Solutions to Exercises from

“A Book of Abstract Algebra” by Charles C. Pinter

Eric Bailey
 Contents

Chapter 2. Operations 5
Chapter 3. The Definition of Groups 15
Chapter 4. Elementary Properties of Groups 23

Appendix. Glossary 29

3
 CHAPTER 2

Operations

A. Examples of p Operations p p
1 a ∗ b = |ab| is not an operation on Q, because 2 ∗ 1 = |2|, but |2| ̸∈ Q.
2 a ∗ b = a ln b is not an operation on R>0 , because ∀a, b ∈ R>0 (b ≤ 1 → a ln b ̸∈ R>0 )
3 If a ∗ b is a root of the equation x2 − a2 b2 = 0, ∗ is not an operation on R, because ∀a, b ∈ R(a ̸= 0 ∧ b ̸= 0 →
x = ±ab)
4 Subtraction is an operation on Z, because ∀a, b ∈ Z(a − b ∈ Z).
5 Subtraction is not an operation on Z≥0 , because e.g. 0 − 1 ̸∈ Z≥0 .
6 a ∗ b = |a − b| is an operation on Z≥0 , because ∀a, b ∈ Z≥0 (|a − b| ∈ Z≥0 ).
B. Properties of Operations
1 x ∗ y = x + 2y + 4
(i) ∗ is not commutative.

x ∗ y = x + 2y + 4
y ∗ x = y + 2x + 4
x ∗ y ̸= y ∗ x

(ii) ∗ is not associative.

x ∗ (y ∗ z) = x ∗ (y + 2z + 4)
= x + 2(y + 2z + 4) + 4
= x + 2y + 4z + 12
(x ∗ y) ∗ z = (x + 2y + 4) ∗ z
= x + 2y + 4 + 2z + 4
= x + 2y + 2z + 8
x + 2y + 4z + 12 ̸= x + 2y + 2z + 8

(iii) R does not have an identity element with respect to ∗.

x∗e=x
x + 2e + 4 = x
2e + 4 = 0
e = −2
e∗x=x
e + 2x + 4 = x
e = −x − 4 ̸= −2

(iv) Since there is no identity element, there can be no inverses.

2 x ∗ y = x + 2y − xy
(i) ∗ is not commutative.

x ∗ y = x + 2y − xy
y ∗ x = y + 2x − yx
x ∗ y ̸= y ∗ x

5
6 2. OPERATIONS

(ii) ∗ is not associative.

x ∗ (y ∗ z) = x ∗ (y + 2z − yz)
= x + 2(y + 2z − yz) − x(y + 2z − yz)
= x + 2y + 4z − 2yz − xy − 2xz + xyz
(x ∗ y) ∗ z = (x + 2y − xy) ∗ z
= (x + 2y − xy) + 2z − (x + 2y − xy)z
= x + 2y + 2z − 2yz − xy − xz + xyz
x ∗ (y ∗ z) ̸= (x ∗ y) ∗ z

(iii) R does not have an identity element with respect to ∗.

x∗e=x
x + 2e − xe = x
2e − xe = 0
e(2 − x) = 0
e=0
e∗x=x
e + 2x − ex = x
e + x − ex = 0
e(1 − x) = −x
e = −x(1 − x) ̸= 0

(iv) Since there is no identity element, there can be no inverses.

3 x ∗ y = |x + y|
(i) ∗ is commutative.

x ∗ y = |x + y|
y ∗ x = |y + x| = |x + y|
x∗y =y∗x

(ii) ∗ is not associative.

x ∗ (y ∗ z) = x ∗ |y + z| = |x + |y + z||
(x ∗ y) ∗ z = |x + y| ∗ z = ||x + y| + z|
x = 0, y < 0 → x ∗ (y ∗ z) = |y + z|
(x ∗ y) ∗ z = ||y| + z|
y < 0 → y ̸= |y| → |y + z| ̸= ||y| + z|
x ∗ (y ∗ z) ̸= (x ∗ y) ∗ z

(iii) R has an identity element with respect to ∗.

x∗e=x
|x + e| = x
e=0
e∗x=x
|e + x| = x
e=0
 2. OPERATIONS 7

(iv) Every x ∈ R has an inverse with respect to ∗.

x ∗ x′ = 0
|x + x′ | = 0
x′ = −x
x ∗ (−x) = |x − x| = 0
(−x) ∗ x = |−x + x| = 0
x ∗ x′ = x′ ∗ x
4 x ∗ y = |x − y|
(i) ∗ is commutative.
x ∗ y = |x − y|
y ∗ x = |y − x|
x=y →x∗y =0
y∗x=0

If x < y then x = y + k, and:

x ∗ y = |(y + k) − y| = |k|
y ∗ x = |y − (y + k)| = |−k| = |k|
x∗y =y∗x
If x = y:
x ∗ y = |y − y| = 0
y ∗ x = |y − y| = 0
x∗y =y∗x
If x > y then y = x + k, and:
x ∗ y = |x − (x + k)| = |−k| = |k|
y ∗ x = |(x + k) − x| = |k|
x∗y =y∗x
(ii) ∗ is not associative.
x ∗ (y ∗ z) = x ∗ |y − z|
= |x − |y − z||
(x ∗ y) ∗ z = |x − y| ∗ z
= ||x − y| − z|

If x = 0 and y < 0:
p
x ∗ (y ∗ z) = |−|y − z|| = |y − z| = (y − z)2
p
(x ∗ y) ∗ z = ||−y| − z| = ||y| − z| = (|y| − z)2
|y| ̸= y
x ∗ (y ∗ z) ̸= (x ∗ y) ∗ z
(iii) R does not have an identity element with respect to ∗.
x∗e=x
|x − e| = x
e = 2x
(iv) Since there is no identity element, there can be no inverses.
5 x ∗ y = xy + 1
8 2. OPERATIONS

