the
nucleus in a circular orbit of radius r. Also, write the expression for its spin magnetic
dipole moment. (7M)
The magnetic moment due to spin of electron is known as Bohr magneton.

Bohr magneton

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i)Magnetic moment due to orbital motion of an electron

Let us consider and be the mass and charge of the

electron which is revolving around the nucleus in a stationary
orbit of radius with a linear velocity as shown in fig.
Hence the current produced by an electron. The orbit with
revolving electron is equivalent to current carrying loop

(1)

Where T is time taken by the electron to make one revolution around the nucleus. If is the

linear velocity of the electron then we can write (2)

According to Ampere’s law the magnetic moment due to current carrying loop is given by

( ) (3)

( ) (4)

Where is the orbital angular momentum of an electron

Since the angular momentum L where is the orbital quantum number,
values are 0, 1, 2, ….., ( ). Where is principal quantum number and takes the values
corresponding to shells.

( )
( ) (5)

Hence is called as Bohr magneton. The negative sign in

Eq.(5) indicates that the magnetic moment is antiparallel to the angular momentum .
ii)Magnetic moment due to spin motion of electron

Magnetic moment arises due to spinning of electron and is given by

( ) ( )

Where , and

Where is spin angular momentum

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iii)Magnetic moment due to spin motion of nucleus

Nuclear magnetic moment arises due to spinning of nucleus (proton) and is given by

( ) where is the mass of the proton.

The value of is very small compared to and it can be neglected. Therefore the total
magnetic moment of an atom will be the vectorial sum of the orbital and spin magnetic
moments of the electrons.

2.03 Distinguish the magnetic materials as para, dia, ferro, anti-ferro and ferri magnetic
materials. (7M)

Discuss the characteristic properties of diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials. (7M)

OR
Discuss the characteristic properties of paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials. (7M)
(OR) Differentiate antiferro and ferrimagnetic materials. (7M) ( OR )
Discuss the characteristic properties of ferromagnetic and antiferro magnetic materials.
(7M)
I Diamagnetic material (Au, Bi, )

The material which acquires weak magnetization in the opposite

direction of the applied magnetic field is known as dia magnetic
material.
Properties
i) Spin alignment is absent.
ii) When it is placed in the magnetic field, the magnetic flux lines are repelled away from
its center i.e. as shown in fig.
iii) Susceptibility (χ) is negative and is independent of temperature and strength of applied
magnetic field.
iv) The relative permeability < 1, but positive. This means lines of magnetic field
become less denser in the material than air.

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II paramagnetic material (Al, Cr, )

The material which acquires weak

magnetization in the direction of the
applied magnetic field is known as Para
magnetic material.
Properties

i) Spin alignment is random as shown in fig a.

ii) When it is placed in the magnetic field, the magnetic flux lines are attracted towards its
centre i.e. as shown in fig b.
iii) Susceptibility (χ) is positive and small and inversely proportional to absolute of

temperature as χ as shown in fig c where is known as Curie’s constant.

iv) The relative permeability >1, but small. This means lines of magnetic field become
denser in the material than air.

III Ferro magnetic material (Fe, Ni, )

The material which is strongly magnetized

in the direction of the applied magnetic field
is known as ferro magnetic material.
Properties

i) Spin alignment is parallel in the same

direction as shown in fig a.
ii) When material is placed in the magnetic field, the magnetic flux lines are strongly
attracted towards its centre i.e. as shown in fig b.
iii) Susceptibility (χ) is positive and very large and depends on temperature as
χ as shown in fig c where is called Curei temperature.

iv) The relative permeability >>1. This means lines of magnetic field become much
denser in the material than air.
v) The temperature at which ferro magnetic material converts in to paramagnetic material is
kwon as Cure’s temperature.
vi) It exhibits hysteresis.

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IV Anti- ferro magnetic material ( CaO, FeO, …)

The material in which the spins of equal magnitude

aligned anti parallel to each other , hence net
magnetization is zero known as anti- ferro magnetic
material.
Properties

i) Spin alignment is antiparallel with equal magnitudes as shown in fig a.

ii) Susceptibility (χ) is positive and small and depends on temperature as shown in fig b.
χ when T > ( Neel’s temperature)

iii) The temperature at which anti ferro magnetic material converts in to paramagnetic
material is kwon as Neel’s temperature.

V Ferri magnetic material

The material in which the spins of un equal magnitude

aligned anti parallel to each other , hence net
magnetization is not zero known as ferri magnetic
material.

Properties

i) Spin alignment is antiparallel with un equal magnitudes as shown in fig a.

ii) Susceptibility (χ) is positive and very large and depends on temperature as shown in
fig b. χ when T > ( Neel’s temperature)

iii) The temperature at which ferri magnetic material converts in to paramagnetic material is
kwon as Neel’s temperature.

2.06 Explain the hysteresis for ferromagnetic material in detail ( 7M )

The hysteresis property of ferromagnetic material refers lagging of magnetic induction

behind the magnetic field.

If the applied magnetic field is zero and thereby the magnetic induction is also zero. Thus
point on the curve marks the initial demagnetized state of the material.

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Due to the increase in the applied magnetic field, the magnetic induction increases in the path
oa of the curve and thereafter the magnetic induction attains saturation, termed as the saturation
induction . At the point a, here is the saturating
magnetic field.
Decrease of the magnetic field from , leads to a
gradual decrease in the magnetic induction tracing a new path
ab, and even when the magnetic induction is a non-
zero termed as the remnant magnetic induction .
Having reversing the magnetic field, the residual induction
decreases following portion of the curve and at certain negative value of , the will be zero
i.e. at point . The corresponding magnetic field in the negative direction is termed as the coercive
field .
Further increase in magnetic field in reverse direction, the magnetic induction increases
following a path and thereafter the material magnetically saturates in reverse direction.
Similarly, on reducing magnetic field from to zero, the magnetic induction decreases
following the path attaining a remnant value i.e. at but in opposite direction.
Increasing the magnetic field again in the positive direction, the negative remnant induction
reduces following the path and a certain value of H, the becomes zero which again
refers to the coercive field . Further increase in in the same direction, the magnetic
induction increases following the path of the curves and attains the saturation value at
point a corresponding to the magnetic field .
This full cycle of magnetization and demagnetization of the material represented by the closed
loop abcdefa is termed as Hysteresis loop. . The area of loop gives loss of energy due to the
hysteresis.
2.07 Explain the terms retentivity and coercivity for ferromagnetic material (3M)
Retentivity
The property of the magnetic material to retain magnetism even in the absence of the
magnetizing field is known as retentivity or remanence.
Coercivity
The magnetizing field needed to demagnetize the magnetic material completely is known as its
coercivity. ( OR)
Coercivity is a measure of the magnetic field strength required to destroy the residual
magnetism in the ferromagnetic material.
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2.08 Discuss the soft and hard magnetic materials with examples. (OR)

Soft magnetic materials (3M) Hard magnetic materials (3M)

The material which can be easily The material which cannot be easily
magnetized and demagnetized is called magnetized and demagnetized is called
Soft magnetic material. hard magnetic material.
The hysteresis loop area is narrow as The hysteresis loop area is broad as
shown in fig. shown in fig.

Loop area is less and hence hysteresis Loop area is more and hence hysteresis
loss is minimum. loss is maximum.
Susceptibility and permeability are high. Susceptibility and permeability are low.

Retentivity and coercivity are small. Retentivity and coercivity are large.
Soft magnetic material are useful for electrical Hard magnets are useful for data
machines such as power transformers, storage analog, data storage digital,
motors generators etc. quantum devices
Examples Iron - silicon alloys, Examples Carbon steel,
Iron-Nickel alloys Tungsten steel , Chromium steel

2.09 Basic concepts of dielectric material

1.Dielectric material
A dielectric material is a non-conducting, non-metallic with large electrical resistance and can
store electrical charge.
2. Electric dipole moment (3M)
It is defined as the product of magnitude of charge and distance
between positive and negative charges of electric dipole.
It is a vector pointing from negative charge towards
the positive charge along the axis of dipole.

3. Electric flux ( )
It is defined as the number of electric filed lines passing normally through a given closed
surface. It provides the measurement of the total electric field that passes through a given
surface area.

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4. Electric flux density or Displacement vector ( )
It is defined as the number of electric field lines of force passing normally through unit area of
the material. where is the charge enclosed in a surface area

Unit Coulomb / m2
5. Intensity of electric filed ( )
It is the force experienced by a unit positive charge placed in the region of electric field
where Unit V/m

6. Permittivity ( )
It is defined as the ratio of electric flux density and electric field intensity at a given point in
that medium. Units

7. Relative permittivity or Dielectric constant ( )

The ratio of permittivity of the medium to the permittivity of free space is known as dielectric
constant Where ε is permittivity of the medium , permittivity of the free space

or air 8.85 .

8. Polarizability (α)
It is found that the average dipole moment ̅ of a dielectric material is proportional to the
electric field applied. i.e ̅ , ̅ where α is polarizability
Polarizability is defined as the ratio of average dipole moment to the electric field applied.
̅
α Unit Farad.m2

9. Polarization vector ( )
It is defined as the average dipole moment per unit volume of a material. Polarization vector
̅
= where N number of dipoles per unit volume and

̅ is the average dipole moment. Unit .

10. Electric susceptibility ( )
When a dielectric is placed in an electric field E then polarization takes place. The polarization
vector is proportional to the electric field and the direction of electric field.

or or where is known as electric susceptibility.

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2.10 Derive the relation between displacement vector D , intensity of electric filed E and
polarization vector P . OR Dielectric polarization ( 7M )
Consider a rectangular slab of a dielectric material be placed between the plates of parallel plate
capacitor. In presence of applied electric field each atom it exerts a force on positive
charge and pushes into in its own direction while negative charge is displaced in opposite
direction from their equilibrium positions.
The displacement of these charges inside the
dielectric material results production of
induced electric dipoles in the direction of
applied electric field is known as dielectric
polarization.
Opposite charges in the adjacent dipoles
neutralize each other. This kind of cancellation takes place throughout the material since, there
these are equal amount of negative and positive charges. However charges which are at the end
surfaces of the slab do not find the opposite kind of charges for cancellation. Thus the effect of
the applied field is to cause the appearance of net opposing charges at the end faces of the slab
as shown in fig a.
Let and be the induced charges on both ends of the slab as shown in fig b. Then the
induced electric field developed on both ends of the slab is given by

The resultant electric filed Where and

We know that and substituting these in above equation

We get and hence

2.11 Derive relation between electric susceptibility ( ) and dielectric constant ( )
(3M) We know that (1)
The electric flux density of the electric field in dielectric medium is expressed as in terms of
electric field strength as (2)
From Eq.(1) & Eq.(2) We get i.e ( – 1) (3)
But the same polarization is also expressed in terms of susceptibility as given by
(4)
From Eq.(3) & Eq.(4) We get –1 where is called relative permittivity of the
medium.
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2.12 Comparison between polar and non-polar dielectric molecules ( 3M )

Polar molecule Non polar molecule

It has a permanent dipole moment It has a induced dipole moment in the
even in the absence of electric field. presence of electric field.
It has asymmetric in shape. It has symmetric in shape.
Net polarity is not zero. Net polarity is zero.
Polarization is dependent on Polarization is independent on
temperature . temperature .
Example: H2O, HCl Example: H2, N2

2.13 What is a non-polar dielectric? Explain polarization mechanism in non polar

dielectrics with neat diagram. ( 7M ) ( OR )

Describe polarization mechanism in non-polar dielectrics with neat diagrams.

( 7M ) ( OR )
With relevant theory, show that the electronic polarizability of a mono-atomic gas is
proportional to cube of the radius of the atoms involved. ( 7M )
( OR )

What is electronic polarization and derive an expression for electronic polarizability

( 7M )
If electric field is applied on dielectric material then all positively charged nucleuses move in
the field direction and all negatively charged electron clouds move in opposite direction, hence
induced dipoles will be formed. This phenomenon is known as electronic polarization.
Let us consider an atom nuclear charge surrounded by an electron cloud of charge
Initially in the absence of electric field centre of gravity of these charges coincide with
each other, and hence the dipole moment is zero. If electrons are distributed in a sphere of
radius , the charge density is given by

(1)

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When an external electric field is applied on this atom due to Lorenz force the positive
nucleus will move towards the field direction and the electron cloud will move in the opposite
direction of the field as shown in fig b.

When electron cloud and nucleus get shifted from

their normal positions an attractive force between
them is created and the separation continues until
Columbic force is balanced the Lorentz force .
Finally a new equilibrium is established.

Let the distance of separation between the centers

of the displaced nucleus and electron cloud could be . Draw a sphere by taking nucleus of the
atom as center and as the radius.

The total negative charge in the sphere of radius will be (2)

From Eq.(1) and (2) ( ) ( ) (3)

The total positive charge in the sphere of radius will be (4)

The coulomb attractive force between the nucleus and the electron cloud being separated at a

distance will be (5)

( )
Substituting Eq.(3) & (4) in Eq.(5) (6)

The Lorentz force between the nucleus and electron cloud will be

(7)

At equilibrium the Coulomb force and Lorentz force must be equal and opposite, hence from

Eq.(6) and (7) or (8)

The induced dipole moment (9)

Substituting the value of from Eq.(8) in Eq.(9) (10)

And induced dipole moment in terms polarizability (11)

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Where is the electronic polarizability . Comparing Eq.(10) and Eq.(11)

Thus the electronic polarisability is depending on the volume of the atom and is
independent of temperature.

2.14 What is a non-polar dielectric? Explain polarization mechanism in non polar

dielectrics with neat diagram. ( 7M ) ( OR )
Describe polarization mechanism in non-polar dielectrics with neat diagrams. (7M)
( OR )
What is an ionic polarization and
derive an expression for ionic
polarizability (7M)
If electric field is applied on an ionic
dielectric material then all the positive ions move in the field direction and all the negative ions
move in opposite direction, hence induced dipoles will be formed. This phenomenon is known
as ionic polarization.

Let us consider and be the masses of positive and negative ions. In the absence of
external electric field the positive and negative ions are present at equilibrium position and
hence dipole moment of molecule is zero as shown in fig a.

When an electric field is applied across an ionic molecule the positive ion displaces in the
direction of applied filed through units of distance whereas negative ion displaces in the
opposite direction to the applied filed through units of distance as shown in fig b.

Hence, the net distance between two ions is (1)

When ions are displaced from their mean position then restoring force appears on ions, which
tend to move the ions back to mean positions.

