BCA530 – Software Engineering

Dr. Siddesha S MCA, M.Sc. Tech(by Research), Ph.D.

Associate Professor
Department of Computer Applications
JSS Science and Technology University, Mysuru
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Unit 4- Design and Implementation

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Architectural design

• Architectural design is concerned with understanding how a software system should

be organized and designing the overall structure of that system.

• Architectural design is the critical link between design and requirements engineering,
as it identifies the main structural components in a system and the relationships
between them.

• The output of the architectural design process is an architectural model that describes
how the system is organized as a set of communicating components.

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Agility and architecture

• It is generally accepted that an early stage of agile processes is to design an overall

systems architecture.

• Refactoring the system architecture is usually expensive because it affects so many

components in the system

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The architecture of a packing robot control system

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Architectural abstraction

• Architecture in the small is concerned with the architecture of individual programs. At

this level, we are concerned with the way that an individual program is decomposed
into components.

• Architecture in the large is concerned with the architecture of complex enterprise

systems that include other systems, programs, and program components. These
enterprise systems are distributed over different computers, which may be owned and
managed by different companies.

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Advantages of explicit architecture

• Stakeholder communication
• Architecture may be used as a focus of discussion by system stakeholders.
• System analysis
• Means that analysis of whether the system can meet its non-functional requirements is
possible.
• Large-scale reuse
• The architecture may be reusable across a range of systems
• Product-line architectures may be developed.

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Architectural representations

• Simple, informal block diagrams showing entities and relationships are the most
frequently used method for documenting software architectures.

• But these have been criticised because they lack semantics, do not show the types of
relationships between entities nor the visible properties of entities in the architecture.

• Depends on the use of architectural models.

• The requirements for model semantics depends on how the models are used.

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Box and line diagrams

• Very abstract - they do not show the nature of component relationships nor the
externally visible properties of the sub-systems.

• However, useful for communication with stakeholders and for project planning.

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Use of architectural models

• As a way of facilitating discussion about the system design

• A high-level architectural view of a system is useful for communication with system
stakeholders and project planning because it is not cluttered with detail. Stakeholders can
relate to it and understand an abstract view of the system. They can then discuss the
system as a whole without being confused by detail.

• As a way of documenting an architecture that has been designed

• The aim here is to produce a complete system model that shows the different components
in a system, their interfaces and their connections.

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Architectural design decisions

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Architectural design decisions

• Architectural design is a creative process so the process differs depending on the type
of system being developed.

• However, a number of common decisions span all design processes and these decisions
affect the non-functional characteristics of the system.

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Architectural design decisions

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Architecture reuse

• Systems in the same domain often have similar architectures that reflect domain
concepts.

• Application product lines are built around a core architecture with variants that satisfy
particular customer requirements.

• The architecture of a system may be designed around one of more architectural

patterns or ‘styles’.
• These capture the essence of an architecture and can be instantiated in different ways.

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 Architecture and system characteristics

• Performance
• Localise critical operations and minimise communications. Use large rather than fine-grain components.

• Security
• Use a layered architecture with critical assets in the inner layers.

• Safety
• Localise safety-critical features in a small number of sub-systems.

• Availability
• Include redundant components and mechanisms for fault tolerance.

• Maintainability
• Use fine-grain, replaceable components.

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Architectural views

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Architectural views

• What views or perspectives are useful when designing and documenting a system’s
architecture?

• What notations should be used for describing architectural models?

• Each architectural model only shows one view or perspective of the system.
• It might show how a system is decomposed into modules, how the run-time processes
interact or the different ways in which system components are distributed across a
network. For both design and documentation, you usually need to present multiple views
of the software architecture.

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Architectural views

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4 + 1 view model of software architecture

• A logical view, which shows the key abstractions in the system as objects or object
classes.

• A process view, which shows how, at run-time, the system is composed of interacting
processes.

• A development view, which shows how the software is decomposed for development.

• A physical view, which shows the system hardware and how software components are
distributed across the processors in the system.

• Related using use cases or scenarios (+1)

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Representing architectural views

• Some people argue that the Unified Modeling Language (UML) is an appropriate
notation for describing and documenting system architectures

• I disagree with this as I do not think that the UML includes abstractions appropriate for
high-level system description.