(i) ∗ is commutative.

x ∗ y = xy + 1
y ∗ x = yx + 1 = xy + 1
x∗y =y∗x

(ii) ∗ is not associative.

x ∗ (y ∗ z) = x ∗ (yz + 1)
= x(yz + 1) + 1 = xyz + x + 1
(x ∗ y) ∗ z = (xy + 1) ∗ z
= (xy + 1)z + 1 = xyz + z + 1
x ∗ (y ∗ z) ̸= (x ∗ y) ∗ z

(iii) R does not have an identity element with respect to ∗.

x∗e=x
xe + 1 = x
xe = x − 1
1
x=1−
x
(iv) Since there is no identity element, there can be no inverses.
6 x ∗ y = max { x, y } = the larger of the two numbers x and y
(i) ∗ is commutative.

x ∗ y = max { x, y }
y ∗ x = max { y, x } = max { x, y }
x∗y =y∗x

(ii) ∗ is associative.

x ∗ (y ∗ z) = x ∗ max { y, z }
= max { x, max { y, z } } = max { x, y, z }
(x ∗ y) ∗ z = (max { x, y }) ∗ z
= max { max { x, y } , z } = max { x, y, z }
x ∗ (y ∗ z) = (x ∗ y) ∗ z

(iii) R does not have an identity element with respect to ∗.

x∗e=x
max { x, e } = x
e = {n ∈ R : n ≤ x}

(iv) Since there is no identity element, there can be no inverses.

7 x ∗ y = x+y+1
xy

(i) ∗ is commutative.
xy
x∗y =
x+y+1
yx xy
y∗x= =
y+x+1 x+y+1
x∗y =y∗x
 2. OPERATIONS 9

(ii) ∗ is associative.

yz
x ∗ (y ∗ z) = x ∗ ( )
y+z+1
xyz
y+z+1
= yz
x+ +1
y+z+1
xyz
=
x(y + z + 1) + yz + (y + z + 1)
xyz
=
xy + xz + yz + x + y + z + 1
 
xy
(x ∗ y) ∗ z = ∗z
x+y+1
xyz
x+y+1
= xy
x+y+1 +z+1
xyz
=
xy + z(x + y + 1) + z + (x + y + 1)
xyz
=
xy + xz + yz + x + y + z + 1
x ∗ (y ∗ z) = (x ∗ y) ∗ z

(iii) R does not have an identity element with respect to ∗.

x∗e=x
xe
=x
x+e+1
xe = x(x + e + 1)
e=e+x+1

(iv) Since there is no identity element, there can be no inverses.

C. Operations on a Two-Element Set
Let A be the two-element set A = { a, b }.
Table 1. 01 Table 2. 02 Table 3. 03 Table 4. 04

(x, y) x∗y (x, y) x∗y (x, y) x∗y (x, y) x∗y

1 (a, a) a (a, a) a (a, a) a (a, a) a
(a, b) a (a, b) a (a, b) a (a, b) a
(b, a) a (b, a) a (b, a) b (b, a) b
(b, b) a (b, b) b (b, b) a (b, b) b
Table 5. 05 Table 6. 06 Table 7. 07 Table 8. 08

(x, y) x∗y (x, y) x∗y (x, y) x∗y (x, y) x∗y

(a, a) a (a, a) a (a, a) a (a, a) a
(a, b) b (a, b) b (a, b) b (a, b) b
(b, a) a (b, a) a (b, a) b (b, a) b
(b, b) a (b, b) b (b, b) a (b, b) b
10 2. OPERATIONS

Table 9. 09 Table 10. 010 Table 11. 011 Table 12. 01

(x, y) x∗y (x, y) x∗y (x, y) x∗y (x, y) x∗y

(a, a) b (a, a) b (a, a) b (a, a) b
(a, b) a (a, b) a (a, b) a (a, b) a
(b, a) a (b, a) a (b, a) b (b, a) b
(b, b) a (b, b) b (b, b) a (b, b) b
Table 13. 013 Table 14. 014 Table 15. 015 Table 16. 01

(x, y) x ∗ y (x, y) x ∗ y (x, y) x∗y (x, y) x∗y

(a, a) b (a, a) b (a, a) b (a, a) b
(a, b) b (a, b) b (a, b) b (a, b) b
(b, a) a (b, a) a (b, a) b (b, a) b
(b, b) a (b, b) b (b, b) a (b, b) b
2 Commutativity
• 01 is commutative: a ∗ b = a = b ∗ a
• 02 is commutative: a ∗ b = a = b ∗ a
• 03 is not commutative: a ∗ b = a ̸= b = b ∗ a
• 04 is not commutative: a ∗ b = a ̸= b = b ∗ a
• 05 is not commutative: a ∗ b = b ̸= a = b ∗ a
• 06 is not commutative: a ∗ b = b ̸= a = b ∗ a
• 07 is commutative: a ∗ b = b = b ∗ a
• 08 is commutative: a ∗ b = b = b ∗ a
• 09 is commutative: a ∗ b = a = b ∗ a
• 010 is commutative: a ∗ b = a = b ∗ a
• 011 is not commutative: a ∗ b = a ̸= b = b ∗ a
• 012 is not commutative: a ∗ b = a ̸= b = b ∗ a
• 013 is not commutative: a ∗ b = b ̸= a = b ∗ a
• 014 is not commutative: a ∗ b = b ̸= a = b ∗ a
• 015 is commutative: a ∗ b = b = b ∗ a
• 016 is commutative: a ∗ b = b = b ∗ a
3 Associativity
• 01 is associative:

∀x, y ∈ A(x ∗ y = a → x ∗ (y ∗ z) = x ∗ a = a = a ∗ z = (x ∗ y) ∗ z)

• 02 is associative.