The restoring force acting on positive ion (2)

The restoring force acting on negative ion (3)

where and are restoring constants.

The Lorentz force acting on the positive ion (4)

The Lorentz force acting on the negative ion (5)

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At the equilibrium the Lorentz force and restoring force will be equal and opposite hence from
equations (2) , (4) and (3) ,(5)

We get and and where

and as is natural frequency of ionic molecule.

Hence (6) and (7)

Substituting Eq.(6) and Eq.(7) in Eq.(1) we get ( ) ( )

The ionic dipole moment Charge Displacement

( ) ( ) (9)

The ionic polarizability ( ) (10)

The ionic polarizability is inversely proportional to square of the angular frequency of the
ionic molecule.
2.15 What is a orientation polarization (3M)
If electric field is applied on polar dielectric material
then all the dipoles tend to rotate in the field direction, hence
dipole moment increases enormously. This phenomenon is
known as orientation (dipolar) polarization.

The orientation polarization

The orientation polarization is inversely proportional to absolute temperature.

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2.16 What is internal or local field. Derive an
expression for local field in dielectrics by Lorentz
method ( 7M )
The resultant electric filed which acting on a particular
atom in the dielectric material is known as local filed.

Let a dielectric material be placed between the plates of

parallel plate capacitor. Let there be an imaginary
spherical cavity around the atom at inside the dielectric.
It is also assumed that the radius of cavity is large compared to the radius of the atom. The
local field at the atom can be considered to be made up of the following four components
namely, , , , and respectively. The local field is equal to

(1)

Field

is the field intensity at C due to charge density on the plates of capacitor, From field theory,
we know that (2)

Field

is the field intensity at due to charge density induced on the two sides of dielectric

material. (3)

Field

is the field intensity at due to charge density induced on the surface of imaginary

spherical cavity is equal to (4)

Field
If we consider the dielectric is highly symmetric, the short range forces due to dipole moments
inside the cavity becomes zero (5)
Substituting Eq.(2) , Eq.(3) , Eq.(4) and Eq.(5) in Eq.(1)

We get (6)

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2.17 Obtain a relationship between macroscopic and microscopic quantities in dielectrics.
(OR) Derive Clausius - Mossotti relationship in dielectrics ( 7M )

The dielectric constant and polarizability of a solid is macroscopic and microscopic quantities
are related through the Clausius – Mossotti relation. The average dipole moment of dielectric
material is directly proportional to the local field.

i.e. ̅ ̅ where is polarizability .

Let be the number of dipoles per unit volume, the electric dipole moment per unit volume
̅
which is called polarization vector ( ) (1)

( ) ∴ (2)
( )

The electric flux density of the electric field in dielectric medium is expressed as in terms of
electric field strength as (3)

When a dielectric material subjected to an electric field, it gets polarized. As a result the flux
density inside the material can be written as (4)

From this we can write i.e ( – 1) (5)

From Eq.(2) and Eq.(5) we get ( – 1)

( )

( ) , 1
( – ) ( – )

( ) , ( ) 1
– –

–
∴ (6) Eq.(6) is called Clausius – Mossitti relation.

–
Multiplying both sides of Eq.(6) by we get ( ) ( )

–
But and hence ( )

Where is called molar polarization.

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Solved examples
1.A paramagnetic material has 1028 atoms per cubic-m. Its susceptibility at 350 K is
2.8 X 10-4. Estimate its susceptibility at 300 K. ( 3M )
Sol: Given that density of atoms atoms per m3
Susceptibility , and

We know that i.e.

2.A magnetic field of 1500 A/m produces a magnetic flux of 3.5 x 10-5 Weber in ferromagnetic
Iron having an area of cross-section 0.25 m2. Estimate the permeability of iron. ( 3M )

Given that Magnetic field H Wb

and area of cross section A 0.2

Solution Magnetic flux density B and Permeability

∴ / and H/m

3.The magnetic susceptibility of diamagnetic silicon is - 0.4 X 10-5. Inspect the values of flux
density and magnetization if silicon is subjected to an external field of 5 X 105A/m.
( Given μo = 4π x 10-7 H/m). ( 3M )
Sol: Given: χ = –0.4 × 10‒5 and magnetic field strength 5 × 105 A/m
The magnetic flux density ( ) ( )

B= 4 10‒7 5 105 ( – ) = 0.63 Wb / m2

Magnetization M = χ H = –0.4 × 10–5 × 5 × 105 = –2.0 A/m.

4.A parallel plate capacitor of plate area 650mm2 and plate separation 6mm has a charge of 2 X
10-10C. If a material of dielectric constant 3.5 is placed between the plates, determine the
resultant voltage across the plates of capacitor. Given permittivity of free space is
ε0 = 8.85 x 10-12 F/m. (3M)
Given that Area of the capacitor plates 650 , distance between plates
6 , Relative permittivity Charge between the plates
and Permittivity of free space

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Solution Capacitance of capacitor

Charge on the capacitor and hence the resultant voltage =

59.6V

5.A medium of dielectric constant 8.5 and thickness 0.5cm is placed in between the plates of a
parallel plate capacitor of area 100cm2. If the separation between the plates is 1cm and the
potential applied between the plates is 100V, examine the values of the three electron vectors D,
E and P. Given permittivity of free space is ε0 = 8.85 x 10-12 F/m. (3M)

Sol: Given that Area of the capacitor plates 100 ( ) , thickness of

non-polar dielectric 0.5cm , dielectric constant applied
voltage and Permittivity of free space

Electric filed

Displacement vector

We know that and hence induced polarization

6.A parallel plate capacitor having a plate area 6.45 10-4m2 and a plate separation 2 10-3 m,
across which a potential of 12V is applied. If a material of dielectric constant 5 is positioned in
between the plates, determine the polarization value of the dielectric. Given permittivity of free
space is ε0 = 8.85 x 10-12 F/m. (3M)

Sol: Given that area of the capacitor plates 6.45 , separation between plates
0.5cm , dielectric constant applied voltage and
Permittivity of free space

Electric filed

Displacement vector

We know that and hence induced polarization

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2
7. A parallel plate capacitor has a plate area of 4m separated by a distance of 0.5 mm. The
capacitor is connected a cell of emf 100V. Find the energy stored in the capacitor in the absence
of dielectric. Given (3M)

Sol: Given that area of the plate , separation between two plates
, Potential applied to the plates and Permittivity of free space

Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor

The energy stored in the capacitor

8. Examine the radius of the atom in Angstrom units if a mono-atomic gas with
polarizability is 9 x 10-41 F-m2 is subjected to an electric field. Given permittivity of free space
is ε0 = 8.85 x 10-12 F/m. (3M)
Sol: The electronic polarizability of gas
The permittivity of free space ℇ0 = 8.85×10-12 F/m

We know that and hence radius of atom ( ) ( )

( )
9.Calculate the induced dipole moment per unit volume of helium gas, if it’s placed in a field of
6 X 105 V/m. The atomic polarizability of helium is 0.18 X 10-40 F.m2 and the concentration of
helium atoms is 2.6 1025 atoms/m3. Also calculate the distance between the positive and
negative charges in each atom. (3M)
Sol: Given that electric filed , atomic polarizability
and concentration of He atoms 2.6 1025 atoms/m3
Induced dipole moment per atom
C.m
Polarization density or Induced dipole moment per unit volume

The polarization density also equal to the product of charge and separation between two charges

The distance between positive and negative ions in He atom

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10. Evaluate the dielectric constant for a dielectric with atomic density 3 × 1028 atoms/m3,
assuming the internal field is Lorentz type. Given the permittivity of free space ε 0 = 8.85 x 10-12
F/m and electronic polarizability 2 × 10-40 F.m2 (3M)
Sol: Given that atomic density atoms / m3
Permittivity of free space ℇ0 = 8.85×10-12 F/m.
–
From Clausius – Mossitti relation

On cross multiplication – or 0.831 ∴

11. Sulphur has an atomic weight of 32 and its density is 2.08gm/cm3. The electronic
polarizability of sulphur is 3.5 X 10-40 F.m2. If the crystalline sulphur exhibits a cubic crystalline
symmetry, calculate the relative dielectric constant of sulphur. ( 3M)
Sol: Given that atomic weight of Sulphur M = 32, density gm / cm3
, electronic polarizability and permittivity of free space
ℇ0 = 8.85×10-12 F/m. We know that where is Avogadro number

3.9 atoms / m3
–
From Clausius – Mossitti relation

–
On cross multiplication – and hence

12.Determine the polarizability of CO2, if its susceptibility is 0.985 X 10-3. Given the density of
CO2 gas is 1.977 kg/m3 and permittivity of free space ℇ0 = 8.85×10-12 F/m., atomic weight of

CO2 is ( 3M)

Sol : Given that susceptibility , density kg/m3

and permittivity of free space ℇ0 = 8.85×10-12 F/m.

Relative permittivity
We know that where is Avogadro number

2.7 atoms / m3
–
From Clausius – Mossitti relation

– –
Polarizability =( ) ( ) = 3.22 F.m2

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13.Evaluate the electronic polarizability of Argon atom when subjected to electric field. Given
εr = 1.0024 at NTP and NA = 2.7 1025 atoms/m3. ( 3M)
Sol : Given that permittivity of free space ℇ0 = 8.85×10-12 F/m
( ) ( )
Electronic polarizability = = 7.87 F.m2

Model questions
1. Discuss the origin of magnetic moment in an atom and the Bohr magneton.
2. Discuss the characteristic properties of diamagnetic materials.
3. Discuss the characteristic properties of paramagnetic materials.
4. Discuss the characteristic properties of ferromagnetic materials.
5. Mention any three characteristics of dia, para and ferromagnetic materials.
6. Write a short note on anti-ferro and ferri magnetic materials.
7. Explain hysteresis curve (or) M - H curve (or) B – H curve in detail.
8. Classify the soft and hard magnetic materials based on hysteresis.
7 Define, Relative permittivity Electric susceptibility and show that 1+
8 Define, Dielectric Displacement (D), Electric Field intensity (E), Polarization vector (P) and
show that D = + P.
9 Derive the expression for electronic polarizability.
10 Derive the expression for ionic polarizability.
11 What is local field? Derive the expression for internal field inside a dielectric.
12 Derive Clausius- Mosotti relation (or) A relation between microscopic non-measurable
quantity and macroscopic measurable quantities of dielectric polarization.

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Unit III Wave Optics

3.00 Basic concepts in interference of light

1. Interference of light
The phenomenon of redistribution of light energy due to the superposition of two or more light
waves is known as interference of light.

2. Coherent Sources or Methods of production of interference of light (3M )

If sources are said to be coherent, they emit light waves of the same frequency, amplitude and
always in phase with each other. This is possible only if two sources are produced from the
same part of the source.

However, if phase difference changes with time then the two sources are known as incoherent
sources.

The Coherent Sources or Phenomenon of interference is produced by two methods

namely i) Division of wave front and ii) Division of amplitude.

a)Division of wave front

The incident wave front is divided into two parts by utilizing the phenomenon of reflection or
diffraction. These two parts of wave front travel unequal distances and reunite to produce
interference pattern.

E.g. Young’s double slit, Fresnel biprism, etc…

b)Division of amplitude

The amplitude of light beam is divided into two parts by utilizing the parallel reflection or
refraction. These two parts of wave front travel unequal distances and reunite to produce
interference pattern.

E.g. Interference in thin films, Newton’s rings, etc…

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3. What are the conditions to produce sustained interference for good contrast between
maxima and minima. ( 3M )

i) The sources should be coherent

ii) The sources should be as near as possible to each other
iii) The sources should emit light continuously.
iv) The amplitudes from the sources should be the same.

1.01 State and explain Principle of super position of waves ( 7M )

When two or more waves acting simultaneously at particular point in the medium, the
resultant displacement is equal to algebraic sum of the displacements of individual waves in the
absence of others is known as principle of superposition.

If be the displacements of individual waves, the resultant displacement

Superposition of waves of same frequency and constant phase difference

Consider two waves having the same frequency

and constant phase difference travelling the
same direction in a medium as shown in fig a.
Let us assume be the displacements
of two waves at any instant then

and ( )

According to principle of superposition, the resultant displacement y is given by

= + ( )

=( ) (1)

Let =R (2)

and = R (3)

Using Eq. (2) and Eq. (3) in Eq. (1) we get

= = R ( ) (4)
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Where R and θ be the amplitude and phase angle of the resultant wave as shown in a fig a.
Squaring Eq. (2) & Eq. (3) and adding we get

( ) ( ) ( ) +( )

= (5)

The intensity at any point I= = (6)

Dividing Eq. (3) by Eq. (2) we get =

Therefore the phase angle * + (7)

i) Condition for maximum intensity

When the phase difference = 0, 2π , 4π, 6π, ………… 2nπ then Eq.(6) becomes

= =( ) (8)

ii) Condition for minimum intensity

When the phase difference Ø = π , 3π, 5π, …………, ( 2n + 1 )π then Eq.(6) becomes

= =( ) (9)

The average intensity = ( ) (10)

iii) When the amplitudes of both waves are equal then Eq.(6) becomes

I= 2 ( ) ( ) (11)

Energy distribution

Fig d shows the variation of the intensity as a

function of phase angle . The energy is simply
redistributed from the points of minimum intensity to
points of maximum intensity. Therefore the
phenomenon interference obeys the law of
conservation of energy.

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1.02 Explain interference phenomenon in thin parallel film due to reflected light
(Cosine law) ( 7M )
Consider a parallel thin film of thickness
with refractive index µ Let is a monochromatic
light of wave length which falls on the upper surface
at an angle i. This ray is partly reflected along in
air and partly refracted along at an angle After one
reflection at C the ray moves in the direction of .
After refraction at , the ray finally emerges out along in air.
As the rays and are derived the same source, therefore they are coherent. Obviously
the rays parallel to . Our aim is to find out the effective path difference between the
rays and D . For this purpose; we draw a normal and on to and
respectively.

Then the path difference between the reflected rays and is given by

The path difference ( BC CD ) in film – ( BE ) in air µ (BC CD) – BE

At the point reflection occurs from the upper surface of the thin film. Then reflected light ray

undergoes an additional phase change of or an additional path difference .