• Architectural description languages (ADLs) have been developed but are not widely
used

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Architectural patterns

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Architectural patterns

• Patterns are a means of representing, sharing and reusing knowledge.

• An architectural pattern is a stylized description of good design practice, which has

been tried and tested in different environments.

• Patterns should include information about when they are and when the are not useful.

• Patterns may be represented using tabular and graphical descriptions.

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The Model-View-Controller (MVC) pattern
Name MVC (Model-View-Controller)

Description Separates presentation and interaction from the system data. The system is structured
into three logical components that interact with each other. The Model component
manages the system data and associated operations on that data. The View component
defines and manages how the data is presented to the user. The Controller component
manages user interaction (e.g., key presses, mouse clicks, etc.) and passes these
interactions to the View and the Model. See Figure 6.3.
Example Below Figure shows the architecture of a web-based application system organized using
the MVC pattern.
When used Used when there are multiple ways to view and interact with data. Also used when the
future requirements for interaction and presentation of data are unknown.
Advantages Allows the data to change independently of its representation and vice versa. Supports
presentation of the same data in different ways with changes made in one representation
shown in all of them.
Disadvantages Can involve additional code and code complexity when the data model and interactions
are simple.
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The organization of the Model-View-Controller

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Web application architecture using the MVC pattern

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Layered architecture

• Used to model the interfacing of sub-systems.

• Organises the system into a set of layers (or abstract machines) each of which provide
a set of services.

• Supports the incremental development of sub-systems in different layers. When a layer

interface changes, only the adjacent layer is affected.

• However, often artificial to structure systems in this way.

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 The Layered architecture pattern
Name Layered architecture
Description Organizes the system into layers with related functionality associated with each layer. A
layer provides services to the layer above it so the lowest-level layers represent core
services that are likely to be used throughout the system. See Figure 6.6.
Example A layered model of a system for sharing copyright documents held in different libraries,
as shown in Figure 6.7.
When used Used when building new facilities on top of existing systems; when the development is
spread across several teams with each team responsibility for a layer of functionality;
when there is a requirement for multi-level security.
Advantages Allows replacement of entire layers so long as the interface is maintained. Redundant
facilities (e.g., authentication) can be provided in each layer to increase the
dependability of the system.
Disadvantages In practice, providing a clean separation between layers is often difficult and a high-level
layer may have to interact directly with lower-level layers rather than through the layer
immediately below it. Performance can be a problem because of multiple levels of
interpretation of a service request as it is processed at each layer.
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A generic layered architecture

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The architecture of the iLearn system

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Repository architecture

• Sub-systems must exchange data. This may be done in two ways:

• Shared data is held in a central database or repository and may be accessed by all sub-
systems;

• Each sub-system maintains its own database and passes data explicitly to other sub-
systems.

• When large amounts of data are to be shared, the repository model of sharing is most
commonly used a this is an efficient data sharing mechanism.

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 The Repository pattern
Name Repository
Description All data in a system is managed in a central repository that is accessible to all
system components. Components do not interact directly, only through the
repository.
Example Figure 6.9 is an example of an IDE where the components use a repository of
system design information. Each software tool generates information which is
then available for use by other tools.
When used You should use this pattern when you have a system in which large volumes of
information are generated that has to be stored for a long time. You may also use
it in data-driven systems where the inclusion of data in the repository triggers an
action or tool.
Advantages Components can be independent—they do not need to know of the existence of
other components. Changes made by one component can be propagated to all
components. All data can be managed consistently (e.g., backups done at the same
time) as it is all in one place.
Disadvantages The repository is a single point of failure so problems in the repository affect the
whole system. May be inefficiencies in organizing all communication through the
repository. Distributing the repository across several computers may be difficult. 31
A repository architecture for an IDE

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Client-server architecture

• Distributed system model which shows how data and processing is distributed across a
range of components.
• Can be implemented on a single computer.

• Set of stand-alone servers which provide specific services such as printing, data
management, etc.

• Set of clients which call on these services.

• Network which allows clients to access servers.