a ∗ (a ∗ a) = a ∗ a = (a ∗ a) ∗ a
a ∗ (a ∗ b) = a ∗ a = a ∗ b = (a ∗ a) ∗ b
a ∗ (b ∗ a) = a ∗ a = (a ∗ b) ∗ a
a ∗ (b ∗ b) = a ∗ b = (a ∗ b) ∗ b
b ∗ (a ∗ a) = b ∗ a = a ∗ a = (b ∗ a) ∗ a
b ∗ (a ∗ b) = b ∗ a = a ∗ b = (b ∗ a) ∗ b
b ∗ (b ∗ a) = b ∗ a = (b ∗ b) ∗ a
b ∗ (b ∗ b) = b ∗ b = (b ∗ b) ∗ b

• 03 is not associative: b ∗ (a ∗ b) = b ∗ a = b ̸= a = b ∗ b = (b ∗ a) ∗ b
 2. OPERATIONS 11

• 04 is associative.

a ∗ (a ∗ a) = a ∗ a = (a ∗ a) ∗ a
a ∗ (a ∗ b) = a ∗ a = a ∗ b = (a ∗ a) ∗ b
a ∗ (b ∗ a) = a ∗ b = a ∗ a = (a ∗ b) ∗ a
a ∗ (b ∗ b) = a ∗ b = (a ∗ b) ∗ b
b ∗ (a ∗ a) = b ∗ a = (b ∗ a) ∗ a
b ∗ (a ∗ b) = b ∗ a = b ∗ b = (b ∗ a) ∗ b
b ∗ (b ∗ a) = b ∗ b = b ∗ a = (b ∗ b) ∗ a
b ∗ (b ∗ b) = b ∗ b = (b ∗ b) ∗ b

• 05 is not associative: b ∗ (a ∗ b) = b ∗ b = a ̸= b = a ∗ b = (b ∗ a) ∗ b
• 06 is associative.

a ∗ (a ∗ a) = a ∗ a = (a ∗ a) ∗ a
a ∗ (a ∗ b) = a ∗ b = (a ∗ a) ∗ b
a ∗ (b ∗ a) = a ∗ a = b ∗ a = (a ∗ b) ∗ a
a ∗ (b ∗ b) = a ∗ b = (a ∗ b) ∗ b
b ∗ (a ∗ a) = b ∗ a = (b ∗ a) ∗ a
b ∗ (a ∗ b) = b ∗ b = (b ∗ a) ∗ b
b ∗ (b ∗ a) = b ∗ a = (b ∗ b) ∗ a
b ∗ (b ∗ b) = b ∗ b = (b ∗ b) ∗ b

• 07 is associative.

a ∗ (a ∗ a) = a ∗ a = (a ∗ a) ∗ a
a ∗ (a ∗ b) = a ∗ b = (a ∗ a) ∗ b
a ∗ (b ∗ a) = a ∗ b = b ∗ a = (a ∗ b) ∗ a
a ∗ (b ∗ b) = a ∗ a = b ∗ b = (a ∗ b) ∗ b
b ∗ (a ∗ a) = b ∗ a = (b ∗ a) ∗ a
b ∗ (a ∗ b) = b ∗ b = (b ∗ a) ∗ b
b ∗ (b ∗ a) = b ∗ b = a ∗ a = (b ∗ b) ∗ a
b ∗ (b ∗ b) = b ∗ a = a ∗ b = (b ∗ b) ∗ b

• 08 is associative.

a ∗ (a ∗ a) = a ∗ a = (a ∗ a) ∗ a
a ∗ (a ∗ b) = a ∗ b = (a ∗ a) ∗ b
a ∗ (b ∗ a) = a ∗ b = b ∗ a = (a ∗ b) ∗ a
a ∗ (b ∗ b) = a ∗ b = b ∗ b = (a ∗ b) ∗ b
b ∗ (a ∗ a) = b ∗ a = (b ∗ a) ∗ a
b ∗ (a ∗ b) = b ∗ b = (b ∗ a) ∗ b
b ∗ (b ∗ a) = b ∗ b = b ∗ a = (b ∗ b) ∗ a
b ∗ (b ∗ b) = b ∗ b = (b ∗ b) ∗ b

• 09 is not associative: a ∗ (a ∗ b) = a ∗ a = b ̸= a = b ∗ b = (a ∗ a) ∗ b
12 2. OPERATIONS

• 010 is associative.

a ∗ (a ∗ a) = a ∗ b = b ∗ a = (a ∗ a) ∗ a
a ∗ (a ∗ b) = a ∗ a = b ∗ b = (a ∗ a) ∗ b
a ∗ (b ∗ a) = a ∗ a = (a ∗ b) ∗ a
a ∗ (b ∗ b) = a ∗ b = (a ∗ b) ∗ b
b ∗ (a ∗ a) = b ∗ b = a ∗ a = (b ∗ a) ∗ a
b ∗ (a ∗ b) = b ∗ a = a ∗ b = (b ∗ a) ∗ b
b ∗ (b ∗ a) = b ∗ a = (b ∗ b) ∗ a
b ∗ (b ∗ b) = b ∗ b = (b ∗ b) ∗ b

• 011 is not associative: a ∗ (a ∗ a) = a ∗ b = a ̸= b = b ∗ a = (a ∗ a) ∗ a

• 012 is not associative: a ∗ (b ∗ a) = a ∗ b = a ̸= b = a ∗ a = (a ∗ b) ∗ a
• 013 is not associative: a ∗ (a ∗ a) = a ∗ b = b ̸= a = b ∗ a = (a ∗ a) ∗ a
• 014 is not associative: a ∗ (b ∗ a) = a ∗ a = b ̸= a = b ∗ a = (a ∗ b) ∗ a
• 015 is not associative: a ∗ (a ∗ a) = a ∗ b = b ̸= a = b ∗ b = (a ∗ a) ∗ b
• 016 is associative:

∀x, y ∈ A(x ∗ y = b → x ∗ (y ∗ z) = x ∗ b = b = b ∗ z = (x ∗ y) ∗ z)

4 Identity
• A does not have an identity element with respect to 01 .
• A has an identity element with respect to 02 .

x∗e=x
a∗b=a
b∗b=b
e=b
e∗x=x
b∗a=a
b∗b=b
e=b

• A does not have an identity element with respect to 03 .