Therefore real path difference µ (BC CD) ( ) (1)

The triangles are similar triangles i.e. ∠BCN ∠DCN r and CN is

common, and Then real path difference 2µ BC BE (2)

From the right angled triangle ∆BNC, ∴ BC (3)

From the right angled triangle ∆BED,

∴ BE BD ( BN ND ) 2 BN (4) ( ∴ BD 2 BN )

From the right angled triangle ∆BNC,

∴ BN NC (5)

Substituting the value of BN from Eq.(5) in Eq.(4) BE 2t (6)

Substituting the value of BC from Eq. (3) and BE from Eq. (6) in Eq. (2)
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Real path difference 2t 2t

By Snell’s law and hence real optical path difference is

sin2r (1 sin2r )

The real path difference cos2r 2µt (7)

i) Condition for maxima ( Bright fringe )

If this path difference is equal to where constructive interference occurs and

film appears bright. ∴ 2µt λ or 2 µ t (2 1) (8)

ii) Condition for minima ( Dark fringe )

If this path difference is equal to (2 1) , where destructive interference occurs

and film appears as dark. ∴ 2µt (2 1) or 2µ t λ (9)

1.03. Explain interference phenomenon in thin non parallel ( wedge shaped ) film due to
reflected light (7M)

Consider two plane surfaces and inclined at

angle and enclosing a wedge shaped air film of
refractive index The thickness of air film
increasing from to as shown in fig. Let a
monochromatic beam of light of wave length be
incident on upper surface of film. Then the path
difference between reflected rays from upper and lower surface of film is equal to

( )

For normal incidence and for air film then the path difference

Case i) Condition for bright fringe

Or ( ) (1)

Case ii) Condition for dark fringe ( )

Or (2)

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If the bright fringe occurs at a distance from the thin edge as shown in fig b.

From fig and hence (3)

From Eq.(1) and Eq.(3)

we get ( )

( ) (4)

If the ( ) bright fringe occurs at a distance from the thin edge .

[ ( ) ] ( ) ( 5)

Subtracting Eq.(4) from Eq.(5) we get ( ) (6)

But the fringe width ( ) and hence

For small angle of edge then

As the fringe width is independent of all bright fringes are equally spaced.

Similarly, it can be shown that distance between two consecutive dark fringes is also

1.04 List out applications of interference in thin films (3M )

i) Thin films are used in anti-reflection coatings, mirrors, and optical filters.

ii) Thin films are used to control the amount of light reflected or transmitted at a certain
wavelength at a surface.
iii) Thin-film interference is used to allow only specific wavelengths of light to pass through the
device. Deposition processes are used to create these films.
iii) Nanotechnology also is based on thin film technology.

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1.05 Discuss the theory of Newton’s rings with relevant diagrams by reflected light and
obtain the expressions for the diameters of bright and dark rings ( 7M )

Construction

When a plano-convex lens L of large radius of curvature with its convex surface is placed on
a plane glass plate G, a thin air film is formed between the lower surface of plano-convex lens
and upper surface of glass plate. The thickness of the air film is zero at the point of contact O
and gradually increases outwards from the point of
contact. A monochromatic source of light S is kept at the
focus of a convex lens as shown in a fig a.

Working

A beam of light from a monochromatic source S is made

parallel by using a convex lens . The parallel beam of
light falls on a glass plate inclined at an angle of 450 . The reflected light normally falls on
the plano-convex lens placed on plane glass plate. The reflected beam from the air film is
viewed with a microscope . Alternate dark and bright rings with dark spot as center is seen
through microscope M.

Theory

The path difference between the reflected light rays will be 2µ (1)

For air film µ 1 and normal incidence

Then Eq.(1) becomes 2 (2)

At point of contact , the effective path difference is , which the condition for

minimum intensity. Hence the center of the Newton’s rings is dark.

For bright ring

2 λ or 2t (2 1) (3)

For dark ring

2 (2 +1) or 2 λ (4)

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Diameter of the Newton’s rings

Let be the radius of Newton’s ring corresponding thickness of air film is . By theorem of
intersecting chords of the circle.

We have ( )
∴ Since t ≪ R hence may be
neglected in comparison to and 2

∴ (5) ( )

Substituting Eq.(5) in Eq.(3) we have ( )

∴ ( ) In general, ( )

∴ √ √ or √ (6)

The diameter of bright rings is proportional to square root of odd natural number.

Similarly for dark ring λ ∴ λ

In general, ∴ 2√ or √ (7)
Diameter of the dark rings is proportional to square root of natural numbers.
Case i) Determination of wave length of given source of light
Let be the radius of curvature of curved surface and be wave length of light used. The
th
diameter of dark ring 2√ ∴ 4 λ (8)
Similarly diameter of nth dark ring √
∴ (9)
Subtracting Eq. (8) from Eq. (9) We get, ( ) (10)

∴ ( )
(11)

Case ii) Determination of the refractive index of a given liquid

The liquid whose refractive index µ to be determined is placed between the plano convex lens
th
and the glass plate. Let and diameters of the and mth dark rings respectively.

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th
The square of diameter of dark ring is given by (12)

Similarly (13)
( )
Subtracting Eq.(12) from Eq.(13) We get (14)

Using Eq.(10) in Eq.(14) We get (15)

1.04 Why are the fringes circular in Newton’ rings experiment ( 3M )

In Newton’s rings experiment the convex surface of lens is placed on glass plate and air film
formed between them. At the point of contact the thickness of air film is zero and symmetrically
increases away from point of contact.
The brightness or darkness depends on the thickness of air film between the two surfaces. The
locus of all points on the flat surface having the same thickness of air film is a circle whose
center is the point of contact of the two surfaces.
The points where there constructive interference takes place are lying in a circle and hence
bright ring is formed. Similarly the points where there destructive interference takes place are
lying in a circle and hence dark ring is formed therefore fringes are circular.
1.05 Why the central rings are broad and peripheral rings are closer in Newton’s rings
pattern. (3M)
Bright rings
The diameter of bright rings is proportional to square root of odd natural numbers
√ i.e. √ √ :√
The separation between bright successive rings are in the ratio 0
Thus the bright rings get closer with increase of their order.
Dark rings
The diameter of dark rings is proportional to square root of natural numbers
√ i.e. √ √ :√
The separation between successive dark rings are in the ratio 0
Thus the dark fringes get closer with increase of their order.

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1.06 List out the applications of Newton’s rings ( 3M )
i) It is used to determine the refractive index of given liquid. ii) It is used to find wavelength of
monochromatic light. iii) It is used to find the radius of curvature of convex lens.
iv)It is used for the quality control of optical flatness of the surfaces.
1.07 Why can’t you see interference effects with a thick film. (3M)

For thick film the distance travelled inside the film is insignificant and so the two reflected rays
are almost exactly out of phase with each other. They interfere destructively and the film
appears black.

1.08 What is the diffraction of light

The phenomenon of bending of light around the sharp edges of an obstacle and spreading of
light waves in to geometrical shadow of that obstacle placed in the path of light is known as
diffraction of light

1.09 Distinguish between Fresnel and Fraunhofer classes of diffraction of light ( 3M )

Fresnel diffraction of light Fraunhofer diffraction of light
The source and screen are placed at finite The source and screen are placed at
distance from the aperture for producing infinite distance from the aperture for
diffraction. producing diffraction.
The incident wave front is either spherical The incident wave front is a plane.
or cylindrical.
No lens is used to focus the parallel rays. Convex lens is used to focus the parallel rays.
Study of the diffraction is difficult. Study of diffraction is easy.
1.10 Distinguish between interference and diffraction of light ( 3M )
Interference of light Diffraction of light
It is due to superposition of two separate It is due to superposition of secondary waves
waves originating from two coherent originating from different points of same wave
sources. front.
The interference fringes are equally The diffraction fringes are never equally
spaced. spaced.
All bright fringes have same intensity. All bright fringes have varying intensity .
All dark fringes have zero intensity. All dark fringes have varying intensity.

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1.11 Explain in detail Fraunhofer diffraction of light due to single slit ( 7M )

Let be the narrow slit of width perpendicular to plane of the paper. Let be the screen
is placed at focal plane of the convex lens L.

Let a plane wave front of monochromatic light of wave length λ incident normally on the
slit . According to Huygens wave theory each point on slit will act as source of secondary
wavelets and sends out in all directions.

The un diffracted rays from slit are focused at on the screen by the convex lens
while the rays diffracted through angle are
focused at a point on the screen. The rays from
ends reach at have no path difference
and hence the intensity is maximum known as
principal maximum as shown in fig a.

To find the intensity at let us draw the normal

from on Since the path beyond
is the same therefore the path difference between
the extreme rays is

The total phase difference between points of and is equal to

Where

Let is divided into large number of n equal parts then there may be large number of point
sources of secondary wavelets between . The phase difference between any two
consecutive parts = ( ) ( ) (1)

The resultant amplitude at secondary waves of each amplitude and consecutive

phase difference is given by vector polygon law. (2)

∴ The resultant intensity at P is given by ( ) (3)

i) Condition for maximum
From (2) will be maximum then i.e. or

The resultant intensity is maximum for called the principal maximum.

( ) Intensity of principal maximum

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ii) Condition for minima
It is clear from Eq.(3) that the intensity will be minimum when but
where or (4)

The values of Gives the directions of 1st , 2nd , 3rd , order minima
iii) Condition for secondary maxima

The condition for secondary maxima obtained by

differentiating Eq.(3) with respect to and equating to

zero we get or (5)

The Eq.(5) can be solved graphically by plotting the two

curves and on the same graph.
gives a straight line passing through the origin
and making an angle with - axis and gives discontinuous curves as shown in
fig b.

The points of intersection of these curves give the directions of secondary maxima. The points
correspond to the value of but gives principal maximum.

Intensity distribution

The diffraction pattern consists of a principal

maximum occurring in the direction of incident
rays followed by minima at the positions
of zero intensity and then

secondary maxima of decreasing intensity at positions on either

side of it as shown in fig c.

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1.12 Explain Fraunhofer diffraction of light due to N parallel slits ( 7M )

or Diffraction grating

An arrangement consists of large number of parallel slits of equal width and separated from one
another by equal opaque spaces is known as diffraction grating.

Let us consider N number of slits are all parallel to each other and perpendicular to plane of the
paper. The width of each slit is and width of opaque distance between any two consecutive
slits is The distance between the corresponding middle pints the consecutive slits is equal to
( ) Let be the screen placed at focal plane of the convex lens Let a plane wave
front of monochromatic light of wave length λ be incident normally upon these slits .

According to Huygens wave theory each point on slit will act as source of secondary wavelets
and sends out in all directions. The
un diffracted light rays from these
slits focused at on the screen
by convex lens while the
secondary waves travelling in a
direction making an angle θ with
the incident light are focused at
as shown in fig a.

Let , , S3, … be the mid point of each slit and , , … be the normal drawn as
shown in fig. The waves diffracted from each slit is equivalent to a single wave of amplitude

( )

Thus the resultant amplitude at is the resultant of waves each of amplitude and common
phase difference . Hence, the resultant amplitude at is given by Vector polygon law.

( )( )

Where and β ( + )

The resultant intensity at is given by I ( ) ( ) (1)

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The factor ( ) gives diffraction pattern due to single slit while the factor ( ) gives

interference pattern due to parallel slits.

i) Condition for Principal maxima

From (1) it is clear that the intensity would be maximum when sin β 0 but under this

condition is also equal to zero. Hence the term which is

indeterminate. According to L- Hospital’s rule (2)

Substituting this value of in Eq.(1), we get ( ) (3)

Thus the condition for principal maxima is sin β 0 or β ± π

( ) ± π or ( ) ± λ

In general ( ) ± λ (4)
For 0 we get θ 0 and this gives the direction of zero order principal maximum the
values of 1, 2, 3, … gives the directions of Ist , 2nd , 3 rd
,… order principal maxima
respectively. The ± sign indicates that there are two principal maxima for each order lying on
either side of the zero order maximum.
ii) Condition for minima
The intensity is minimum when sin β 0 but sin β or β ± π
( ) ± π or ( ) ± λ (5)

Where has all integral values except 0 , , , ,… . This is because sin β 0,

for these values which gives different orders principal maxima.
It is clear from Eq.(5) that gives principal maximum of zero order.
( ) gives minima and gives again principal maximum. Thus there are ( ) equi
spaced minima between two ad acent principal maxima.

iii) Condition for secondary maxima

These ( ) minima will produce ( ) secondary maxima .

The intensity of secondary maxima obtained by differentiating Eq.(1) with respect to and

equating to zero we get or (6)

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From triangle and hence ( )
√

∴ Intensity of secondary maxima

( ) ( )
(7)

( )
where increases the intensity of

secondary maxima decreases.

Intensity distribution
The diffraction pattern consists of zero order principal maxima occurring in the direction of
incident rays followed by different orders
of principal maxima on either side of it.
The intensity as well as angular spacing of
minima and secondary maxima so small
in comparison to the principal maxima that
cannot be observed. It results in uniform
darkness between any two principal
maxima as shown in fig c.

1.13 Explain missing orders in a diffraction grating or Absent spectra (7M)

In a diffraction grating, if the angle of diffraction θ is such that the minima due to diffraction
component in the intensity distribution falls at the same positions of principal maxima then, that
order of principal maxima will be missing or absent.

The direction of minima of a single slit is given as (1)

Where

The direction of nth order principal maxima in a grating is given as ( ) (1)

If the path difference is then each slit can be considered to be made up of two halves, the path
difference between the secondary waves from the corresponding points in the two halves will be

. Now, they will cancel one another’s effect resulting in zero intensity.

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If the conditions (1) and (2) are simultaneously satisfied, the beams from all the slits reinforce
with each other and the resultant intensity will be zero. Hence the spectrum will be absent.
Dividing Eq.(1) by Eq.(2)

( ) ( )
or (3)

This is the condition for order maximum will be missing in a grating spectrum.

Case i) Let Eq.(3) becomes

∴ The orders of spectrum will be missing corresponding to minima due to a

single slit given by

Case ii) Let Eq.(3) becomes

∴ The orders of spectrum will be missing corresponding to minima due to a

single slit given by

Case iii) If All slits joint together act as a single slit and all orders of interference
maxima will be missing. The diffraction due to single slit of width equal to

1.14 Basic concepts of polarization of light

i) What is Polarization of light

The phenomenon of confining the vibrations of light in a single plane and normal to the
direction of propagation is called polarization of light. (or)

The light which has acquired the property of one-sidedness is also called polarization of light.

