GRAMMATICA:

Present Perfect:

Usiamo il present perfect per azioni che si svolgono in un momento non precisato del
passato.
Lo usiamo per descrivere:
Un'azione iniziata nel passato che continua nel presente; example: I have lived in Bristol
since 1984 (= and still do).
Un'azione eseguita per un certo periodo di tempo che non è ancora terminata. example:
She has been to the cinema twice this week (= and the week is not yet over.)
Un'azione che si è appena conclusa, espressa con l'avverbio just. example: I have just
finished my work.

Usiamo have + past participle del verbo.

Present perfect continous:

Si usa per enfatizzare una frase.

Zero conditional:

Usiamo lo zero conditional per situazioni presenti o eventi generali che sono sempre veri.
Usiamo il present simple per la condizione e il risultato:
- example: If I feel tired, I go to bed early

First conditional:

Utilizziamo il first conditional per parlare di situazioni molto probabili.

Usiamo il present simple per la condizione e il will per il risultato:
- example: If it rains tomorrow, will you stay at home?

connettori: when, if, unless, as soon as

Second conditional:

Usiamo il second conditional per situazioni improbabili o impossibili (presente o futuro).

Usiamo il past simple per la condizione e would per il risultato:
- example: If I had time, I would help you.

Third conditional:

We use third conditional for unrealistic action or situation in the past.

If + past perfect, would/wouldn’t have + past participle
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TECNICO:

Computer software and programming:

System software:

The software of a computer is a program which tells the hardware what to do. There are two
types:
- system software: is a component that controls essential functions and provides a
platform for application software;
- application software: is user-oriented, so it allows users to perform specific tasks. it
runs within the environment provided by system software.

Operating system:

The operating system is the system software that manages the computer’s resources and
allows all the hardware and software components to work together.
The OS controls the computer by performing basic tasks such as receiving data from the
keyboard, displaying information on the screen or storing it in the memory. It works the
whole time that the computer is turned on, and parts of it can be permanently stored in the
computer's ROM.
An advanced OS allows multiprocessing, in which several programs can run at the same
time. A multiuser OS allows different people to use the computer at the same time.
The OS stores data in collections called 'files'. The file system of an OS allows programs to
give names to files, and it keeps track of each file's location.

Other elements of the operating system

The OS controls a range of utilities, special programs designed to carry out specific tasks to
keep the computer operating smoothly: for example, tidying up the hard disk.
Drivers are OS programs linked to particular peripheral devices. The driver integrates the
device into the computer system so that it can work with all the other elements.
Modern operating systems provide a graphical user interface (GUI) to make programs
easier to use. A GUI allows the user to control the computer, using a mouse or touchpad.

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Application programming:

Application software is created by systems analysts and computer programmers. The

system analyst studies the requirements and objectives of potential users and decides what
the software should do. The programmers write the programs based on these guidelines,
which are a combination of databases and algorithms.
- Databases consist of the information that the program processes;
- Algorithms set of instructions

How application is written:

Application is written by programmers and engineers following a masterplan. Programmers

need to follow diagrams called “flowcharts” that are the steps of what the program should do.
There is also a test of the program called “alpha test” when programmers test the software to
find bugs. Then there is another test called “beta test” when the program is given to users to
test the software in real-life situations. The program is written in a programming language.

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Computer languages:

Computers understand only machine language, the binary system. We can interact with
computers in a more natural way using programming languages. There are two types of
programming languages:
- Low level languages that are based on commands understood by the CPU;
- High level languages that are used by programmers to create softwares. These
types of languages are much easier to understand than low level languages.

Machine code translation:

Translation code is necessary before the program’s instructions can be understood by the
CPU.
- an assembler translates assembly language into machine code before execution;
- a compiler translates a high-level language into machine code before execution;
- an interpreter translates high-level language into machine code during execution;
- a disassembler performs the translation in the opposite direction.

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Programming languages most in demand:

Learning how to code can be a real career boost, so we need to choose the right
programming language.
There are a lots of programming languages:
- Python: is a general purpose programming language. It's simple and extremely
readable because the syntax is similar to the English language. It has also become
the language of choice for machine learning and artificial intelligence.
 - Java: is an object-oriented programming language and is simple and readable. Java
is designed to work across multiple platforms, so a program written on Apple Mac
could also run on Windows.
- JavaScript: is the number one choice for making web pages. JavaScript is the
scripting language of the World Wide Web and today is also used to create apps for
Android and iOS.
- C++: is a general purpose programming language based on C language. C++ was
released in 1983. It’s used to develop system software, application software and also
video games.
- C#: was invented in 2000, it was designed by Microsoft for a range of enterprise
applications that run on .NET Framework. It's simple and is mostly used to develop
software for Microsoft Windows.
- R: Is the best choice for data analysis software. It's used by Facebook and Google.
- PHP: It’s a scripting language, it can be used for web pages written in HTML and
also for app development. PHP is easy to use and offers a lot of features.
- Ruby: is a general purpose programming language, similar to Java, is simply and
easy to write and is user-friendly for beginners.
- Swift: was made by Apple in 2014, it's similar to C++.
- C: it’s a general purpose programming language created in the ‘70s, is the oldest
language. Is mostly used for implementing operating systems and embedded
applications. It provides the basis for other languages.