• A does not have an identity element with respect to 04 .
• A does not have an identity element with respect to 05 .
• A does not have an identity element with respect to 06 .
• A does not have an identity element with respect to 07 .
• A has an identity element with respect to 08 .

x∗e=x
a∗a=a
b∗a=b
e=a
e∗x=x
a∗a=a
a∗b=b
e=a

• A does not have an identity element with respect to 09 .

 2. OPERATIONS 13

• A has an identity element with respect to 010 .

x∗e=x
a∗b=a
b∗b=b
e=b
e∗x=x
b∗a=a
b∗b=b
e=b
• A does not have an identity element with respect to 011 .
• A does not have an identity element with respect to 012 .
• A does not have an identity element with respect to 013 .
• A does not have an identity element with respect to 014 .
• A does not have an identity element with respect to 015 .
• A does not have an identity element with respect to 016 .
5 Since A only has identity elements with respect to 02 , 08 , and 010 , the rest cannot have inverses. As it turns
out, with respect to those three operations, it is not the case that every x ∈ A has an inverse.
D. Automata: The Algebra of Input/Output Sequences
Let A be an alphabet and A∗ be the set of all sequences of symbols in the alphabet A. There is an operation on
A∗ called concatenation: If a and b are in A∗ , say a = a1 a2 ...an and b = b1 b2 ...bm , then
ab = a1 a2 ...an b1 b2 ...bm
The symbol λ denotes the empty sequence.
1 Concatenation is associative.
a(bc) = a(b1 b2 ...bm c1 c2 ...ck ) = a1 a2 ...an b1 b2 ...bm c1 c2 ...ck
(ab)c = (a1 a2 ...an b1 b2 ...bm )c = a1 a2 ...an b1 b2 ...bm c1 c2 ...ck
a(bc) = (ab)c
2 Concatenation is not commutative.
ab = a1 a2 ...an b1 b2 ...bm
ba = b1 b2 ...bm a1 a2 ...an
ab ̸= ba
3 λ is the identity element for concatenation: xλ = λx = x
 CHAPTER 3

The Definition of Groups

A. Examples of Abelian Groups

1 ⟨R, x ∗ y = x + y + k⟩
(i) ∗ is commutative: x ∗ y = x + y + k = y + x + k = y ∗ x
(ii) ∗ is associative.
x(yz) = x(y + z + k) = x + y + z + 2k
(xy)z = (x + y + k)z = (xy)z
x(yz) = (xy)z
(iii) R has an identity element with respect to ∗.
xe = x
x+e+k =x
e = −k
(−k)x = x
−k + x + k = x
(iv) ∀x ∈ R(∃x′ ∈ R(x ∗ x′ = −k))
xx′ = −k
x + x′ + k = −k
x′ = −x − 2k
x′ x = xx′ due to commutativity
2 ⟨R∗ , x ∗ y = xy
2 ⟩
(i) ∗ is commutative: x ∗ y = xy
2 = yx
2 =y∗x
(ii) ∗ is associative.
yz xyz
x ∗ (y ∗ z) = x ∗ ()=
2 4
xy xyz
(x ∗ y) ∗ z = ( ) ∗ z=
2 4
∗
(iii) R has an identity element with respect to ∗.
xe ex
x∗e= = =e∗x=x
2 2
e=2
(iv) ∀x ∈ R(∃x′ ∈ R(x ∗ x′ = 2))
xx′ x′ x
x ∗ x′ = = = x′ ∗ x = e = 2
2 2
4
x′ =
x
3 ⟨{ x ∈ R : x ̸= −1 } , x ∗ y = x + y + xy⟩
(i) ∗ is commutative: x ∗ y = x + y + xy = y + x + yx = y ∗ x
(ii) ∗ is associative.
x ∗ (y ∗ z) = x ∗ (y + z + yz) = x + (y + z + yz) + x(y + z + yz) = x + y + z + xy + xz + yz + xyz
(x ∗ y) ∗ z = (x + y + xy) ∗ z = (x + y + xy) + z + (x + y + xy)z= x + y + z + xy + xz + yz + xyz
15
16 3. THE DEFINITION OF GROUPS

(iii) { x ∈ R : x ̸= −1 } has an identity element with respect to ∗.

x ∗ e = x + e + xe = e + x + ex = e ∗ x = x
e(x + 1) = 0
e=0

(iv) Every element of { x ∈ R : x ̸= −1 } has an inverse with respect to ∗.

x ∗ x′ = x + x′ + xx′ = x′ + x + x′ x = e = 0
x′ (x + 1) = −x
x
x′ = −
x+1

4 ⟨{ x ∈ R : −1 < x < 1 } , x ∗ y = xy+1 ⟩

x+y

(i) ∗ is commutative: x ∗ y = x+y y+x

xy+1 = yx+1 =y∗x
(ii) ∗ is associative.
y+z
y+z x + ( yz+1 ) xyz + x + y + z
x ∗ (y ∗ z) = x ∗ ( )= y+z =
yz + 1 x( yz+1 ) + 1 xy + xz + yz + 1
x+y
x+y ( xy+1 )+z x + y + z + xyz
(x ∗ y) ∗ z = ∗ z = x+y =
xy + 1 ( xy+1 )z + 1 xy + yz + xz + 1

(iii) { x ∈ R : −1 < x < 1 } has an identity element w.r.t. ∗.

x+e
x∗e= =x
xe + 1
x + e = x(xe + 1)
e = ex2
e(1 − x2 ) = 0
e=0
x+0 0+x
x∗0= =x= =0∗x
(x × 0) + 1 0x + 1

(iv) Every element of { x ∈ R : −1 < x < 1 } has an inverse with respect to ∗.

x + x′
x ∗ x′ = = 0; x + x′ = 0; x′ = −x
xx′ + 1
x−x −x + x
x ∗ (−x) = =0= = (−x) ∗ x
x(−x) + 1 −x2 + 1

B. Groups on the Set R × R

1 (a, b) ∗ (c, d) = (ad + bc, bd), on the set { (x, y) ∈ R × R : y ̸= 0 }
(i) ∗ is commutative.