Representation of un polarized
( Ordinary) and Polarized lights (3M)
The light having vibrations among all possible
directions with equal amplitudes and
perpendicular to direction of propagation is called un polarized or ordinary light as shown in
fig a and fig b.

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The light having vibrations confined to a single plane and normal to direction of propagation is
called polarized light.

If the direction of vibrations of electric filed is

perpendicular to the plane of the paper is known
as horizontally plane polarized light. It is
represented by dots as shown in fig c.
If the direction of vibrations of electric filed is
parallel to the plane of the paper is known as vertically plane polarized light. It is represented
by arrows as shown in fig d.
ii) Distinction between un polarized ( Ordinary ) and polarized light ( 3M )
Un polarized (Ordinary ) light Polarized light
The vibrations confined among all possible The vibrations confined to a single direction.
directions.
It is incoherent in nature. It is coherent in nature.
Intensity depends on nature of source is used. Intensity depends on nature of polaroid is
used.
Symmetrical about the ray direction. Asymmetrical about the ray direction.

iv) List out the applications of polarized light ( 3M )

1. Polarization is used in sunglasses to reduce the glare.
2. Three-dimensional movies are produced and shown with the help of polarization.
3. It is used in seismology to study earthquakes.

4. Polaroid filters are used in plastic industries for performing stress analysis tests.

1.15 Discuss in detail linearly, circularly and elliptically types Polarized lights ( 7M )
Depending on the direction of vibration of electric field light is broadly classified into three
types. 1) Plane polarized light 2) Circularly polarized light and 3) Elliptically polarized light.
1. Linearly or Plane polarized light
When electric filed is confined to a single plane and vibrates normal to the direction of
propagation is known as linearly or plane polarized light.

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a) Horizontally plane polarized light
If electric field is confined to single plane and normal to
the direction of propagation it points in and out is known
as horizontally plane polarized light. It is represented by
dots as shown in fig a.
b) Vertically plane polarized light
If electric filed is confined to single plane and normal to
the direction of propagation it points up and down is
known as vertically plane polarized light. It is represented
by arrows as shown in fig b.
2.Circularly polarized light
If two plane polarized light waves of equal amplitudes vibrating at right angles to each other
are superposed with a phase difference then the
resultant polarized light is called circularly polarized
light as shown in fig.
a) Left handed or Clock wise circularly
polarized light
If the rotation of resultant electric field starts from left to right or in clock wise about the
direction of propagation such that it goes on sweeping a circular helix in space during
propagation is known as left handed circularly polarized light.
b) Right handed or Anti-clock wise circularly polarized light
If the rotation of resultant electric field starts from right to left or in anti-clock wise about the
direction of propagation such that it goes on sweeping a circular helix in space during
propagation is known as right handed circularly polarized light.
3.Elliptically polarized light

If two plane polarized light waves of un

equal amplitudes vibrating at right angles to
each other are superposed with a phase
difference then the resultant polarized light is called elliptically polarized light as shown
in fig.

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a) Left handed or Clockwise elliptically polarized light
If the rotation of resultant electric field starts from left to right or in clock wise about the
direction of propagation such that it goes on sweeping a flattened helix in space during
propagation is known as left handed elliptically polarized light.
b) Right handed or Anti-clock wise elliptically polarized light
If the rotation of resultant electric field starts from right to left or in anti-clock wise about the
direction of propagation such that it goes on sweeping a flattened helix in space during
propagation is known as right handed elliptically polarized light.
1.16 Plane of vibration and plane of polarization (3M)

Plane of vibration

The plane having the direction of vibration and

direction of propagation of light is known as plane of
vibration.

Plane of polarization

The plane EFGH having the direction of propagation of light and perpendicular to the direction
of vibration is known as plane of polarization. Where represents direction of propagation of
light.

1.17 Explain Polarization of light by refection- Brewster’s law ( 7M )

The angle of incidence at which the reflected light is completely plane polarized is called
polarizing angle or Brewster’s angle.

The tangent of the angle at which polarization is completely obtained by reflection is

numerically equally to refractive index of the medium. The relation between the polarizing
angle and refractive index of the material is called Brewster’s law

When un polarized light is incident on the surface of any transparent material of refractive index
the reflected and refracted beams are partially plane polarized. This depends on the angle of
incidence, and at a particular angle of incidence the reflected ray is completely plane polarized
while the transmitted ray is partially polarized.

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Let AO is un polarized light incident on surface XY of transparent material of refractive index
at polarizing angle P. This ray is partly reflected along
OB and partly refracted along OC at angle then from

Brewster’s law (1)

By Snell’s law (2)

Comparing Eq.(1) and Eq.(2), we get

( )

i.e.

This is the case when reflected and refracted beams are at right angles to each other.

1.18 Explain the geometry of calcite crystal

( 7M )

The geometry of calcite crystal as shown in fig a.

Each face of the crystal is parallelogram having
angles and . At the two diagonally
opposite corners and three obtuse angles meet these are called blunt corners of the crystal.
At rest of the six corners one angle is obtuse and two are acute.
i) Optic axis
A line passing through any one of the blunt corners and making equal angles with three faces
which meet there is the direction of optic axis. Optic axis is a direction but not axis. Hence any
line parallel to the optic axis is considered as optics axis as shown in fig b.
ii) Principal plane or Principal section
A plane containing the optic axis and perpendicular to two opposite faces of the crystal is called
principal section as shown in fig c.
iii) Uniaxial and biaxial anisotropic crystals
The crystal has only one optic axis is known as uniaxial crystal. Eg: Calcite , Quartz
The crystal has two optic axis is known as bi axial crystal. Eg: Borax, Mica

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1.19 Explain the double refraction of light in crystals. ( 7M )

If a beam of un polarized light is passed through a Calcite crystal, the refracted ray splits into
two refracted rays and both rays are plane polarized. This phenomenon is known as double
refraction.

The phenomenon of double refraction

can be shown with the help of following
experiment. If an ink dot is made on a
sheet of white paper and is viewed
through a calcite crystal, two images of
ink dot are observed. Now rotate the
crystal slowly it is found that one image remains stationary and second image rotates around the
stationary image. The stationary image is known as – image and while the second image is
known as – image as shown in fig a.

When beam of un polarized light be incident on the calcite crystal at an angle of incidence i
as shown in fig. It splits into two refracted rays. The ( ) travelling
along makes angle of refraction while the ray ( ) travelling along
makes an angle of refraction . Since the two opposite faces of the crystal are always parallel
both the rays emerge parallel to each other. But both the refracted rays are plane polarized in
perpendicular directions as shown in fig b.
The refractive indices of ray and ray can be expressed as

and respectively. It is observed that is same for all the

angles of incidence while varies with angles of incidence. Therefore ray travels with
same speed in all directions while –ray has different speeds in different directions.
The properties of and o rays

i) The o ray obeys Snell’s law and travels with same speed in all directions. Hence its
refractive index is constant.

The e ray does not obey Snell’s law and travels with different speeds in different directions.
Hence its refractive index is not constant.

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ii) Both the rays are plane polarized with their vibrations perpendicular to each other. The
vibrations of e ray is parallel principal plane while that the vibrations of o ray is
perpendicular to the principal plane.
iii) The e and o rays do not interfere even though they are derived from the single
source.
iv) The crystal in which hence the velocity of – ray inside the crystal is greater
than the velocity of – ray, i.e. the ellipse lies out of the sphere is known negative crystal
as shown in fig a. Calcite crystal, Tourmaline crystal.

v) The crystal in which

hence the velocity of – ray inside the
crystal is more than the velocity of – ray
i.e. the ellipse lies inside the sphere is
known positive crystal as shown in fig b.
Quartz crystal, Iron oxide
1.20 What are the Quarter wave plate and Half
wave plates explain in detail ( 7M )

i) Quarter wave plate

A doubly refracting uniaxial crystal plate that

introduces a phase difference or path

difference between the e ray and o ray is called Quarter wave plate. The path difference

between the two waves on emerging is given by

( ) ∴ ( )

For a positive crystal (Quartz ) ( )

For negative crystal (Calcite) ( )

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ii) Half wave plate

A doubly refracting uniaxial crystal plate that introduces a phase difference or path

difference between the e ray and o ray is

called Half wave plate. The path difference

between the two waves on emerging is given by

= ( )t ∴ ( )

For a positive crystal (Quartz)

t ( )

For negative crystal (Calcite) t ( )

1.21 Explain theory of plane, circular and elliptically polarized light (7M)
Consider a thin crystal plate with its faces parallel to optics axis. Let a monochromatic plane
polarized light be incident normally on a crystal plate such that its plane of vibration is
oriented at angle to the optic axis. The plane polarized light split up into two components o-
ray and e-ray. Both these rays travel inside the plate along the same direction but with
different velocities as shown in fig a.
Theory
Let be the amplitude of the incident plane
polarized light and makes an angle with the
optic axes. It can be resolved into two perpendicular
directions and with amplitudes and
respectively. The component
having vibrations parallel to optic axis form ray while the component having
vibrations perpendicular to optic axis form ray as shown in fig b. Hence, on emergence
from the crystal plate a phase difference is introduced between them. If the incident wave
is , the two components will be represented by
( ) e- wave and o-wave
Let and
Then we have ( ) (1)
and (2)

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From Eq.(1) we have ( )

From Eq.(2) (4) and √ (5)

Using Eq.(4) and Eq.(5) in Eq.(3) we get √

√ squaring and rearranging we obtain

or ( ) ( ) or (6)

Eq.(6) represents general equation of an ellipse.

Case i) . When
and Eq.(6) gives

Or ( ) or (7)

Eq.(7) is a straight line passing through

origin and having slope . Obviously the

emergent light is plane polarized with

vibrations in the same plane as in the
incident light as shown in fig a.
Case ii )

a) When then and Eq.(6) reduces to

The emergent light is elliptically polarized ( ) and the plane of the ellipse being normal
to the direction of propagation as shown in fig c.
b) When and and Eq.(6) reduces to which represents

circle of radius . Thus the emergent light is circularly polarized.

Case iii) When then and Eq.(6) reduces to

or ( ) or (8)

Eq.(8) represents a straight line passing to origin with slope .

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Solved examples

1. Evaluate the ratio of intensities of maxima and minima when two coherent sources
having intensities in the ratio 16 : 25 interfere. ( 3M )
Sol: We know that intensity proportional to the square of the amplitude

We have or √ √

( ) ( )
Now ( ) ( )

Thus the ratio of intensity of maximum and minimum is 81:1

2 A soap film of refractive index 1.33 is illuminated with light of different wavelengths
for incidence angle of 45°. A complete destructive interference is noticed for a
wavelength of 5890Å. Find the thickness of the film. ( 3M )
Sol: Refractive index , angle of incidence ,
wavelength of light 5890 cm

Snell‟s law and angle of refraction

Destructive interference and order of reflection

Thickness of soap film 0.2979 cm

3.The path difference between two interfering coherent rays at a point on the screen is
1/8th of the wavelength of the light rays. Determiner the ratio of intensity at the point
to that at the center of a bright fringe. (3M)

Sol: Path difference between two interfering waves

The phase difference between two interfering wave ( )

The intensity in the central maximum is given by ( )

= ( ) ( )

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4. A parallel beam of light of wavelength 5890 glass plate having refractive
index is 1.5 such that the angle of refraction in the plate is 600 calculate the smallest thickness
of the plate which will appear dark by reflected light. ( 3M )
Given data and angle of refraction r 600

Solution We know that ∴

0.3927 cm

5 A thin film of MgF2 is used for anti-reflection coat on the surface of an optical lens. Examine
the least thickness of the film to ensure a minimum reflection at its surface for a wavelength
5893 . Given refractive index of MgF2 is 1.38. (2M)
Sol: For minimum reflection angle of reflection and order of reflection

We know that ∴ 0.2135 cm

6.A parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength 6000Å is incident on a thin

glass film (μ = 1.55) such that the angle of refraction is 60°. Evaluate the least thickness
of the film which will appear dark under reflected light. (3M)
Sol : Refractive index , angle of refraction ,
wavelength of light 6000 cm and order of reflection

We know that ∴ 0.387 cm

7.Determine the refractive index of liquid between lens and glass plate in Newton’s rings
experiment. If diameter of 10th dark ring is reduced to half of the value to that of the same ring
due to air film. ( 3M )
Sol: The diameter of the 10th dark ring in air film is given by √ (1)

The diameter of the 10th dark ring in liquid film is given by √ (2)

Dividing Eq.(1) by Eq.(2) we get 2 √

and hence refractive index of liquid

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8.A Newton‟s rings experiment is performed with a source of light having two
wavelengths 1= 6000Å and 2 = 4500Å. It‟s found that the nth dark ring due to 1

coincides with the (n+1)th dark ring due to 2. If the radius of curvature of the lens is
90cm, find the diameter of nth dark ring for 1 (3M)
Sol: 1 cm , 2 cm and radius of curvature
The diameter of dark ring due to 1 is given by [ ]
The diameter of ( ) dark ring due to 2 is given by [ ] ( )
According to problem [ ] [ ] or ( )

( ) or ( )

Now [ ]

Therefore [ ] √
9.In a Newton‟s rings experiment, the wavelength of light used is 6000Å and the
difference between the squares of the diameters of two successive rings is 0.125cm2.
Determine the difference if the wavelength is changed to 4500Å and the air film is
replaced by a liquid of refractive index 1.33.
Sol : Given that 1 cm , 2 cm
and cm2 1 (1)
2 (2)

Dividing Eq.(2) by Eq.(1) we get here

There fore ( )( ) ( ) cm2

( )
Refractive index of liquid ( )

( )
and hence ( ) cm2

10.If the diameter of the 15th dark ring in the experiment is 0.68cm, then compute the
refractive index of the liquid. Determine the thickness of the film corresponding to the
15th dark ring. [3M] Given R=200cm and wavelength λ=6000Å
Sol: Given that , R 200cm and λ 6000 cm

Diameter of dark ring and hence ( )

Thickness of liquid film for 15th dark ring

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and hence

11.. Calculate the angular separation between the first order minima on either side of central
maximum when the slit is width and light illuminating it has a wavelength
6000 . (3M)

Sol: We know that and where is the angular separation

of nth order minimum from the central maximum,

Width of the slit and and

and hence

The angular separation of the first order minima on either side of the central maximum is

12. Find the half angular width of the central bright maximum in the Fraunhofer diffraction
pattern due to single slit of width when the slit is illuminated by monochromatic
light of wavelength 6000 . (3M)

Sol: Here and where is the half of the angular width of

the central maximum. , and

and hence

13.Light of wavelength 5000Å is incident normally on a single slit. The central

maximum spreads out at 30° on either side of the directions of incident light.
Determine the width of the slit. (3M)
Sol : Wave length of incident light cm and angle of spreading

We know that and =

14.A diffraction grating used at normal incidence gives a yellow line of wavelength
6000Å in a certain order superimposed on a blue line of wavelength 4800Å in the next
higher order and angle of diffraction Determine the order of diffraction. (3M)
Sol : 1 cm , 2 cm and angle of diffraction for both
wave lengths is given as
We know that the grating conditions for two wavelengths
( ) (1)
and ( ) ( ) (2)

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( )
Dividing Eq.(1) by Eq.(2) we get ( ) ( )
or ( )

( )
on cross multiplication ( )

Order of diffraction
15.In the grating spectrum, examine what wavelength of spectral line in the 5 th order
overlaps with the 4th order spectral line of wavelength 5890Å (3M)
Sol : 1 , 2 cm , 5, and angle of diffraction for
both wave lengths is given as
We know that the grating conditions for two wavelengths
( ) (1)
and ( ) (2)
( )
Dividing Eq.(1) by Eq.(2) we get ( )
or

cm

16.Determine the maximum number of orders visible due to a grating having 2620
lines/inch on its surface for a light of wavelength of 5000Å. (3M)

Sol : The number of lines on grating N = 2620 lines/inch 1031lines/cm

Wavelength of light cm.