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The Client–server pattern
Name Client-server
Description In a client–server architecture, the functionality of the system is organized into
services, with each service delivered from a separate server. Clients are users
of these services and access servers to make use of them.
Example Figure 6.11 is an example of a film and video/DVD library organized as a
client–server system.
When used Used when data in a shared database has to be accessed from a range of
locations. Because servers can be replicated, may also be used when the load
on a system is variable.
Advantages The principal advantage of this model is that servers can be distributed across
a network. General functionality (e.g., a printing service) can be available to all
clients and does not need to be implemented by all services.
Disadvantages Each service is a single point of failure so susceptible to denial of service
attacks or server failure. Performance may be unpredictable because it
depends on the network as well as the system. May be management problems
if servers are owned by different organizations.
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A client–server architecture for a film library

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Pipe and filter architecture

• Functional transformations process their inputs to produce outputs.

• May be referred to as a pipe and filter model (as in UNIX shell).

• Variants of this approach are very common. When transformations are sequential, this
is a batch sequential model which is extensively used in data processing systems.

• Not really suitable for interactive systems.

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The pipe and filter pattern
Name Pipe and filter
Description The processing of the data in a system is organized so that each processing
component (filter) is discrete and carries out one type of data transformation. The
data flows (as in a pipe) from one component to another for processing.
Example Below figure is an example of a pipe and filter system used for processing invoices.

When used Commonly used in data processing applications (both batch- and transaction-based)
where inputs are processed in separate stages to generate related outputs.
Advantages Easy to understand and supports transformation reuse. Workflow style matches the
structure of many business processes. Evolution by adding transformations is
straightforward. Can be implemented as either a sequential or concurrent system.
Disadvantages The format for data transfer has to be agreed upon between communicating
transformations. Each transformation must parse its input and unparse its output to
the agreed form. This increases system overhead and may mean that it is impossible
to reuse functional transformations that use incompatible data structures.
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An example of the pipe and filter architecture used in a payments
system

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Application architectures

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Application architectures

• Application systems are designed to meet an organizational need.

• As businesses have much in common, their application systems also tend to have a
common architecture that reflects the application requirements.

• A generic application architecture is an architecture for a type of software system that

may be configured and adapted to create a system that meets specific requirements.

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Use of application architectures

• As a starting point for architectural design.

• As a design checklist.

• As a way of organising the work of the development team.

• As a means of assessing components for reuse.

• As a vocabulary for talking about application types.

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Application type examples

• Two very widely used generic application architectures are transaction processing systems
and language processing systems.

• Transaction processing systems

• E-commerce systems;

• Reservation systems.

• Language processing systems

• Compilers;

• Command interpreters.

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The structure of transaction processing applications

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The software architecture of an ATM system

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The architecture of a language processing system

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A repository architecture for a language processing system

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A pipe and filter compiler architecture

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Design and Implementation

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Design and implementation

• Software design and implementation is the stage in the software engineering process
at which an executable software system is developed.

• Software design and implementation activities are invariably inter-leaved.

• Software design is a creative activity in which you identify software components and their
relationships, based on a customer’s requirements.

• Implementation is the process of realizing the design as a program.

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Build or buy

• In a wide range of domains, it is now possible to buy off-the-shelf systems (COTS) that
can be adapted and tailored to the users’ requirements.
• For example, if you want to implement a medical records system, you can buy a package
that is already used in hospitals. It can be cheaper and faster to use this approach rather
than developing a system in a conventional programming language.

• When you develop an application in this way, the design process becomes concerned
with how to use the configuration features of that system to deliver the system
requirements.

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Object-oriented design using the UML

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 An object-oriented design process

• Structured object-oriented design processes involve developing a number of different

system models.

• They require a lot of effort for development and maintenance of these models and, for
small systems, this may not be cost-effective.

• However, for large systems developed by different groups design models are an
important communication mechanism.

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Process stages

• There are a variety of different object-oriented design processes that depend on the
organization using the process.

• Common activities in these processes include:

• Define the context and modes of use of the system;

• Design the system architecture;

• Identify the principal system objects;

• Develop design models;

• Specify object interfaces.

• Process illustrated here using a design for a wilderness weather station.

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System context and interactions

• Understanding the relationships between the software that is being designed and its
external environment is essential for deciding how to provide the required system
functionality and how to structure the system to communicate with its environment.