(c, d) ∗ (a, b) = (cb + da, db)

= (ad + bc, bd)
= (a, b) ∗ (c, d)

(ii) ∗ is associative.

(a, b) ∗ [(c, d) ∗ (e, f )] = (a, b) ∗ (cf + de, df )

= (adf + bcf + bde, bdf )
= (ad + bc, bd) ∗ (e, f )
= [(a, b) ∗ (c, d)] ∗ (e, f )
 3. THE DEFINITION OF GROUPS 17

(iii) (e1 , e2 ) = (0, 1)

(a, b) ∗ (e1 , e2 ) = (ae2 + be1 , be2 )
= (a, b)

be2 = b
e2 = 1

ae2 + be1 = a
a + be1 = a
e1 = 0
−a


(iv) (a′ , b′ ) = 1
b2 , b

(a, b) ∗ (a′ , b′ ) = (ab′ + ba′ , bb′ )

= (0, 1)

bb′ = 1
1
b′ =
b

ab′ + ba′ = 0
a
+ ba′ = 0
b
−a
ba′ =
b
′ −a
a = 2
b
    
−a 1 a −a 1
(a, b) ∗ , = + ,b
b2 b b b b
= (0, 1)
2 (a, b) ∗ (c, d) = (ac, bc + d), on the set { (x, y) ∈ R × R : x ̸= 0 }
(i) ∗ is not commutative: (c, d) ∗ (a, b) = (ca, da + b) ̸= (a, b) ∗ (c, d)
(ii) ∗ is associative.
[(a, b) ∗ (c, d)] ∗ (e, f ) = (ac, bc + d) ∗ (e, f )
= (ace, bce + de + f )
= (a, b) ∗ (ce, de + f )
= (a, b) ∗ [(c, d) ∗ (e, f )]
(iii) (e1 , e2 ) = (1, 0)
(a, b) ∗ (e1 , e2 ) = (ae1 , be1 + e2 )
= (a, b)

ae1 = a
e1 = 1

be1 + e2 = b
b + e2 = b
e2 = 0
18 3. THE DEFINITION OF GROUPS

(iv) (a′ , b′ ) = ( a1 , −b
a )
(a, b) ∗ (a′ , b′ ) = (aa′ , ba′ + b′ )
= (1, 0)

aa′ = 1
1
a′ =
a

ba′ + b′ = 0
b
+ b′ = 0
a
−b
b′ =
a
1 −b a b b
(a, b) ∗ ( , )=( , − )
a a a a a
= (1, 0)
3 (a, b) ∗ (c, d) = (ac, bc + d), on the set { (x, y) ∈ R × R }
(i) ∗ is not commutative, as per 2(i).
(ii) ∗ is associative, as per 2(ii).
(iii) (e1 , e2 ) = (1, 0), as per 2(iii).
(iv) a′ is not defined ∀a ∈ R, notably when a = 0.
4 (a, b) ∗ (c, d) = (ac − bd, ad + bc), on the set { (x, y) ∈ (R × R) \ { (0, 0) } }
(i) ∗ is commutative.
(c, d) ∗ (a, b) = (ca − db, cb + da)
= (ac − db, ad + bc)
= (a, b) ∗ (c, d)
(ii) ∗ is associative.
(a, b) ∗ [(c, d) ∗ (e, f )] = (ac − bd, ad + bc) ∗ (ce − df, cf + de)
= (a(ce − df ) − b(cf + de), a(cf + de) + b(ce − df ))
= (ace − adf − bcf − bde, acf + ade + bce − bdf )
= (e(ac − bd) − f (ad + bc), f (ac − bd) + e(ad + bc))
= (ac − bd, ad + bc) ∗ (e, f )
= [(a, b) ∗ (c, d)] ∗ (e, f )
(iii) (e1 , e2 ) = (?, ?)
(a, b) ∗ (e1 , e2 ) = (ae1 − be2 , ae2 + be1 )
= (a, b)

ae2 + be1 = b
be1 = b − ae2
ae2
e1 = 1 −
b

ae1 − be2 = a
−be2 = a − ae1
be2 = ae1 − a
ae1 − a
e2 =
b
 3. THE DEFINITION OF GROUPS 19

C. Groups of Subsets of a Subset

1 The identity element with respect to the operation + is ∅.
A + I = (A − I) ∪ (I − A) = A
= (A − ∅) ∪ (I − ∅)

I=∅
2 ⟨2D , +⟩ is a group, since ∀A ∈ 2D , A−1 = A.
A + A−1 = ∅
(A − A−1 ) ∪ (A−1 − A) = ∅
A − A−1 = A−1 − A = ∅
A−1 = A
3 Let D = { a, b, c }.
2D = { ∅, { a } , { b } , { c } , { a, b } , { a, c } , { b, c } , { a, b, c } }
Table 1. ⟨2D , +⟩