( )
Solution We know that

In grating for highest order,

Since has to be an integer, the highest order that can be seen is 19.
17.A plane transmission grating having 15000 lines/inch is used at normal incidence.
Find the angular separation between 5048Å and 5016Å spectral lines of Helium in the
second order spectrum. (3M)
Sol : In plane transmission grating ( )

Here ( )
lines/cm, 1 cm,

2 cm
For 1 and ( )

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For 2 and ( )

Angular separation of two spectral lines

18.When sunlight falls on a surface of water at an angle of 53°, the reflected light is
fully plane polarized. Find the angle of refraction and refractive index of liquid (3M)
Sol : Given that angle of polarization
According to Brewster’s law refractive index of
water
Angle of refraction

19. A calcite wave plate is constructed for the wavelength of 6000 Determine its minimum
thickness for which it produces a phase difference of between ordinary ray and extra-
ordinary rays. Given refractive index of o-ray and e-ray (3M)
Sol: Given that The refractive index of the extraordinary ray
The refractive index of the ordinary ray
Wave length

The thickness of a quarter wave plate t ( ) ( )

20.A half wave plate is of 12.5 m thick. Calculate the wavelength for which it
acts as half wave plate. The difference in the principle refractive indices is 0.01.
Sol: Given that thickness of half wave plate
Difference in refractive indices

The thickness of a half wave plate t ( ) and ( )

Wave length ( ) cm

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Model questions
A) State Principle of superposition of waves B) Plane of vibration C) Plane of polarization D)
Brewster’s law E) Optic axis F) Principal plane.
1. State and explain Principle of superposition of waves.
2. Discuss the interference phenomena in a thin parallel film due to reflected light and obtain
the cosine law for thin film.
3. Discuss the experimental arrangement for formation of Newton’s rings due to reflected light
and obtain the expressions for the diameters of bright and dark rings.
4. Explain how the Newton’s rings experiment can be used to determine the wavelength of an
unknown monochromatic source and to determine the refractive index of a liquid.
5. Explain with relevant diagrams the Fraunhofer diffraction of light due to a single slit and
derive the conditions for central maxima, minima and secondary maxima.
6. Explain with relevant diagrams the Fraunhofer diffraction of light due to N parallel slits of
equal width and obtain the conditions for principal maxima, minima and secondary maxima.
7. Explain in detail types of polarizations.

8.Explain the phenomena of double refraction of light in anisotropic crystals.

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Unit IV Photonics
4.0 0 Basic concepts
1) Explain characteristics of laser light ( 3M )

The most important characteristics of lasers are i) Coherence (ii) Directionality

(iii) Monochromaticity and (iv) High intensity.

i) Coherence

The property of existing either zero or constant phase angle difference between two or more
waves is known as coherence. Greater the degree of
coherence higher is the monochromaticity of the beam.

ii) Directionality

During the propagation of laser angular spreading will be less and occupies lesser area where its
incident. Hence it possesses high degree of directionality.

Angular spreading is given by θ degrees

Where are radius of beam spots from source at distance and respectively.
For laser is as small as to radian.
iii) Monochromaticity

The property of exhibiting single wave length by light is known as monochromaticity. That
means when it is sent through a prism then a single line will appear in the spectrum.

iv) High intensity

Due to directionality many beams of laser converge on a small area and so intensity of the laser
will be more therefore the brightness will be more.
Eg. The He-Ne laser of power output 1mWatt appears to be 104 times brighter than
intensity of sun-light striking the earth surface.
2) Absorption (3M)
Let and are ground and excited states of an
atom as shown in fig a. Usually atoms are ground
state as long as external energies are not applied.
When a photon of energy incident

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on the atom lying in the ground state then it absorbs the incident photon and excites to higher
state as shown in a fig b. This phenomenon is known as absorption.
3) Spontaneous emission (3M)
Let us assume that the atom at excited state as
shown. fig a. After the life time the atom de excites
to the ground state spontaneously by emitting photon
of energy as shown in fig b. This
phenomenon is known as spontaneous emission.
4) Stimulated emission (3M)
Let us assume an atom at excited state as shown
in fig a. If a photon of energy is
incident on it before the life time, it stimulates the
atom from to then a photon of energy
releases along with incident photon. They are in phase and moving same direction as shown in
fig b. This phenomenon is known as stimulated emission of radiation.

5) Life time

The duration of time spent by an atom in the excited state is known as life time. For example
the life time of hydrogen atom in the order of sec.

6) Meta stable state

The excited state which has longer life time is known as meta stable state. The life time of meta
stable state in the order of sec.
7) Population

The number of atoms per unit volume in an energy level is known as population of that energy
level. According to Boltzmann law the population of any energy level is given by

Where N0 is the total number of atoms in the system.

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8) Population Inversion (3M)

Population Inversion is the process in which the population of particular higher energy level is
made more than specified lower energy level.

At thermal equilibrium, the population of any

higher energy level is less than the population of
any lower energy level as shown in a fig a. If E1
and E2 are two energy levels with population N1
( )
and N2 respectively, then

Laser action takes place only when > Higher energy level is more populated than
lower energy level. If this criterion is fulfilled, then population inversion is said to be achieved
as shown in a fig b.

9) Pumping

The act of exciting atoms from lower energy level to higher energy level by supplying energy
from the external source is known as pumping.

4. 01 Comparison between Spontaneous and Stimulated emission of radiation (3M)

Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission

( Ordinary light ) ( Laser light )
It takes place without stimulus energy. It takes place with the help of stimulus energy.

In coherent radiation. Coherent radiation.

Less intensity High intensity

Less directionality High directionality

Poly chromatic radiation. Mono chromatic radiation.

All emitted photons move in random All emitted photons move in same direction.
directions.

Eg. Light from Sodium or Mercury Eg. Light form Ruby laser.
lamp

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4.02 Derive the relation between the probabilities of spontaneous emission and stimulated
emissions in terms Einstein’s coefficients (7M)

Let us consider two energy states and

of an atomic system such that
Let and be the populations of
and respectively. Let be the
number of photons per unit volume at
frequency such that
Then the energy density of interacting
photons ( )

When these photons interact with atoms both upward and down ward transitions occur. At
equilibrium these transition rates must be equal.

Upward transition

The absorption rate depends on number of atoms available in the lower energy state and energy
density of interacting Absorption rate

( )
The absorption rate depends on number of atoms available in the
lower energy state and energy density of interacting photons.

Absorption rate
( )
( ) (1)
Where is the Einstein coefficient of absorption
Downward transition
The spontaneous emission rate depends on the number of atoms in the excited state only
Spontaneous emission rate
(2)
Where is the Einstein coefficient of spontaneous emission
The stimulated emission rate depends on number of atoms available in the higher energy state
and energy density of interacting photons.

Stimulated emission rate

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( )
( ) (3)
Where is the Einstein coefficient of stimulated emission

For a system in equilibrium the upward and downward transition rates must be equal
( ) ( )

( ) or ( ) (4)

According to Boltzmann distribution law

The population of state is equal to ( ) (5)

Similarly the population of state is equal to ( ) (6)

Dividing Eq(5) by Eq(6) we get ( ) ( ) (7)

Substituting Eq(7) in Eq(4) we get ( ) (8)

( )

From Planck law of black body radiation the energy density is given by

( ) (9)
( )

Comparing Eq.(8) and Eq.(9) we get or (10)

The probability of stimulated emission is same as the probability of absorption.

and (11) the ratio of spontaneous emission to stimulated emission is

proportional to this shows that the probability of spontaneous emission and stimulated
emission increases rapidly with energy difference between two states.
Eq(10) and Eq(11) are referred as Einstein’s relations
The ratio of spontaneous emission to the stimulated emission is given by

( ) ( )
( ) (12)

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If spontaneous emission is more probable than stimulated emission. If ≪
stimulated emission play an important role. We understand that to make smaller the energy
density of interacting photons ( ) has to be made larger.
( )
The ratio of stimulated emission to absorption ( )
( but )

If ≪ absorption predominates over the stimulated emission and stimulated

emission predominates over the absorption this condition is called population inversion.
4.03 Explain population
inversion with in three level
laser (7M)
Consider an atomic system
with three energy levels E1, E2
and E3 representing the ground
level, metastable level and the
highest excited level
respectively.
When the medium is exposed to light energy, a large number of atoms will be excited to
level. However they do not stay at that level but rapidly undergo downward transition to
level through nonradiative transitions.
The pumping continuous and after a short time there will be a large accumulation of atoms at
the level In this way population inversion is achieved between and Levels.
Spontaneously emitted photon can stimulate excited atom to make a downward transition and
generate two photons. The two photons travelling in the same direction and stimulate two
more excited atoms and generate four photons, and so on. On attaining sufficient intensity then
the laser beam is emerges out as shown in a fig b.

Once stimulated emission commences, the metastable level is quickly depopulated and
population inversion ends. One has to wait till the population inversion is reestablished. Thus
three level laser is a pulsed laser.

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4.04 Explain the basic components of laser system (7M)
The laser system requires three basic components. There are i) External source
ii) Active medium and iii) Optical resonator.

i) External source

It excites the active medium and helps to achieve the population inversion.

Eg. For Ruby laser – Xe/Kr flash lamp is used -- Optical excitation
Active medium

The medium in which the light gets amplified is known as active medium. It may be solid or
liquid or gas.
Eg. In Ruby laser ruby rod will act as a active medium .
i) Optical resonator or Cavity resonator ( 3M )
It consists of two parallel mirrors facing
each other. One of the mirrors is fully
reflector while the other is partially reflector.
The active medium is enclosed between the
two mirrors. This will facilitates release of
radiation. As multiple reflections between the
parallel mirrors increases the intensity of
laser radiation. The entire system describes here is called optical resonator as shown in fig

4.05 Describe with suitable diagram construction and working of ruby laser (7M)

Construction:

It consists of a ruby rod of composition

and 0.05% of which length
is a few centimeters and diameter is 0.5cm.
The end faces of the ruby rod are optically
flat and parallel. One end of the rod is
silvered for 100% reflection while other
end is silvered for nearly 90% reflection.

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A xenon lamp is rolled over ruby rod and is used for pumping ions to excited state and ends are
connected to a power supply. Only a part of light energy is used for the pumping the ions
while the rest heats up the apparatus. A cooling arrangement is provided to keep the
experimental set up at room temperature as shown in a fig a.

Working :

The energy level diagram of chromium ion as shown

in a fig b. Initially most of the chromium ions are in
the ground level When the ruby rod is irradiated
with the xenon lamp the chromium ions are excited to
pumping level by absorbing photons of
wavelength 5600 . Due to shorter life time of
electrons comes back to by a non radiative
transition. Thus the number of ions in a level goes on increasing, due to pumping, while
the number of ions in ground level goes on decreasing. In this way population inversion is
achieved between and Levels.

Any spontaneously emitted photon can stimulate excited ion to make a downward transition
and generate two photons. The two photons travelling in the same direction and stimulate two
more excited ions and generate four photons, and so on. These photons undergo multiple
reflections form the ends of ruby rod and intensity of laser beam grows to a sufficient value and
emerges out through a partial reflector of wavelength 6943 Once stimulated emission
commences, the metastable level is quickly emptied and population inversion ends. One has to
wait till the population inversion is reestablished. Thus ruby laser is a pulsed laser.

4.06 Limitations: (3M)

 Laser output is not continuous but in the form of pulses of microsecond.
 Low efficiency as only the bluish-green components of pumping light is utilized.
 Requires high pumping power as laser transition terminates at the ground state.
 Crystal imperfections in ruby might possibly reduce the efficiency of laser output.
Advantages: (3M)
 Used as laser range finder in defense.
 Used in holography, due to its high pulsed power and good coherence length.
 Used in dermatological applications.
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 The Ruby laser with a low pulse duration of 150-500μsec is employed to weld the
detached retina of the eye.
4.07 Advantages of Lasers (7M)

Industry

i) High power laser is used to weld or melt any material. During the processes of
welding no crystal damage occurs.
ii) Using laser minute holes can be made in the crystals without any damage in
crystal structure, which is highly impossible by a mechanical drilling.
iii) Lasers are used for heat treatment in the automotive industry
iv) Lasers are used to cut glass and quartz.
Science and technology
i) With help of He-Ne gas laser, it was proved that the velocity of light is same in all
directions.
ii) With help of laser, it is possible to count the number of atoms in a substance.
iii) Lasers are used to measure the pollutant gases and other contaminants of the
atmosphere.
iv) Lasers help in determining the rate of rotation of the earth accurately.
v) Lasers are used for producing three dimensional pictures in space without the use
of lens.
vi) Lasers are used for detecting earthquakes and under water nuclear blasts.
Communication
i) It is used in optical fiber communications to send information over large
distances with low loss.
ii) It is under water communication networks
iii) It is used in space communication, radars and satellites.
Medical
i) Lasers are used for bloodless surgery
ii) Lasers are to destroy kidney stones
iii) Lasers are used in cancer diagnosis and therapy
iv) Lasers are used for eye lens curvature corrections
v) Lasers are to remove tumors successfully
vi) Lasers are used to remove the decayed portion of the teeth.