How the Windows OS works:

Software safety:

As we advance in the information age and become more reliant on technology, the risks
associated with software errors have become increasingly evident. Ensuring the reliability of
software requires proper design and testing practices, much like engineers learn from past
mistakes. However, the consequences of faulty software can sometimes be catastrophic.

1. 1985-1987 Therac-25 Radiotherapy Machines (Race Condition Error): A race

condition error in this computer-controlled radiation therapy machine caused at least
five deaths due to patients receiving radiation doses hundreds of times higher than
intended. This occurred when instructions were processed in the wrong order,
leading to dangerous malfunctions.

2. 1996 Ariane 5 Rocket (Dead Code Error): The rocket exploded less than a minute
after launch due to a software error. Code from the Ariane 4 system, unnecessary for
the Ariane 5, attempted to fit a 64-bit number into a 32-bit space, leading to the
catastrophic failure.

3. 1999 Mars Climate Orbiter (Unit Mismatch Error): A mismatch between metric and
imperial units caused the satellite to crash into Mars’ atmosphere, resulting in its loss
and a financial cost of $327.6 million.
 4. 2013-2019 Airbus A350 Airliners (Integer Overflow Error): A timer controlling critical
systems caused electronic shutdowns when it exceeded its maximum count. The
temporary fix involved updating the software or rebooting the aircraft every 149
hours. No accidents were reported, but the reboot method was still in use until 2019.

These cases highlight the critical importance of rigorous software testing and design to avoid
severe consequences.

Alan Turing:

Alan Turing, considered the father of modern computer science, revolutionized the field by
conceptualizing machines that could turn thought processes into numbers. Born in London in
1912, he developed groundbreaking theories during his studies at Cambridge in the 1930s
and later at Princeton, where he devised the concept of the “Turing Machine,” a precursor to
digital computing.

Returning to England in 1938, Turing played a crucial role in World War II by developing the
British Bombe, an electro-mechanical computer that cracked the German Enigma codes. His
work is credited with shortening the war by over two years and saving millions of lives.

After the war, Turing pioneered the development of electronic computers with high-speed
memory and stored programs, including the Automatic Computing Engine. In 1950, he
explored the concept of artificial intelligence in his paper "Computing Machinery and
Intelligence," proposing the Turing Test to evaluate machine intelligence. This test remains a
standard in AI research.

Turing's progressive ideas, such as likening machines to the human brain and sensory
organs, caused controversy among scientists and religious groups. Despite his contributions,
he was prosecuted for homosexuality, subjected to chemical castration, and tragically died
by suicide in 1954.

Cloud computing:

The “cloud” is essentially another way of describing the Internet. Cloud computing involves
moving software, including programs and data, from a personal computer to servers in the
Internet cloud. This concept is already part of everyday life. For example, when you search
on Google, the query is processed by Google’s network of servers in the cloud, not your
computer. Similarly, web-based email services like Hotmail store emails in the cloud,
allowing access from anywhere. Platforms like Facebook and Flickr enable users to store
photos and videos online. Cloud computing now extends to services like Google Docs,
where documents and spreadsheets are created and stored entirely online, without running
programs on a local computer.

Cloud computing services are rapidly growing and are now offered by major IT firms such as
Google, Microsoft, Adobe, and AutoDesk.

Key Benefits:
1. Cost: Companies save money by paying only for the services they use, reducing the
need for investments in hardware, software, and IT staff.

2. Efficiency: Cloud-based software is regularly updated by providers, relieving users of

this responsibility.

3. Flexibility: Services can scale based on usage, benefiting businesses with seasonal
variations.

4. Mobility: Cloud services are accessible from any location, ideal for mobile or remote
workers.

5. Ecology: Sharing large systems reduces energy waste and lowers carbon emissions.

6. Collaboration: Cloud-based applications make it easier for multiple users to share

information and work on projects together.

7. Processing: Efficient use of processor time during demanding activities like rendering
allows workplaces to use lower-specification computers.