+ ∅ {a} {b} {c} { a, b } { a, c } { b, c } { a, b, c }

∅ ∅ {a} {b} {c} { a, b } { a, c } { b, c } { a, b, c }
{a} {a} ∅ { a, b } { a, c } {b} {c} { a, b, c } { b, c }
{b} {b} { a, b } ∅ { b, c } {a} { a, b, c } {c} { a, c }
{c} {c} { a, c } { b, c } ∅ { a, b, c } {a} {b} { a, b }
{ a, b } { a, b } {b} {a} { a, b, c } ∅ { b, c } { a, c } {c}
{ a, c } { a, c } {c} { a, b, c } {a} { b, c } ∅ { a, b } {b}
{ b, c } { b, c } { a, b, c } {c} {b} { a, c } { a, b } ∅ {a}
{ a, b, c } { a, b, c } { b, c } { a, c } { a, b } {c} {b} {a} ∅
D. A Checkerboard Game
Table 2. ⟨G, ∗⟩

∗ I V H D
I I V H D
V V I D H
H H D I V
D D H V I
As shown in the Cayley table above, the identity element is I and every element is its own inverse. Having shown
that and granting associativity, ⟨G, ∗⟩ is a group.
E. A Coin Game
Table 3. ⟨G, ∗⟩

∗ I M 1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M 7
I I M 1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M 7
M1 M1 I M 3 M2 M5 M4 M7 M 6
M2 M2 M 3 I M 1 M6 M7 M4 M 5
M3 M3 M 2 M1 I M 7 M6 M5 M 4
M4 M4 M 6 M5 M7 I M 2 M1 M 3
M5 M5 M 7 M4 M6 M1 M3 I M2
M6 M6 M 4 M7 M5 M2 I M 3 M1
M7 M7 M 5 M6 M4 M3 M1 M2 I
As shown in the Cayley table above, the identity element is I and every element is invertible. Having shown
that and granting associativity, ⟨G, ∗⟩ is a group. It is not commutative, because, for example M6 ∗ M4 = M2 , while
M4 ∗ M6 = M1 , so M6 ∗ M4 ̸= M4 ∗ M6 .
 20 3. THE DEFINITION OF GROUPS

Figure 1. ⟨r, s, t | r2 , s2 , t2 , (rs)4 , (st)3 , (rt)2 ⟩

I M1

M4 M5

M6 M7

M2 M3

F. Groups in Binary Codes

1 (a1 , a2 , ..., an ) + (b1 , b2 , ..., bn ) = (b1 , b2 , ..., bn ) + (a1 , a2 , ..., an ), since the left-hand side is equivalent to (a1 +
b1 , a2 + b2 , ..., an + bn ), which by commutativity is equivalent to (b1 + a1 , b2 + a2 , ..., bn + an ), which is equivalent
to (b1 , b2 , ..., bn ) + (a1 , a2 , ..., an ).
2
1 + (1 + 1) = 1 + 0 = 1 = 0 + 1 = (1 + 1) + 1
1 + (1 + 0) = 1 + 1 = 0 = 0 + 0 = (1 + 1) + 0
1 + (0 + 1) = 1 + 1 = 0 = 1 + 1 = (1 + 0) + 1
0 + (1 + 1) = 0 + 0 = 0 = 1 + 1 = (0 + 1) + 1
1 + (0 + 0) = 1 + 0 = 1 = 1 + 0 = (1 + 0) + 0
0 + (0 + 1) = 0 + 1 = 1 = 0 + 1 = (0 + 0) + 1
0 + (1 + 0) = 0 + 1 = 1 = 1 + 0 = (0 + 1) + 0
0 + (0 + 0) = 0 + 0 = 0 = 0 + 0 = (0 + 0) + 0
3
(a1 , a2 , ..., an ) + [(b1 , b2 , ..., bn ) + (c1 , c2 , ..., cn )] = (a1 , a2 , ..., an ) + (b1 + c1 , b2 + c2 , ..., bn + cn )
= (a1 + b1 + c1 , a2 + b2 + c2 , ..., an + bn + cn )
= (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , ..., an + bn ) + (c1 , c2 , ..., cn )
= [(a1 , a2 , ..., an ) + (b1 , b2 , ..., bn )] + (c1 , c2 , ..., cn )
4 The identity element of B , that is, the identity element for adding words on length n, is 0n .
n

5 The inverse, with respect to word addition, of any word (a1 , ..., an ) is (a1 , ..., an ).
6 a + b = a + (−b), since b = −b. Thus a + b = a − b.
7
a+b=c
a + (−b) = c
a−b=c
a=b+c
 3. THE DEFINITION OF GROUPS 21

G. Theory of Coding: Maximum-Likelihood Decoding

Table 4. Parity check equations in C1

C1 a4 a1 + a3 a4 = a1 + a3 a5 a1 + a2 + a3 a5 = a1 + a2 + a3
00000 0 0+0 ✓ 0 0+0+0 ✓
00111 1 0+1 ✓ 1 0+0+1 ✓
01001 0 0+0 ✓ 1 0+1+0 ✓
1 01110 1 0+1 ✓ 0 0+1+1 ✓
10011 1 1+0 ✓ 1 1+0+0 ✓
10100 0 1+1 ✓ 0 1+0+1 ✓
11010 1 1+0 ✓ 0 1+1+0 ✓
11101 0 1+1 ✓ 1 1+1+1 ✓
2 (a)
C2 = { 000000, 001001, 010111, 011110, 100011, 101010, 110000, 111101 }
Table 5. Distance in C2

d(a, b) 000000 001001 010111 011110 100011 101010 110000 111101

000000 2 4 4 3 3 2 5
001001 2 4 4 3 3 4 3
010111 4 4 2 3 5 4 3
(b) 011110 4 4 2 5 3 4 3
100011 3 3 3 5 2 3 4
101010 3 3 5 3 2 3 4
110000 2 4 4 4 3 3 3
111101 5 3 3 3 4 4 3
The minimum distance of the code C2 is 2.
(c) Since the minimum distance is C2 , one error is sure to be detected in any codeword of C2 .
3 C3 = { 0000, 0101, 1011, 1110 } where a3 = a1 and a4 = a1 + a2 .
Table 6. Distance in C3

d(a, b) 0000 0101 1011 1110

0000 0 2 3 3
0101 2 0 3 3
1011 3 3 0 2
1110 3 3 2 0
min d(a, b) = 2
a∈C3 ,a̸=b
4 • 11111 → 11101
• 00101 → 00111
• 11000 → 11010
• 10011 → 10011
• 10001 → 10011
• 10111 → 10011 or 00111
 CHAPTER 4