• Understanding of the context also lets you establish the boundaries of the system.
Setting the system boundaries helps you decide what features are implemented in the
system being designed and what features are in other associated systems.

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Context and interaction models

• A system context model is a structural model that demonstrates the other systems in
the environment of the system being developed.

• An interaction model is a dynamic model that shows how the system interacts with its
environment as it is used.

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Architectural design

• Once interactions between the system and its environment have been understood, you
use this information for designing the system architecture.

• You identify the major components that make up the system and their interactions, and
then may organize the components using an architectural pattern such as a layered or
client-server model.

• The weather station is composed of independent subsystems that communicate by

broadcasting messages on a common infrastructure.

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High-level architecture of the weather station

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Object class identification

• Identifying object classes is often a difficult part of object oriented design.

• There is no 'magic formula' for object identification. It relies on the skill, experience
and domain knowledge of system designers.

• Object identification is an iterative process. You are unlikely to get it right first time.

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Approaches to identification

• Use a grammatical approach based on a natural language description of the system.

• Base the identification on tangible things in the application domain.

• Use a behavioural approach and identify objects based on what participates in what
behaviour.

• Use a scenario-based analysis. The objects, attributes and methods in each scenario
are identified.

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Weather station object classes

• Object class identification in the weather station system may be based on the tangible
hardware and data in the system:
• Ground thermometer, Anemometer, Barometer
• Application domain objects that are ‘hardware’ objects related to the instruments in the system.

• Weather station
• The basic interface of the weather station to its environment. It therefore reflects the interactions
identified in the use-case model.

• Weather data
• Encapsulates the summarized data from the instruments.

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Design models

• Design models show the objects and object classes and relationships between these
entities.

• There are two kinds of design model:

• Structural models describe the static structure of the system in terms of object classes and
relationships.

• Dynamic models describe the dynamic interactions between objects.

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Examples of design models

• Subsystem models that show logical groupings of objects into coherent subsystems.

• Sequence models that show the sequence of object interactions.

• State machine models that show how individual objects change their state in response
to events.

• Other models include use-case models, aggregation models, generalisation models, etc.

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Subsystem models

• Shows how the design is organised into logically related groups of objects.

• In the UML, these are shown using packages - an encapsulation construct. This is a
logical model. The actual organisation of objects in the system may be different.

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Sequence models

• Sequence models show the sequence of object interactions that take place
• Objects are arranged horizontally across the top;

• Time is represented vertically so models are read top to bottom;

• Interactions are represented by labelled arrows, Different styles of arrow represent

different types of interaction;

• A thin rectangle in an object lifeline represents the time when the object is the controlling
object in the system.

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Sequence diagram describing data collection

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State diagrams

• State diagrams are used to show how objects respond to different service requests and
the state transitions triggered by these requests.

• State diagrams are useful high-level models of a system or an object’s run-time

behavior.

• You don’t usually need a state diagram for all of the objects in the system. Many of the
objects in a system are relatively simple and a state model adds unnecessary detail to
the design.

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Weather station state diagram

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Interface specification

• Object interfaces have to be specified so that the objects and other components can be
designed in parallel.

• Designers should avoid designing the interface representation but should hide this in
the object itself.

• Objects may have several interfaces which are viewpoints on the methods provided.

• The UML uses class diagrams for interface specification but Java may also be used.

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Weather station interfaces

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Design patterns

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Design patterns

• A design pattern is a way of reusing abstract knowledge about a problem and its
solution.

• A pattern is a description of the problem and the essence of its solution.

• It should be sufficiently abstract to be reused in different settings.

• Pattern descriptions usually make use of object-oriented characteristics such as

inheritance and polymorphism.

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Patterns

• Patterns and Pattern Languages are ways to describe best practices, good designs, and
capture experience in a way that it is possible for others to reuse this experience.

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Pattern elements

• Name
• A meaningful pattern identifier.

• Problem description.

• Solution description.
• Not a concrete design but a template for a design solution that can be instantiated in
different ways.