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4.08 Explain structure of optical fiber ( Dielectric wave guide ) ( 3M )

An optical fiber consists of the following main parts. Core is the innermost region is known as
light guiding region. It is made up of glass or plastic of refractive index of core is It is very
thin having diameter (10 – 50) .

Core is surrounded by a thin layer of material known

as cladding of refractive index it is also made up
of glass or plastic but refractive index of cladding
always less than core. The cladding helps to keep the
light beam in the core using the phenomenon of total internal reflection. The diameter of
cladding is about (100 – 150) .

The cladding is also enclosed in another spherical shield is called protective jacket of thickness
(3 – 50) . It is made up of plastic it protects the fiber from physical damage like abrasion,
breakage, crushing, moisture etc. and also increases the mechanical strength of the fiber. Many
such fibers, each one protected by individual protective layers are grouped as a cable. A cable
may contain several hundred of optical fibers.

4.09 Explain basic principal of optical fiber (Total internal reflection of light) (3M)

Let us consider and are refractive indices of two media such that is greater than
Let a light ray travelling in a medium of refractive index to medium of refractive index
with an angle of incidence then it travels from denser medium to rarer medium the angle
of refraction is greater than angle of incidence as shown in fig a. The angle of refraction can
be obtained by the Snell’s law.

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With increase of angle of incidence the angle of refraction also increases and for a particular
angle of incidence the refracted ray just grazes along interface of two media and this angle of
incidence is called critical angle as shown in fig b.

If then hence ∴ ( )

When the angle of incidence increases more than critical angle, ray is reflected back in to the
same medium at the inter face obeying the law of reflection. This phenomenon is called as total
internal reflection of light as shown in fig c.

Condition for total internal reflection of light

i) Light should travel from denser medium to rarer medium.

ii) The angle of incidence should be greater than the critical angle of the medium.
4.10 Define Acceptance angle, Acceptance cone and Numerical Aperture of
optical fiber and derive expressions for the numerical aperture and the fractional
change in refractive index . (7M)
Acceptance angle
The maximum angle of incidence that light ray makes with axis of the fiber to get the
total internal reflection is known as acceptance angle.
Acceptance cone

By rotating the acceptance angle about the fiber axis describes the acceptance cone of the fiber
and half of the angle of this cone is called acceptance angle.

If all possible directions of acceptance angle are considered at the same time we get a cone
corresponding to the surface is called acceptance cone. It is equal to .

Numerical Aperture

The light gathering capacity of an optical fiber and is proportional to acceptance angle.
Numerically equal to Sine of acceptance angle. √

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Let us consider and are refractive indices of launching zone, core and cladding
materials respectively such that >
> . Let a light ray is incident
on the air-core interface with an
angle with axis of the fiber then
refracts into cladding with angle of
refraction . Let the refracted ray
incident on core-cladding interface at a point B with angle of incidence ( ).

If the angle of incidence at air-core interface at a point B is more than then ( )

will be less than critical angle. Then the light ray enters into cladding and will not reach at the
other end of the fiber.

If the angle of incidence at air-core interface at a point B is equal to then ( ) will

be equal critical angle. Then the light ray grazes along the core- cladding inter face .

If the angle of incidence at air-core interface is less than then ( ) will be more than
critical angle. Therefore total internal reflection takes place within the core medium. Once total
internal reflection takes place then it continues till the other end of the fiber by multiple internal
reflections. Hence is considered as the acceptance angle.

At point
According to Snell’s law
(1)

At point
According to Snell’s law ( )

(2)

√
∴ √ √ (3)

Substituting Eq.(3) in Eq.(1)

√ √
∴ (4)

If the light ray is launched from air then

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∴ √ (5)
The maximum angle ( ) is called the Acceptance angle.

Numerical aperture √ (6)

Fractional change in the refractive index ( )
It is defined as the ratio of difference in refractive indices of core and cladding to refractive
index of core. (7)

√( )( ) √ ( ) (8)
As we can take

Then Eq.(8) becomes √ √ (9)

It is seen that depends only on the refractive indices of core and cladding materials and
independent of the fiber dimension.

4.11 Discuss classification of optical fibers in detail ( 7M)

Optical fibers classified into three major categories. 1.Type of material 2. Number of modes
and 3) Refractive index profile.
1. Based on the type of the material used, they are classified into two types
a) Glass fiber and b) Plastic fiber
a)If the optical fiber is made up of mixture of metal oxides and silica glasses, then it is called
glass fiber. For these fibers the refractive index difference between core and cladding is
low about 0.02 and hence acceptance angle and numerical aperture of these fibers is
also less.
b)If the fibers are made up of plastics, then it is called plastic fiber. Usually the refractive index
difference between core and cladding is about 0.9. Hence the numerical aperture and acceptance
angle is high for these fibers.
2.Based on the number of modes that light propagates through optical fiber, they are classified
as a) Single mode fibers b) Multimode fibers

Single mode fiber allows only one mode for the light ray travelling through it.
Multi-mode fiber allows a large number of modes for the light rays travelling through it.
3. Based on the refractive index profile of core and cladding they are classified as
Step index fiber and b) Graded index fiber

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The curve which represents the variation of refractive index with respect to the radial distance is
known as refractive index profile.
If the refractive indices of core, cladding and air in optical fiber vary step by step, then the fiber
is known as step index fiber.
If the refractive index of core gradually decreases from the center towards the core-cladding
interface in parabolic manner then the fiber is called graded index fiber. But the cladding has
uniform refractive index.
4.12 Describe the refractive index profile and transmission of light rays in the single
mode step index fiber (7M)

The geometry of fiber as shown in fig a.

The diameter of core and cladding are in
the order of and
60 respectively. It can allow
only one mode of propagation due to very small core diameter and hence called as single mode
fiber.

The refractive index profile of fiber as shown in fig b. The refractive index of core uniform
throughout it and abruptly changes at core-cladding interface and slightly greater than
refractive index of cladding material. Thus its refractive index takes the shape of a step and is
called step index fiber.

The propagation of light in the fiber as shown in fig c. The light propagates in a single direction
which is along axis of the fiber. The path of the light ray in single mode fiber is straight line. No
intermodal dispersion exists in single mode fiber because only one mode exists.

It is more suitable for long distance communication due to i) Very small core diameter ii) Low
numerical aperture iii) Low attenuation and iv) Very high band width.

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4.13 Describe the refractive index profile and transmission of light rays in the multi
mode step index fiber (7M )

The geometry of fiber as shown in fig a.

The diameter of core and cladding are in
the orders of and
100 respectively. It can
allow multiple modes of propagation of
light due to large core diameter and hence called as multimode fiber.

The refractive index profile as shown in fig b. The refractive index of core uniform throughout
it. The refractive index abruptly changes at core-cladding interface and slightly greater than
refractive index of cladding material. Thus its refractive index takes the shape of a step and
hence it is called step index fiber.
The propagation of light through multimode step index fiber as shown in fig c. The light in
the fiber propagates by bouncing back and forth from core cladding interface. The light rays
propagating through it are in the
form of meridinal rays which will
cross the fiber core axis during
every reflection at the core –
cladding boundary and are
propagating in a zig – zag manner.
Light rays entering into the fiber at different angles of incidence travel different distances
before they arrive other end of the fiber. The light rays with larger angles travel longer distances
than those light rays making smaller angles with axis. As a consequence higher angle rays are
arrived at the other end later than the lower angle rays. Hence all the rays reach the fiber end at
different times that leads intermodal dispersion.

It is more suitable for short distance communication due to i) Very large core diameter ii) High
numerical aperture iii) High attenuation and iv) Low band width.

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4.14 Describe the refractive index profile and transmission of light rays in the multi
mode gradex index fiber (7M)

The geometry of fiber as shown in fig a. The diameter of core and cladding are in the orders of
and 100 respectively. It can allow multiple modes of propagation
of light due to large core diameter and
hence called as multimode fiber.

The refractive index profile of fiber as

shown in fig b.
The refractive index of core gradually
decreases with increasing of radial distance from axis of the fiber in parabolic manner towards
core cladding interface. But the refractive index of cladding is remains constant. Hence it is
called graded index fiber.
The propagation of light through fiber as shown in fig c. The light in the fiber propagates by
bouncing back and forth from core cladding interface. The light rays propagating through it are
in the form of skew rays which will never cross the fiber core axis during every reflection at the
core – cladding boundary and are propagating in a helical manner.
Light rays entering into the fiber at different angles of incidence travel different distances
before they arrive other end of the fiber. The light rays with larger angles travel longer distances
than those light rays making smaller angles with axis. As the decrease of refractive index
allows a higher velocity of light
energy propagation. Thus all rays
will reach end of the fiber at
same time. As a result the inter
modal dispersion is reduced.
It is more suitable for short
distance communication due to i) Very large core diameter ii) High numerical aperture iii) Low
signal attenuation and iv) High band width.

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4.15 Explain the advantages of optic fiber in communication ( 7M )
The optic fiber offers enormous advantages compared to the traditional co-axial cable
communication.
1. Wide bandwidth: The bandwidth of ordinary co-axial cable is 500MHz, whereas in optic
fiber offers extremely high bandwidth of 105GHz. This is because OFC’s employ light waves to
transmit data.
2. Immune to EMI (Electromagnetic interference): Optic fibers carry light photons through
them which are immune to both EMI due to industrial machinery and RFI due to
radio/television broadcast station, radars and other signals originating from electronic
equipment.
3. Small size and light weight: The total thickness of the fiber is about 300μm including core,
cladding and sheath. This makes fiber very small in size and weight.
4. Electric isolation: Optic fiber is made of insulating silica, and hence it doesn’t pick up any
electromagnetic waves. Hence there is no possibility of eddy current or conduction loss of
signal.
5. Low cost and flexibility: Optic fiber is made of silica which is the most abundant on earth
and hence fiber is most cost effective. Fibers can be twisted without any damage. They are
superior in terms of storage, installation and transportation.
6. Signal security and low loss: Optic fiber doesn’t radiate during signal transportation. The
signal is confined to communicate only inside the core of the fiber; and hence it’s a secured
mode of communication. The power loss of the fiber is extremely low about 0.2dB/km
compared to co-axial cable typically about 10dB/km.
4.16 V-number of optic fiber:
It is the number of modes or paths for propagation of light rays inside the fiber.
√
Mathematically expressed as √

Where, ‘no = 1’ for air launching zone, ‘λ’ is the wavelength of the light used, ‘d’ is the core
diameter, and n1 & n2 are the refractive indices of core and cladding respectively.

4.17 Fiber optic attenuation or Power loss:

It is defined as the reduction in the signal strength or optical power when transmitted through
the fiber. Signal attenuation is expressed in the logarithmic unit of Decibel (dB). Fiber optic
power loss per unit length of fiber is expressed as

( ) .

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Here, ‘L’ is the length of the fiber, Pi is the input optical power; and Po is the output optical
power. Signal attenuation in fiber is mainly due to absorption, scattering, and bending.

4.18 Applications of optic fiber: (3M)

 Active and passive sensors for measuring temperature, pressure, displacement, fluid level,
electromagnetic fields, etc.
 Fiber optic endoscope for observation of internal parts of the body without surgery.
 Used in hydrophones for underwater SONAR devices.
 Optic fiber is used in telecommunication, CCTV, and high speed data transfer applications.
 Optic fibers are used in lighting the interior and exterior parts of automobiles; and to transfer
data between various control systems like airbags, traction control, etc.

Solved examples

1.Laser action occurs by stimulated emission from an excited state to a state of energy
30.5eV. If the wavelength of laser emission is 690nm, what‟s the energy of the excited
state? Given C = , and (3M)

Sol: Energy of state , wavelength , velocity of light C =

, Planck constant charge of electron

and hence

Energy of excited state

2.A Dye laser produces an output of 1.35k.Watt. If the wavelength of laser emission is
585nm, calculate the number of photons emitted by laser in one second. (3M)
Sol: Given that wavelength and output power

Energy of emitted photon

Energy of the laser output

Hence, number of photons emitted per second

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3.A Cadmium sulphide photo detector crystal is irradiated over a receiving area of
by the light of wave length 0.4 m and intensity 200 . Calculate
the number of excitons generated per second.
Sol : Area , Intensity and wavelength
Intensity per unit area Number of photons Energy of photon

∴ Number of photons =

4.Find the population ratio between two levels in order to produce laser beam of wavelength
6328Å at 300K. (Given energy difference ΔE= 1.96 eV). Boltzmann constant is 8.62 x
eV/K (3M)
Sol : Given that wavelength , Temperature 300K, energy difference

The ratio of population is given by ( ) ( )

( )

5.A system has three energy levels E1, E2 and E3. The energies of E1 and E2 are at 0.2 eV
and1.4 eV respectively. For lasing action between E3 to E2 level, find the energy of E3
level. The wavelength of laser beam emitted is 1.25μm. (Given h = 6.6x10-34 J-Sec and c
= 3x108 m/s, e = 1.6 x 10-19 C )
Sol: Energy of state , wavelength , velocity
of light C = , Planck constant charge of electron

and hence

Energy of excited state

6.A medium emits laser beam of wavelength 3.3913μm. Determine the energy
difference between the upper and lower levels for this wavelength.
(Given h = 6.6x10-34 J-Sec and c = 3x108 m/s, e = 1.6x10-19 C)
Sol : Given that wavelength

Energy difference between upper and lower states

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J or

7.Examine the possibility of stimulated emission in an atomic system at 300K if the

wavelength of emitted radiation is 600nm. (3M)
Sol: Given that wavelength and temperature
The ratio of stimulated emission to spontaneous emission is

=
( ) ( ) ( )

( )
As the ratio is negative and hence the stimulated emission is not possible at optical
frequencies and at thermal equilibrium.
8.A ruby emits laser pulse of wavelength 694nm for duration of 1.2x10-11 sec. If the
energy of the pulse is 0.15 J, estimate the length of the pulse. m/s (3M)
Sol : Given that wavelength , energy of the pulse and time

Length of the pulse

9.The refractive indices for core and cladding for a step index fiber are 1.52 and 1.41
respectively. Determine the critical angle and numerical aperture.
Sol : Refractive index of core and cladding
for total internal reflection

The critical angle ( ) ( )

10.An optic fiber with core refractive index 1.47 and a fractional refractive index of
0.03. If light is launched into the core of the fiber, determine the angle of the cone in
which any light ray enters should propagate through the length of the fiber.(3M)
Sol : Given that refractive index of core and relative difference in indices
Relative difference in indices

and hence ( ) ( )

Acceptance angle ( ) (√ )

(√( ) ( ) ) (√ ) ( )=

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11.A communication system uses an optic fiber of length 10km, which has an
attenuation of 2dB/km. Estimate the output optical power if the power of the light
launched into the fiber is 500μWatt. ( 3M )
Sol: Given that Length of fiber , attenuation 2dB/km and

Attenuation per km in dB ( )

( ) take anti log on both sides we get

( ) 0.00199 and hence

12.A single mode step-index fiber communicates at a wavelength of 850 nm. The
refractive indices of the core and cladding of the fiber are 1.480 and 1.465 respectively.
Estimate the maximum possible diameter of the core to communicate light through it.
(3M)
Sol: Refractive index of core , cladding
and wavelength
A fiber can support only one mode if its cut off parameter

The number √ 2.405

The radius of the core

√ √( ) ( )

405 or or
√

∴ The diameter of core is

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Model questions
1.State the terms absorption, spontaneous emission and stimulated emission of
radiation with relevant energy level diagrams.
2.Interpret the relation between the transition probabilities of spontaneous and
stimulated emission of radiation by using Einstein coefficients.
3.Describe the characteristics of Laser in detail? Outline a few applications of Laser in
the field of Science and technology.
4.Differentiate between normal and inverted population distribution in atomic
systems. Describe the population inversion in a 3-level laser system.
5.Construct a model laser system with essential components and explain the working
of the system.
6.Describe the construction and working of Ruby Laser with relevant energy level
diagram.
7.Discuss the components of optic fiber and the principle of light propagation in fiber.
8.Derive the expression for Numerical aperture of optic fiber in terms of the refractive
indices of core and cladding.
9.Sketch the refractive index profile of core of the step-index fibers and discuss the
light ray propagation through the fibers.
10. Explain the light propagation through the graded-index multimode fibers with
relevant sketches and describe its limitations in communication systems
11. Classify the optic fibers as step-index and graded index fibers.