Elementary Properties of Groups

A. Solving Equations in Groups

1

axb = c
ax = cb−1
x = a−1 cb−1

x2 b = xa−1 c
xb = a−1 c
x = a−1 cb−1

acx = xac
xacx = x2 ac
x2 a = bxc−1
x2 ac = bx

xacx = bx
xac = b
x = b(ac)−1

x3 = e

ax2 = b
a = bx
x = b−1 a

x5 = e
x4 = x−1

x2 = a2
x4 = a2 x2
x−1 = a2 x2
e = a4 x

−1
a4 =x
23
 24 4. ELEMENTARY PROPERTIES OF GROUPS

6
x2 a = (xa)−1

(xax)3 = bx
xa(x2 a)(x2 a)x = bx
xa(xa)−1 (xa)−1 x = bx
(xa)−1 x = bx
a−1 x−1 x = bx
b−1 a−1 = x
B. Rules of Algebra in Groups

G = ⟨{ I, A, B, C, D, K } , ·⟩

     
1 0 0 1 0 1
I = A= B=
0 1 1 0 −1 −1
     
−1 −1 −1 −1 1 0
C= D= K=
0 1 1 0 −1 −1
    
0 1 0 1 1 0
1 A2 = = = e ... but A ̸= e, so x2 = e =⇒
̸ x = e. ■
1 0 1 0 0 1
2 A2 = I2 , but A ̸= I, so x2 = a2 =⇏ x = a. ■
3 (AB)2 = K2 = I, and A2 B2 = ID = D, but I ̸= D, so (ab)2 = a2 b2 is not true in every group G.1 ■
4 x2 = x =⇒ x = e
x2 = x
xx = x
xxx−1 = xx−1
xe = e
x=e
■
Table 1. ⟨{ I, A, B, C, D, K } , ·⟩

· I A B C D K
I I
A I
5 B D
C I
D B
K I
As shown in the table, there does not

exist an x ∈ G such that x = y 2 for y ∈ { A, C, K }.
Therefore ¬ ∀x ∈ G, ∃y ∈ G x = y 2 . ■
6
y = xz
−1
x y = x−1 xz
z = x−1 y
Therefore, for all x, y ∈ G, there exists a z ∈ G such that y = xz. ■

1(ab)2 = a2 b2 is only true in abelian groups.

 4. ELEMENTARY PROPERTIES OF GROUPS 25

C. Elements That Commute

1 a−1 b−1 = (ba)−1 = (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1
2 Since a = b−1 ba = b−1 ab, ab−1 = (b−1 ab)b−1 = b−1 a.
3 a(ab) = a(ba) = (ab)a
4 (xax−1 )(xbx−1 ) = xa(x−1 x)bx−1 = x(ab)x−1 = x(ba)x−1 = xb(x−1 x)ax−1 = (xbx−1 )(xax−1 )
5 ab = ba ⇐⇒ aba−1 = b
Proof. First, assume ab = ba. Multiplying by a−1 on the right shows ab = ba =⇒ aba−1 = b. Next,
assume aba−1 = b. Multiplying by a on the right shows aba−1 = b =⇒ ab = ba. ■
6 ab = ba ⇐⇒ aba−1 b−1 = e
Proof. First, assume ab = ba. Multiplying by a−1 on the right yields aba−1 = b. Then multiplying by b−1
on the right yields aba−1 b−1 = e. Thus ab = ba =⇒ x. Next, assume aba−1 b−1 = e. Multiplying by b on the
right yields aba−1 = b. Then multiplying by a−1 on the right yields ab = ba. Thus aba−1 b−1 = e =⇒ ab = ba
and ab = ba ⇐⇒ aba−1 b−1 = e. ■
D. Group Elements and Their Inverses
1 ab = e =⇒ ba = e
Proof. If ab = e, then ab = aa−1 , so by the cancellation law, b = a−1 and a = b−1 .
Thus, bb−1 = e =⇒ ba = e, as desired. ■
2 abc = e =⇒ cab = e and bca = e.
Proof. If (ab)c = e, then (ab)c = (ab)(ab)−1 , so by the cancellation law, c = (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1
Thus, (ab)−1 (ab) = e =⇒ c(ab) = e, and b(b−1 a−1 )a = e =⇒ cba = e. ■
3 ...
4 Let G be a group such that xay = a−1 for all a, x, y ∈ G. Prove that yax = a−1 as well.
Proof. If xay = a−1 , then (xay)a = a−1 a, so by the definition of inversion, (xay)a = e. Thus
x (xay)ax = x−1 ex, so by associativity and the definition of the identity element, (x−1 x)a(yax) = e ⇐⇒
−1

ea(yax) = e ⇐⇒ a(yax) = e. Multiply by a−1 on the left to obtain a−1 a(yax) = a−1 e, so by the definition
of inversion, yax = a−1 . ■
5 Let a = a−1 , b = b−1 , and c = c−1 . If ab = c show that bc = a and ca = b as well.
ab = c
−1
abb = cb−1 = cb
a = cb
−1
a = b−1 c−1 = bc
bc = a

ab = c
−1 −1
b a = c−1
ba−1 = c
ba−1 a = ca
ca = b
6 Let abc = (abc)−1 , show that bca = (bca)−1 and cab = (cab)−1 .
abc = (abc)−1
bca = a−1 (abc)−1 a
= a−1 (bc)−1
= (bca)−1

bca = (bca)−1
cab = b−1 (bca)−1 b
= b−1 (ca)−1
= (cab)−1
7 Let a = a−1 and b = b−1 , show that (ab)−1 = ba.
26 4. ELEMENTARY PROPERTIES OF GROUPS