• Consequences
• The results and trade-offs of applying the pattern.
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The Observer pattern

• Name
• Observer.
• Description
• Separates the display of object state from the object itself.
• Problem description
• Used when multiple displays of state are needed.
• Solution description
• See slide No. 91.
• Consequences
• Optimisations to enhance display performance are impractical.

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 The Observer pattern (1)

Pattern name Observer

Description Separates the display of the state of an object from the object itself and allows
alternative displays to be provided. When the object state changes, all displays are
automatically notified and updated to reflect the change.

Problem In many situations, you have to provide multiple displays of state information, such as
description a graphical display and a tabular display. Not all of these may be known when the
information is specified. All alternative presentations should support interaction and,
when the state is changed, all displays must be updated.

This pattern may be used in all situations where more than one display format for
state information is required and where it is not necessary for the object that
maintains the state information to know about the specific display formats used.

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 The Observer pattern (2)
Pattern name Observer

Solution This involves two abstract objects, Subject and Observer, and two concrete objects,
description ConcreteSubject and ConcreteObject, which inherit the attributes of the related
abstract objects. The abstract objects include general operations that are applicable in
all situations. The state to be displayed is maintained in ConcreteSubject, which
inherits operations from Subject allowing it to add and remove Observers (each
observer corresponds to a display) and to issue a notification when the state has
changed.
The ConcreteObserver maintains a copy of the state of ConcreteSubject and
implements the Update() interface of Observer that allows these copies to be kept in
step. The ConcreteObserver automatically displays the state and reflects changes
whenever the state is updated.
Consequences The subject only knows the abstract Observer and does not know details of the
concrete class. Therefore there is minimal coupling between these objects. Because of
this lack of knowledge, optimizations that enhance display performance are
impractical. Changes to the subject may cause a set of linked updates to observers to
be generated, some of which may not be necessary.
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A UML model of the Observer pattern

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Design problems

• To use patterns in your design, you need to recognize that any design problem you are
facing may have an associated pattern that can be applied.
• Tell several objects that the state of some other object has changed (Observer pattern).
• Tidy up the interfaces to a number of related objects that have often been developed
incrementally (Façade pattern).
• Provide a standard way of accessing the elements in a collection, irrespective of how that
collection is implemented (Iterator pattern).
• Allow for the possibility of extending the functionality of an existing class at run-time
(Decorator pattern).

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Implementation issues

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Implementation issues

• Focus here is not on programming, although this is obviously important, but on other
implementation issues that are often not covered in programming texts:
• Reuse Most modern software is constructed by reusing existing components or systems. When you
are developing software, you should make as much use as possible of existing code.

• Configuration management During the development process, you have to keep track of the many
different versions of each software component in a configuration management system.

• Host-target development Production software does not usually execute on the same computer as the
software development environment. Rather, you develop it on one computer (the host system) and
execute it on a separate computer (the target system).

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Reuse

• From the 1960s to the 1990s, most new software was developed from scratch, by
writing all code in a high-level programming language.
• The only significant reuse or software was the reuse of functions and objects in
programming language libraries.

• Costs and schedule pressure mean that this approach became increasingly unviable,
especially for commercial and Internet-based systems.

• An approach to development based around the reuse of existing software emerged and
is now generally used for business and scientific software.

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Reuse levels

• The abstraction level

• At this level, you don’t reuse software directly but use knowledge of successful abstractions in the
design of your software.

• The object level

• At this level, you directly reuse objects from a library rather than writing the code yourself.

• The component level

• Components are collections of objects and object classes that you reuse in application systems.

• The system level

• At this level, you reuse entire application systems.

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Software reuse

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Reuse costs

• The costs of the time spent in looking for software to reuse and assessing whether or
not it meets your needs.

• Where applicable, the costs of buying the reusable software. For large off-the-shelf
systems, these costs can be very high.

• The costs of adapting and configuring the reusable software components or systems to
reflect the requirements of the system that you are developing.

• The costs of integrating reusable software elements with each other (if you are using
software from different sources) and with the new code that you have developed.
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Configuration management

• Configuration management is the name given to the general process of managing a

changing software system.

• The aim of configuration management is to support the system integration process so

that all developers can access the project code and documents in a controlled way, find
out what changes have been made, and compile and link components to create a
system.