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Unit V Quantum physics and Semiconductors
5.00 Basic concepts

1. Particle :

A particle is localized object in a space and characterized by mass, velocity, momentum,

kinetic energy and charge.

1. Wave :

A wave is a disturbance spread out over a region in space and characterized by wavelength,
frequency, time period, amplitude , intensity and phase.

5.01 Derive an expression for de-Broglie wave length of electron (7M)

De- Broglie proposed dual nature of matter i.e. waves behave like a particles and particles like
an electrons will behave like a waves. The dual nature of matter was explained by combining
Planck’s energy relation and Einstein’s mass energy relation.
According to Planck’s relation a light wave of frequency is associated with a photon of
energy given by ( ) (1)
According to Einstein’s mass energy relation a mass is equivalent to an amount of energy
given by ( ) (2)
Combining the above two equations, we get (3)
Where Planck’s constant is the frequency of radiation and is velocity of light.
We know that or (4)

From Eq. (3) and Eq. (4) We have

∴ (5)

Where is the momentum of the particle and is the wave length.

According to de - Broglie hypothesis, a particle of mass moving with a velocity associated

with a wave length is called de- Broglie or matter wave wavelength.

(6)

According to theory of relativity the mass used in the Eq. (6) not constant but varies with
velocity given by where is the rest mass of the particle.
√

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i) de- Broglie wave length in terms of kinetic energy

If is the kinetic energy of the particle then

∴ √ and hence de-Broglie wave length

√

ii) de- Broglie wave length in terms of applied voltage

Let and be the rest mass and charge of an electron. If an electron is accelerated to a
velocity v by passing through a potential difference volts then work done on the electron

is equal to change in kinetic energy. or √

de- Broglie wave length √

√

√ √
iii) de Broglie wavelength in terms of thermal energy
The average kinetic energy of an particle at temperature TK is

Kinetic energy of particle

Comparing the above two equations we get ∴ √

De Broglie wavelength
√

5.02 Among electron, Proton and alpha particle, choose the one which exhibits least de
Broglie wavelength. Given the kinetic energy of all particles is equal. (3M)

We know that mass of alpha particle > mass of proton > mass of an electron

The de Broglie wavelength in terms kinetic energy is

√

If kinetic energy of all particle are equal then and hence alpha particle will exhibit
√

least wavelength.
5.03 What is a matter wave and write its properties (3M)
The wave associated with moving particle is called matter wave.
Properties of a matter wave
i) It is not electromagnetic wave.
ii) No single phenomenon exhibits both particle and wave nature simultaneously.
iii) Lighter is the particle associated with greater is the wavelength.
iv) Lesser velocity of the particle associated with longer wavelength.
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v) The wavelength of matter wave independent of charge on the particle, but depends on
mass and velocity of the particle.
vi) If then this means only moving particles are associated with matter wave.
5.04 Explain Heisenberg uncertainty principle ( 7M )

It is impossible to measure exact position and

momentum of the particle simultaneously with
high degree of accuracy.

Let and are uncertainties in the position

and momentum measured then

where is reduced Planck’s constant.

According to quantum mechanics the moving particle is described in terms of a wave packet
and is constituted by waves having a range of wave lengths. The particle may be located
anywhere in the wave packet at any given time. i.e. the probability of finding particle is
maximum at the center of the wave packet and falls zero at the ends.
In a narrower wave packet the position of the particle can be measured precisely but at the
same time momentum cannot be measured precisely and hence uncertainty involved in
momentum measurement as shown in fig a.
In a wider wave packet the momentum can be measured precisely but at the same time the
position of the particle cannot be measured precisely and hence uncertainty involved in
position measurement as shown in fig b.
In this way certainty in position involves uncertainty in momentum and certainty of
momentum involves uncertainty in position.

5.05 Explain Heisenberg uncertainty principle of position and momentum & energy and
time (7M).

i) Position and momentum: According to this principle, the product of uncertainties in

the measurements of position and momentum of a particle is greater than or equal to half the

reduced Planck’s constant i.e.

In a narrower wave packet, we can measure position of the particle but the momentum cannot
be measured accurately and hence uncertainty involved in momentum. In a wider wave packet,
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we can measure the momentum but simultaneously the position of the particle cannot be
measured accurately and hence uncertainty involved in position measurement.

In this way certainty in position involves uncertainty in momentum and certainty of

momentum involves uncertainty in position.
ii) Energy and time: According to this principle, the energy of a particle in a quantum state

cannot be measured precisely during a finite interval of time, i.e.

Where and are uncertainties in energy and time of measurements respectively. Here
is the reduced Planck’s constant.

This means that within time interval it is impossible to measure energy of a particle
precisely without any uncertainty in the measurement. In order to measure energy precisely
(to make smaller) we must increase . This additional time interval might be regarded as
the uncertainty in the measurement.

In this way certainty in energy involves uncertainty in time and certainty of time involves
uncertainty in energy.
5.06 List out applications of Heisenberg uncertainty principle ( 3M )

i) Non-existence of electrons in a nucleus.

ii) Estimation of radius (size) and energy of hydrogen atom in ground state.
iii) Binding energy of an electron in an atom.
iv) Existence of protons and neutrons in a nucleus.

5.07 Derive time independent and time dependent Schrodinger wave equations (7M)

Let and be the mass and velocity of the particle moving freely along direction.
This moving particle associated with a matter wave of wavelength and angular velocity

Then the displacement of matter wave at any instant of time is given by

[ ( )] (1)

Where and be the amplitude and wave vector of the matter wave.

We know that and and substituting these values in Eq.(1) where

We get * ( )+ * ( )+ (2)

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Time independent Schrodinger wave equation

Differentiating Eq.(2) with respect to twice, we get

* ( – )+ ( ) and * ( – )+ ( )

∴ (3)

Total energy of the particle can be written as where is the

potential energy. Multiplying on both sides by We get (4)

Substituting the value of in Eq.(4) We get

( ) or ( ) (5)

Eq.(5) is the time independent Schrodinger wave equation in one dimension.

Similarly in three dimensions, ( )

( ) ( ) But

( ) (6) is the time independent Schrodinger wave equation in three

dimensions.
Time dependent Schrodinger wave equation
Differentiating ( ) with respect to ‘t’ we have

[ ( – )] ( )

∴ (7)

Substituting the values of and in Eq.(4)

We get (8)

Eq.(8) is the time dependent Schrodinger wave equation in one dimension. Similarly in three

dimensions * +

* + but

or ( – ) (9)

(9) is known as time dependent Schrödinger wave equation in three dimensions.

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5.08 Explain the terms Eigen function and Eigen value in quantum mechanics. (3M)
If an operator acts on a function and generates same function, multiplied by a constant, this
constant is called Eigen value and this function is called Eigen function.
̂ where ̂ is an operator, is a Eigen function and is a Eigen value.
5.09 Express Hamiltonian operator based on the Schrodinger wave equation. (3M)
( OR )
Express the energy operator based on the Schrodinger time independent wave equation.
Hamiltonian operator or Total energy operator (2M)

We know that time independent Schrodinger wave equation

* + or ̂ , ̂ is called Hamiltonian

operator or Total energy operator. Where 1st term denotes the kinetic energy and 2nd term
denotes potential energy. The input of this operator is wave function and the output is energy in
the form of Eigen value.
5.10 Physical significance of wave function (3M)
i) The wave function contains all the measurable information about a particle.
2
ii) The wave function is a complex quantity has no physical significance by itself but is a
real quantity has the physical significance.
iii) The wave function is said to be normalized if the probability of finding a particle
somewhere in a given space is unity i.e. ∫ ( ) =1
iv) The wave function is said to be orthogonal if the probability of finding a particle
somewhere in a given space is zero i. e . ∫ ( ) =0 .
5.11 List out limitations of wave function (3M)
i) The wave function must be finite everywhere.
ii) The wave function must be single valued everywhere.
iii) The wave function must be continuous everywhere except where potential energy is
infinite.
iv) The first derivative of wave function must be continuous everywhere and second
derivative must be finite value.
v) The integration of square of the wave function over all space be finite value.
vi) The wave function must be zero at infinity.

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5.12 Why should wave function be a finite value. (3M)
If the wave function is infinite at any point , it would mean an infinitely large probability of
finding the particle at that point. This would violate the uncertainty principle. Therefore must
have a finite or zero value at any point.
5.13 Why should wave function be a single valued. (3M)
If the wave function has more than one value at any point, it would mean more than one
value of probability of finding particle at that point. Since the probability can have only one
value at a particular position and time. Therefore must have a single valued everywhere.
5.14 Why must wave function be continuous everywhere? (3M)
If the wave function is not continuous, and its first derivative is not defined. As a result
there is discontinuity anywhere along or its derivative, it would mean there exists an infinite
probability of finding the particle at the point of discontinuity, which is impossible. Therefore
must be continuous.
5.15 Why should Schrodinger wave equation is to be continuous (3M)
Schrodinger’s wave equation is always continuous because the wave function and its first
derivative must be continuous everywhere in a given region of space.
5.16 Why must the wave function be normalized (3M)
If ∫ ( ) ( ) dx = 1 ( ) the wave function ( ) is said to be normalized.
Normalization of wave function ensures that the total probability of finding particle in all
possible states is equal to unity.

5.17 Why should the wave function be orthogonal (3M)

If ∫ ( ) ( ) dx = 0 ( ) two wave functions ( ) and ( ) are said to
be orthogonal to each other. It’s impossible to assign two wave functions ( ) and
( ) simultaneously for the same particle.

5.18 Show that the energies of electron in a one dimensional potential box are quantized
(OR) Obtain the expressions for energy and wave function of an electron confined to
move in a one dimensional potential box (7M)

Let us consider an electron of mass is moving with a velocity along - direction in the
region from = to = . Within the region potential energy is taken as zero and outside
the region the potential energy taken to be infinite as shown in fig a.

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Since the electron is present inside the potential box the wave function of electron is not equal
to zero 0 when

Outside the potential box and wall of the box the electron is not
present and hence its wave function is zero 0 when
0 and
The motion of a freely moving electron can be described by time

independent Schrodinger’s wave equation

( ) (1) Here 0 (1)

Eq.(1) becomes, or (2)

Where where is Wave vector.

Eq.(2) is a second order differential homogeneous equation

So that solution can be written as ( ) (3)

To evaluate the arbitrary constants and we must apply boundary conditions namely,

0 at 0 and

When 0, We get 0 ∴
When We get, 0
Since the particle present inside the potential box the amplitude of the wave function
here ∴ or

But ( ) or (4)

( ) ( ) (5)

Let us find the value of by applying Normalization condition

Obviously ∫ ( ) 1 (6)

Since the particle should exist within the well. Substituting the value of ( ) in Eq. (6)
( )
We get , ∫ ( ) ∫ [ ] 1

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* ( )+ 1

i.e. ∴ √

( ) ( ) √ ( ) (7)

i) Energy states of the electron

The variation of energy for different values of
are shown in fig b. The electron can take
only discrete values of energy and is quantized.

If then is called lowest energy state or ground state. If

is called the first excited state and is called the second excited
state and so on.
In general, where is called quantum number. The increase in spacing
between energy state and next higher energy state is ( )
) Wave functions of the electron
The variation of wave function for different values of are shown in fig c. It
is seen that the wave function ( ) has two nodes at and
, the wave function ( ) has three nodes at and

and The wave function ( ) has four nodes at

wave function ( ) will have

( ) nodes.
iii) Probability densities of the electron
The variation of probability density for different values of
are shown in fig d.

The probability density is given by ( ) ( )

The probability density is the maximum

when ( ) , , ,…..

∴ , , , …..

For The most probable position of the electron at

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For The most probable positions of the electron at ,

For The most probable positions of the electron at , ,

The probability of finding electron is different for different energy states. Thus in each state the
location of finding the electron is different as shown in fig d.
5.19 Explain the Fermi - Dirac distribution function of electrons. Illustrate
graphically the effect of temperature on the distribution. (7M)

Consider the free electrons in a metal are distributed among all possible energy levels at OK
as shown in a fig a. The distribution of electrons at any temperature is described by the Fermi-
Dirac distribution function.

Fermi level ( )

The highest occupied energy level by an electron in a metal at OK is known as Fermi level and
energy corresponding to this level is called Fermi energy .