Proof. Replace a and b with their inverses on the right-hand side of (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 to obtain (ab)−1 =
ba. ■
8 a = a−1 ⇐⇒ a2 = e
Proof. If a = a−1 , then a2 = e by multiplying by a on the right. If a2 = e, then a = a−1 by multiplying
by a−1 on the right. ■
9 Let c = c−1 . Prove ab = c ⇐⇒ abc = e.
Proof. If ab = c, then ab = c−1 , since c = c−1 . Multiply by c on the right to obtain abc = e. If abc = e,
then abc−1 = e since c = c−1 . Multiply by c on the right to obtain ab = c. ■
E. Counting Elements and Their Inverses 
1 Prove that in any finite group G, 2 | x ∈ G : x ̸= x−1 .
Proof. By definition, G = x ∈ G : x = x−1 ∪ x ∈ G : x ̸= x−1 .




−1 −1 −1
Therefore, ∀x ∈ G x = x ∨ x ̸= x ∧ ∃y ∈ G y ̸= x ∧ y = x .
 
So, x∈ G : x ̸= x−1 = x0 , x−1 0 , x 1 , x −1
1 , x 2 , x −1
2 , x 3 , x −1
3 ... = 2k. ■
−1
2 Prove x ∈ G : x = x  has the same−1 parity as |G|.
Proof.
 Since |G| = x ∈ G : x
 = x + x ∈ G : x ̸= x−1 ,
−1
and x ∈ G : x ̸= x is even, x ∈ G
: x = x−1 has the same parity as |G|. ■
3 Prove 2 | |G| =⇒ ∃x ∈ G x ̸= e ∧ x = x−1 . 
Proof. If 2 | |G| then
2 | x ∈ G : x = x−1 . Since e = e−1 , 2 ∤ x ∈ G : x ̸= e ∧ x = x−1 and thus
∃x ∈ G x ̸= e ∧ x = x−1 . ■
4 Given a finite abelian group G = { e, a1 , a2 , ...an }, prove (a1 a2 ...an )2 = e.
(a1 a2 ...an )2 = (a1 a2 ...an )(a−1 −1 −1
1 a2 ...an )

= a1 a−1 −1 −1
1 a2 a2 ...an an
= ee...e
=e

■
5 Prove ∀x ∈ G x ̸= e =⇒ x ̸= x−1 =⇒ a1 a2 ...an
= e.


Proof. Assume ∀x ∈ G x ̸= e =⇒ x ̸= x−1 . Then ∀x ∈ a1 a2 ...an ∃y ∈ a1 a2 ...an x ̸= y ∧ y = x−1 .
So a1 a2 ...an can be rewritten a1 a−1 − −1
1 a2 a2 ...an/2 an/2 , which reduces to e. ■
−1
6 Prove that if there is exactly one x ̸= e in G such that x = x then a1 a2 ...an = x.
Proof. a1 a2 ...an can be rewritten xa1 a−1 −1 −1
1 a2 a2 ...an/2 an/2 , which is equivalent to xe. ■
F. Constructing Small Groups
1 a, b ∈ G
(a) Prove a2 = a =⇒ a = e.
Proof. Assume a2 = a. Divide by a to get a = e. ■
(b) Prove ab = a =⇒ b = e.
Proof. Assume ab = a. Multiply by a−1 on the left to get a−1 ab = a−1 a ≡ b = e. ■
(c) Prove ab = b =⇒ a = e.
Proof. Assume ab = b. Multiply by b−1 on the right to get abb−1 = b−1 ≡ a = e. ■
2 ...
Explain why elements of each row in a Cayley table must be distinct.
3 There is exactly oneo group with three distinct elements.
Table 2. Multiplication Table for Z3

· e a b
e e a b
a a b e
b b e a
 4. ELEMENTARY PROPERTIES OF GROUPS 27

4 There is exactly one group G with four elements, such that ∀x ∈ G(xx = e).
Table 3. Multiplication Table for v4

· e a b c
e e a b c
a a e c b
b b c e a
c c b a e
5 There is exactly one group G with four elements, such that ∃x ∈ G(x ̸= e ∧ xx = e) and ∃y ∈ G(yy ̸= e).
Table 4. Multiplication Table for v4

· e a b c
e e a b c
a a e c b
b b c e a
c c b a e
6 ...
Explain why Z3 and V4 are the only possible groups of order 4.
G. Direct Products of Groups
1 Prove that G × H is a group.
Proof.

(G1)
(x1 , y1 ) [(x2 , y2 )(x3 , y3 )] = (x1 , y1 )(x2 x3 , y2 y3 )
= (x1 x2 x3 , y1 y2 y3 )
= (x1 x2 , y1 y2 )(x3 , y3 )
= [(x1 , y1 )(x2 , y2 )] (x3 , y3 )
(G2) Let eG be the identity element of G, and eH the identity element of H. The identity element of G × H
is (eG , eH ).
(x, y)(eG , eH ) = (xeG , yeH ) = (x, y)

(eG , eH )(x, y) = (eG x, eH y) = (x, y)

(G3) ∀(a, b) ∈ G × H (a, b)−1 = (a−1 , b−1 )
(a, b)(a−1 , b−1 ) = (aa−1 , bb−1 ) = (eG , eH ) = eG×H

(a−1 , b−1 )(a, b) = (a−1 a, b−1 b) = (eG , eH ) = eG×H

■
 Glossary

Cayley table: The multiplication table for a finite group.. 19

29