1.

Definition and Classification of Statistics

• Plural sense (Layman’s definition): Statistics refers to a collection of

numerical facts.
• Example: The population sizes of different countries, such as 100,000,
250,000, etc.
• Singular sense (Formal definition): Statistics is the science of
collecting, organizing, analyzing, and interpreting data to assist in decision-
making.
• Example: A company gathers sales data, analyzes it, and uses the
results to plan future product releases.

2. Types of Statistics

1. Descriptive Statistics: Deals with organizing and summarizing data

without drawing any conclusions beyond the data.
• Example: Calculating the average score of students in a class.
2. Inferential Statistics: Involves making predictions or conclusions
about a population based on a sample.
• Example: Using a sample survey to predict the election outcome for an
entire country.

3. Key Terms

• Population: The total set of individuals or items under study.

• Example: All teachers in a city.
• Sample: A subset of the population used to draw conclusions about the
whole group.
• Example: 100 teachers selected from the entire city.
• Parameter: A numerical summary of a population.
• Example: The average salary of all teachers in a city.
• Statistic: A numerical summary of a sample.
• Example: The average salary of the 100 teachers sampled.
• Sampling: The process of selecting a sample from a population.
• Census Survey: Data collection from the entire population.
• Sampling Survey: Collecting data from a representative sample to draw
conclusions about the whole population.

4. Stages in Statistical Investigation

1. Data Collection: Gathering information through interviews,

questionnaires, or observations.
• Example: Conducting a survey to find out how many people prefer a new
product.
2. Data Organization: Editing and organizing raw data to remove irrelevant
or incorrect information.
• Example: Sorting the collected survey data into categories like gender
or age groups.
3. Data Presentation: Displaying data using tables, charts, graphs, or
diagrams.
• Example: Presenting the survey results in a pie chart showing product
preferences by age group.
4. Data Analysis: Examining data to uncover patterns or trends.
• Example: Analyzing the survey data to determine if younger people
prefer the product more than older people.
5. Data Interpretation: Drawing conclusions from the analyzed data.
• Example: Concluding that the product is popular among young people and
adjusting marketing strategies accordingly.
5. Application, Uses, and Limitations of Statistics

Applications:

• In everyday life: People use statistics daily, like checking prices or

weather forecasts.
• In fields like science, engineering, and medicine: Statistics are
essential for decision-making and policy formulation.
• In industries: Used for quality control and production efficiency.

Limitations:

1. Statistics do not directly study qualitative traits like beauty or

honesty.
2. Statistics deal with groups, not individuals.
• Example: The average income of a city doesn’t tell us about any
specific individual’s income.
3. Statistical conclusions are not always universally true.
• Example: If a survey shows most people like chocolate, it doesn’t mean
everyone does.
4. Statistics can be misused without proper understanding or
interpretation.
• Example: Saying women are safer drivers based solely on fewer reported
accidents without considering all factors.

6. Types of Variables and Measurement Scales

Types of Variables:

• Quantitative Variables: Can be measured and expressed in numbers.

• Example: Height, weight, income.
• Discrete Variables: Countable values (e.g., the number of students in a
class).
• Continuous Variables: Can take any value within a range (e.g.,
temperature, weight).
• Qualitative Variables: Descriptive, not measured in numbers.
• Example: Eye color, type of car.

Measurement Scales:

1. Nominal Scale: Classifies data into categories without any order.

• Example: Gender (male, female), types of cars (SUV, sedan).
2. Ordinal Scale: Classifies data into ordered categories.
• Example: Military ranks (Private, Sergeant, Captain).
3. Interval Scale: Numeric scale with equal intervals, but no true zero.
• Example: Temperature in Celsius (0°C doesn’t mean “no temperature”).
4. Ratio Scale: Numeric scale with a true zero, allowing for meaningful
ratios.
• Example: Height, weight, income.

7. Sources of Data and Methods of Data Collection

Sources of Data:

• Primary Data: Collected directly for the specific purpose at hand.

• Example: Conducting a survey to understand customer satisfaction.
• Secondary Data: Data previously collected for another purpose.
• Example: Using census data for research on population trends.
Methods of Data Collection:

1. Observation or Measurement: Directly observing or measuring subjects.

• Example: Measuring the height of individuals in a survey.
2. Interviews and Questionnaires: Asking questions to gather information.
• Face-to-face interviews: Directly interviewing participants.
• Telephone interviews: Conducting interviews over the phone.
• Mailed Questionnaires: Sending questionnaires via mail for participants
to return.
3. Use of Documentary Sources: Extracting data from existing documents or
records.
• Example: Using hospital records to study patient trends.