Fermi - Dirac distribution function F(E)

The probability of an electron will be occupying in a particular energy level at a temperature

is given by Fermi-Dirac distribution function.

F (E) (1)
( )

Where is Fermi level and is Boltzmann constant.

Case i) At T = O K , F(E)=1 for all values of E <

F(E)=0 for all values of E >

Case ii) At T O K, F(E) = for all values of E=

The graphical representation of Fermi function at OK and different temperatures as shown in

fig b and fig c respectively. At OK the Fermi function has step like character it indicates that
energy levels below Fermi level are completely filled by electrons and above levels are
completely empty as shown in fig b.

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As the temperature increases from to electrons at Fermi level can take thermal energy
and occupy higher energy levels.

As temperature increases the deviation of

Fermi function also increases all these
curves passes through a point whose F(E)
= at E = . So, Fermi level lies half

way between the filled and empty levels at

T > 0K. The position of Fermi level is
independent of temperature as shown in a fig c.

5.20 Define Fermi velocity ( ) and density of states

The velocity of an electron at Fermi level in a metal at OK is known as Fermi velocity.

It is equal to ( )

Define density of states

It is defined as the number of energy states per unit volume in an energy interval It is

equal to ( ) ( )

Semiconductors
5.21 Classification of solids into insulators, semiconductors and conductors (7M)
Solids are classified into insulators, semiconductors and conductors based on energy gap
between valance and conduction band .

Insulator ( Diamond, glass )

In an insulator the valance band is completely filled by electrons whereas the conduction band
is completely empty and there is a large energy gap between them as shown in fig a. Due to
this fact electrons cannot jump from valance band to conduction band under normal conditions.
A large amount of energy is supplied, the electrons may be able jump across the energy gap.
At high temperature the insulator becomes a conductor.

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Semiconductor ( Ge, Si )
In semiconductor the valance and conduction bands are partially filled by electrons at room
temperature and there is a small
energy gap between them as
shown in a fig b.
A semiconductor material is
one whose electrical
conductivity lies between
insulator and conductor. A
small amount of energy is supplied the electrons can easily jump from valance band to
conduction band. At there are no electrons in conduction band and valance band is
completely filled and act as insulator.
Conductor ( Ag, Au )
In conductor both valance and conduction bands are overlapped and there is no energy gap
between them as shown in fig c. The electrons from valance band freely enter into conduction
band and hence plenty of free electrons are available for electrical conduction. .The most
important point in conductors is that due to absence of forbidden band there is no structure to
establish holes. The total current in simply a flow of electrons.
5.22 With neat sketch explain structure of semiconductor and write
down an expressions for carrier concentration (7M)

A semiconductor in which electrons and holes are generated fully by thermal excitation across

the energy gap is known as intrinsic or pure semiconductor.

Let us consider pure silicon semiconductor in which each atom has four valence electrons are
tetrahedrally bonded to 4 other Si atoms as shown in fig a. At the valance band is
completely filled by electrons and conduction band is empty, behave like an insulator as shown

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in fig b. When a suitable from of energy is supplied to semiconductor the electrons take a
transition from valance band to conduction band. Hence a free electron in conduction band and
free hole in valance band is formed.
In this way equal number of electrons and holes are generated due to the breaking of
covalent bonds as shown in fig c. At covalent bonds are broken per unit volume of
the material, and then there will be electrons in the conduction band and same number of
holes in the valance band are formed. Both, free electrons and holes present in the material
participate in electrical conduction. The electron and hole densities are given by the following
equations.

= * + ( ) and P = * + ( )

Case i) Relation between intrinsic carrier concentration and temperature ( 5M )

In intrinsic semiconductors and hence is called intrinsic carrier

concentration. Therefore, 4 ( ) ( ) ( )

4( ) ( ) ( ) but

Hence, 2( ) ( ) ( )

( ) (3) where 2( ) ( )

The intrinsic carrier concentration directly proportional to

Case ii ) Fermi level ( 3M )

Since in intrinsic semiconductors

* + ( ) * + ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) taking logarithms on both sides

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( ) i.e. ( )

At (4)

Case iii) Electrical conductivity ( 3M )

The electrical conductivity of semiconductor is given by

Where and are motilities of electrons and holes.

Since and

( )

Substituting from Eq. (3)

( ) ( )

( ) (5) Where ( )

Thus the electrical conductivity depends on the negative exponential of the energy gap and

mobilities of electrons and holes. In such a case both proportional to

Taking logarithms on both sides (6)

A graph is drawn between and as shown in fig. From the graph we observe

that conductivity increases with temperature.

Case iv) Energy gap ( 3M )

The resistivity of the intrinsic semi-conductor

( )

( ) Since,

( ) ( )

Where, Taking logarithms on both sides (7)

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A graph is drawn between and as shown in fig. The slope of the curve gives the value

of From the graph slope ∴ ( ) (8)

5.23 Extrinsic semiconductor

A semiconductor whose charge carriers originating from impurity atoms is known as extrinsic
semiconductor.
There are distinguished as and depending upon the nature of charge
carriers.
type semiconductor and write down
expression for carrier concentration (7M)
A semiconductor whose charge carriers originating from penta valent impurity atoms is known
as type semiconductor.

A pentavalent impurity like phosphorous atoms are doped into pure Si, the phosphorus atoms
are replaced for the Si atoms as shown in fig a. It has five valence electrons form four covalent
bonds with silicon atoms. The 5th electron is left alone which is loosely bound to the
phosphorous atom.

These Phosphorous atoms introduce a donor level just below the conduction band. Since, it
readily donates electrons to conduction band. Let be the donor density and conduction band
is empty at OK as shown in fig b.

At ordinary temperatures most of the donor atoms gets positively ionized and donates electrons
to conduction band without creating holes in valance band. Further electrons are generated in
the conduction band during excitation of electrons from valence band through the intrinsic
process is very small and negligible compared to the number electrons generated due to
ionization of donor atoms.

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Thus electrons are more in number than holes and hence electrons are majority carriers and
holes are minority charge carriers in – type semiconductor as shown in fig c.

–
The electron density is given by ( ) ( ) ( )

Variation of Fermi level with temperature and donor concentration

i) With increase of temperature the Fermi level shifts

towards the middle of energy gap.
ii) With increase of donor concentration the Fermi
level shifts towards the middle of energy gap.

5.25 With neat sketch explain structure of type

semiconductor and write down an expression for carrier concentration.(7M)
A semiconductor whose charge carriers originating from trivalent impurity atoms is known as
type semiconductor.

A trivalent impurity like Aluminium atoms are doped into pure Si, the Aluminium atoms are
replaced for the Si atoms as shown in fig a. It has three valence electrons to form three covalent
bonds with silicon atoms and falls short of one electron to complete the fourth covalent bond. It
accepts one more electron to complete bond. This electron may be supplied by Si, thereby
creating a hole in valance band.

These Aluminium atoms introduce acceptor level just above the valance band. Since, it
readily accepts electrons from valance band. Let be the acceptor density and conduction
band is empty at OK as shown in fig b.

At ordinary temperatures most of the acceptor atoms gets negatively ionized by accepting
electrons from valance band by creating holes in valance band without creating electrons in
conduction band. Further holes are generated in the valance band during excitation of electrons
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to conduction band through the intrinsic process is very small and negligible compared to the
number holes generated due to ionization of acceptor atoms.
Thus holes are more in number than electrons and hence holes are majority charge carriers and
electrons are minority charge carriers in – type semiconductor as shown in fig c.

–
The hole density is given by ( ) ( ) ( )

Variation of Fermi level with temperature and donor concentration

i) With increase of temperature the Fermi level shifts towards
the middle of energy gap.
ii) With increase of acceptor concentration the Fermi level
shifts towards the middle of energy gap.
5.26 Explain Hall Effect in detail and write down its
applications (7M)
When a magnetic field is applied
perpendicular to a current carrying
semiconductor, a voltage is developed
across the semiconductor perpendicular to
both current and magnetic field. This
phenomenon is called the Hall effect and
developed voltage is called the Hall
voltage.

Let us consider and be the breadth and thickness of a rectangular block of

semiconductor. Let a voltage be applied across its ends , a current of strength of is flowing
in the positive – direction. The current through the semiconductor due to drifting of
electrons is equal to

Current density where is area of cross section of semiconductor

and is electron density.

∴ ( ) Where is the drift velocity of the electrons.

Now magnetic field is applied along positive – direction. Hence the electrons experience
a magnetic force in a downward direction (2)

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As a result electrons are accumulated on the bottom surface of the specimen. Due to this a
corresponding equivalent positive charge is left on the top surface.

The separation of charge set up a Hall electric force is given by (3)

At equilibrium position both Lorentz and Hall forces are equal in magnitude but acts in opposite
directions. ∴ (4)

Using Eq.(1) in Eq.(4) we get (5)

The Hall effect is always described by means of Hall coefficient

and ∴ (6)

For - type material and - type material

Determination of the Hall coefficient ( )

If is the breadth of the semiconductor then Hall field

Hence (7)

If is the thickness of the semiconductor then its cross – section is and current

density ( )

∴ (8)

is opposite for - type and - type semiconductors.

5.27 List out applications of Hall Effect (3M)

i) It can be used to determine the given material is a conductor, semiconductor or insulator.
ii) It can be used to determine the sign of charge carriers.
iii) It can be used to determine mobility of charge carriers.
iv) It can be used to determine the carrier concentration.
v) It can be used to determine electrical conductivity of metals.

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Solved examples
1. A cylinder filled with helium is heated to a temperature of 27°C. If a beam of helium atoms

emerges out of the cylinder, then calculate the de Broglie wavelength associated with the

helium atoms. Given mass of the He atom is 6.7 X 10-27kg 1.38 X 10-23 J/K and

( 3M)

Sol: J/K and

De Broglie wave length √

√

2. An electron microscope is used to locate an electron in an atom within a distance of 0.25 Å.

Examine the uncertainty in determining its momentum value. Given

(3M)

Given that 0.0025 and

We know that and hence

3. The lifetime of an excited state of a nucleus is 2 X 10-12 sec. Estimate the uncertainty in the

energy of the Gamma ray photons emitted the nucleus . Given (3M)

Sol:

We know that and hence

0.26

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4. An electron is confined inside a potential well of finite width 0.5nm and of height 15eV.

Determine the maximum number of quantum states possible for the electron to occupy inside

the well. Given and C

(3M)

Sol: Width of well , , and

We know that and hence

( )
( )

5. A particle confined to move along X-axis has a wave function ( ) between and

. Determine the probability of locating the particle between . (3M)

Sol: Given that ( ) , and first set of limits and . and second set of limits

.3 and

∫ Therefore ∫ ∫ [ ] or √

∫ ∫ [ ] [( ) ( ) ] =0.037=3.7%

6. An electron is confined in a 1-D infinite potential well of width 0.25 Å. Estimate the energy of

the electron in its second excited state. Given

and C (3M)

Sol: , and C

and

( )
We know that ( )

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7. Determine the ground state energy of the electron confined in an infinite potential well of width

0.05nm. Given and C

Sol: , and C

and

( )
( )

8. Determine the temperature for which there is a 2% probability for an electron state with energy

0.055eV above the Fermi level to be occupied. Given 1.38 and

(3M)

Sol: ( ) and

( ) ( )
Hence or
( ) ( )

( ) or ( )

Take natural logarithm on both sides we get ( )

= Therefore =

9.Determine the resistivity of an intrinsic semiconductor with carrier concentration 2.5 1019
per m3. Given the mobilities of electrons and holes in the semiconductor are 0.40m2/V-sec and
0.20m2/V-sec. (e = 1.6 10-19 C) (3M)
Sol: mobility of electrons µe = 0.40 m2/V-s
Mobility of holes µh = 0.20 m2/V-s
Intrinsic carrier concentration n = p = 2.5 1019 per m3
Conductivity σ = e n (µe + µh) where is charge of electron
σ = 1.6 10-19 2.5 1019 ( 0.40 + 0.020 ) = 2.4 Ω-1m-1
σ = We know that resistivity is the reciprocal of conductivity.
Thus, Resistivity ρ = 1/σ = 1/204 = 0.416 Ω-m

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10.If the resistivity of the intrinsic semiconductor is 5Ohm-m at 300K and 2.5Ohm-m at 320K

then determine the energy band gap of the semiconductor (3M)

Sol: Conductivity σ = 1/ρ = e µ ni

( )
or

( ) or ( )

11.The Hall coefficient of certain silicon specimen was found to be -7.35x10-5m3/C from 100 to

400K. Determine the nature of the semiconductor and density of charge carriers(. Given

(3M)

Sol: The Hall Coefficient is negative. Therefore, the semiconductor is n-type.

Density of charge carriers:

8.45 1022 m-3

12.A copper strip 2 cm wide and 1 mm thick is placed in a magnetic field with B = 1.5 Wb/m 2
perpendicular to the strip. Suppose a current of 200 A is set up in the strip. Determine the Hall
Voltage would appear across the strip? (N = 8.4 1028 electrons/m3, Charge of electron
e = 1.6 10-19 C). (3M)

Sol : Hall Voltage VH =

= =

13.Hall coefficient of a material is 1.25x10-11 m3/C, and the charge of electron is 1.6 10-19 C.
Evaluate the density of electrons in the semiconductor Given
(3M)
Sol: The Hall coefficient is positive. Therefore, it is a p-type semiconductor.

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Model questions
1. What is Heisenberg's uncertainty principle and discuss the relation between
momentum - position and energy - time it in detail.
2. What is the de-Broglie concept of matter wave and derive the expression for the wavelength
of matter waves.
3. Explain Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle and its important applications.
4. Derive Schrodinger time independent wave equation.
5. Derive Schrodinger time dependent wave equation.
6. What is wave function? Discuss the importance of wave functions in quantum mechanics.
7. Derive the expression for energy of a particle in a potential box.
8.Explain the Fermi-Dirac distribution function of electrons. Illustrate graphically the effect of
temperature on the distribution.
8. Write a short note on origin of energy bands in solids.
9. Derive the expression for i) Intrinsic carrier concentration ii) Fermi level iii) Electrical
conductivity and iv) Energy gap in an intrinsic semiconductor.
10. Explain the structure of n-type semiconductor and mention the expression for carrier
concentration.
11. Explain the structure of p-type semiconductor and mention the expression for carrier
concentration.
12. Explain Hall effect in detail.
13. Show that for p-type semiconductor the Hall coefficient

14. Show that for n-type semiconductor the Hall coefficient

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