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Configuration management activities

• Version management, where support is provided to keep track of the different versions of
software components. Version management systems include facilities to coordinate
development by several programmers.

• System integration, where support is provided to help developers define what versions of
components are used to create each version of a system. This description is then used to build
a system automatically by compiling and linking the required components.

• Problem tracking, where support is provided to allow users to report bugs and other problems,
and to allow all developers to see who is working on these problems and when they are fixed.

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Configuration management tool interaction

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Host-target development

• Most software is developed on one computer (the host), but runs on a separate
machine (the target).

• More generally, we can talk about a development platform and an execution platform.
• A platform is more than just hardware.
• It includes the installed operating system plus other supporting software such as a
database management system or, for development platforms, an interactive development
environment.

• Development platform usually has different installed software than execution platform;
these platforms may have different architectures.
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Host-target development

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Development platform tools

• An integrated compiler and syntax-directed editing system that allows you to create,
edit and compile code.

• A language debugging system.

• Graphical editing tools, such as tools to edit UML models.

• Testing tools, such as Junit that can automatically run a set of tests on a new version of
a program.

• Project support tools that help you organize the code for different development
projects.

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Integrated development environments (IDEs)

• Software development tools are often grouped to create an integrated development

environment (IDE).

• An IDE is a set of software tools that supports different aspects of software

development, within some common framework and user interface.

• IDEs are created to support development in a specific programming language such as

Java. The language IDE may be developed specially, or may be an instantiation of a
general-purpose IDE, with specific language-support tools.

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Component/system deployment factors

• If a component is designed for a specific hardware architecture, or relies on some other software
system, it must obviously be deployed on a platform that provides the required hardware and
software support.

• High availability systems may require components to be deployed on more than one platform.
This means that, in the event of platform failure, an alternative implementation of the component
is available.

• If there is a high level of communications traffic between components, it usually makes sense to
deploy them on the same platform or on platforms that are physically close to one other. This
reduces the delay between the time a message is sent by one component and received by another.

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Open-source development

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Open-source development

• Open-source development is an approach to software development in which the source

code of a software system is published and volunteers are invited to participate in the
development process

• Its roots are in the Free Software Foundation (www.fsf.org), which advocates that
source code should not be proprietary but rather should always be available for users
to examine and modify as they wish.

• Open-source software extended this idea by using the Internet to recruit a much larger
population of volunteer developers. Many of them are also users of the code.
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Open-source systems

• The best-known open-source product is, of course, the Linux operating system which is
widely used as a server system and, increasingly, as a desktop environment.

• Other important open-source products are Java, the Apache web server and the mySQL
database management system.

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Open-source issues

• Should the product that is being developed make use of open-source components?

• Should an open-source approach be used for the software’s development?

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Open-source business

• More and more product companies are using an open-source approach to

development.

• Their business model is not reliant on selling a software product but on selling support
for that product.

• They believe that involving the open-source community will allow software to be
developed more cheaply, more quickly and will create a community of users for the
software.

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Open source licensing

• A fundamental principle of open-source development is that source code should be

freely available, this does not mean that anyone can do as they wish with that code.
• Legally, the developer of the code (either a company or an individual) still owns the code.
They can place restrictions on how it is used by including legally binding conditions in an
open source software license.

• Some open source developers believe that if an open source component is used to develop
a new system, then that system should also be open source.

• Others are willing to allow their code to be used without this restriction. The developed
systems may be proprietary and sold as closed source systems.
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License models

• The GNU General Public License (GPL). This is a so-called ‘reciprocal’ license that means that if
you use open-source software that is licensed under the GPL license, then you must make that
software open source.

• The GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL) is a variant of the GPL license where you can
write components that link to open-source code without having to publish the source of these
components.

• The Berkley Standard Distribution (BSD) License. This is a non-reciprocal license, which means
you are not obliged to re-publish any changes or modifications made to open-source code. You
can include the code in proprietary systems that are sold.
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License management

• Establish a system for maintaining information about open-source components that

are downloaded and used.

• Be aware of the different types of licenses and understand how a component is

licensed before it is used.

• Be aware of evolution pathways for components.

• Educate people about open source.

• Have auditing systems in place.

• Participate in the open source community.

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