MAJOR

Module I: History and Evolution of Computing Systems

1. Evolution of Computers – History, Generations

• History: The journey of computing began with basic tools like the abacus, evolving
through mechanical calculators and electronic machines. Key milestones include: o
1642: Pascaline by Blaise Pascal, an early mechanical calculator. o 1801:
Jacquard Loom, introducing the concept of punched cards.
o 1930s-40s: Birth of electronic computers like ENIAC and UNIVAC.
• Generations of Computers:
1. First Generation (1940–1956):
 Technology: Vacuum tubes.
 Characteristics: Large, slow, unreliable, and consumed lots of
power.
 Example: ENIAC, UNIVAC.
2. Second Generation (1956–1963):
 Technology: Transistors replaced vacuum tubes.
 Characteristics: Smaller, faster, and more reliable than the first
generation.
 Example: IBM 1401.
3. Third Generation (1964–1971):
 Technology: Integrated Circuits (ICs).
 Characteristics: Increased efficiency, smaller size, better
multitasking.  Example: IBM System/360.
4. Fourth Generation (1971–Present):
 Technology: Microprocessors.
 Characteristics: PCs became common, introduction of GUIs,
networking.
 Example: Intel 4004.
5. Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond):
 Technology: Artificial Intelligence (AI), advanced processors.
 Characteristics: Focus on AI, machine learning, and quantum
computing.

2. Overview of Computer System • Von Neumann Model: o A

foundational computer architecture based on the concept of a storedprogram.
o Components:
 Input Unit: Accepts data.
 Processing Unit: Executes instructions (CPU).

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 Memory: Stores data and instructions.
 Output Unit: Displays results.
o Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle: Fetches an instruction, decodes it, and executes
the operation.
Number Systems:
Used to represent data in computers.
o Binary (Base-2): 0 and 1, directly understood by computers.
o Decimal (Base-10): Standard human numerical system. o Octal (Base-8):
Uses digits 0–7, useful in digital systems. o Hexadecimal (Base-16): Uses
digits 0–9 and letters A–F, compact representation of binary.

3. Number Conversion and Digital Codes •

Number Conversion:

o Converting numbers between binary, decimal, octal, and hexadecimal systems

using methods like division-remainder or positional weight.
o Example:
 Binary to Decimal: 10102=10101010_2 = 10_{10}10102=1010.
 Decimal to Binary: 1010=1010210_{10} = 1010_21010=10102.

• Digital Codes:
Special binary formats to represent numbers or characters in digital systems.
o Gray Code: Ensures only one-bit changes between consecutive numbers,
reducing errors.
o Excess-3 Code: Encodes decimal numbers with a bias of +3. o BCD
(Binary-Coded Decimal): Encodes each decimal digit separately in binary
(e.g., 123 = 0001 0010 00110001\,0010\,0011000100100011).

4. Pioneers and Contributors of Computing Systems

• Charles Babbage:
o Developed the Analytical Engine, considered the first mechanical computer.
o Introduced concepts like the CPU and programmable memory.
• John von Neumann:
o Introduced the stored-program architecture, which modern computers still
use. o Key work: The EDVAC architecture.
• Alan Turing:
o Developed the Turing Machine, a theoretical framework for computation. o
Considered the father of theoretical computer science and artificial
intelligence.
• John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert:
o Designed ENIAC, the first general-purpose electronic digital computer.
 o Later created UNIVAC, the first commercial computer.
• John McCarthy:
o Coined the term Artificial Intelligence and contributed to its early
development.

5. Computing Systems: Past to Present

• Single-Core Processors:
o A single CPU core processes one instruction at a time.
• Dual-Core and Multi-Core Processors:
o Dual-core: Two processing units in one chip, enabling multitasking.
o Multi-core: More than two cores, offering higher parallel processing
capabilities.
• Graphics Processing Unit (GPU):
o Specialized for parallel processing tasks, especially for rendering graphics and
AI computations.
• Accelerated Processing Unit (APU):
o Combines a CPU and GPU into a single chip, offering both general-purpose
and graphical processing.
• Quantum Processing Unit (QPU):
o Uses quantum bits (qubits) for computation, enabling powerful
problemsolving for complex systems like cryptography and simulations.

Module II: Hardware

6. Electronic Components – Active Components

Definition: Components that require energy to operate and can amplify signals.

• Diode: o Symbol: Triangle pointing to a vertical line.

o Function: Allows current to flow in one direction only. Used in rectifiers,
signal demodulation, etc.
• Transistor:
o Symbol: Three terminals (emitter, base, collector).
o Function: Acts as a switch or amplifier in circuits. Found in CPUs and ICs.
• Integrated Circuits (IC):
o Symbol: Rectangular block with pins.
o Function: A compact assembly of electronic components performing specific
tasks (e.g., processors, memory).

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7. Electronic Components – Passive Components
Definition: Components that do not require external energy and cannot amplify signals.

• Resistors:
o Symbol: Zigzag line. o Function: Limits or regulates the flow of
electric current.
Capacitors: o Symbol: Two parallel lines. o Function: Stores
electrical energy temporarily, used in filters and power supply
stabilization.
• Inductors:
o Symbol: Coiled wire. o Function: Stores energy in a magnetic
field, used in transformers and oscillators.

8. Motherboard Components
Definition: The main circuit board connecting and enabling communication between all
hardware components.

• CPU (Central Processing Unit):

o Executes instructions and processes data.
o Cooling Fan: Prevents overheating by dissipating heat generated by the CPU.
• RAM (Random Access Memory): o Temporary storage for active processes and data.
• Expansion Slots (PCIe): o Purpose: Used to add hardware like GPUs, sound cards,
and network cards.
• Input/Output Ports:
o Allow connectivity with peripherals like keyboards, mice, printers, etc.
• Chipset:
o Coordinates communication between the CPU, RAM, and other components.

9. Motherboard Components
• BIOS/UEFI Chip:
o BIOS: Basic Input/Output System; initializes hardware and loads the operating
system.
o UEFI: Unified Extensible Firmware Interface; advanced version of BIOS with
better security and GUI.
• SATA/NVMe Slots:
o SATA: For connecting hard drives and SSDs. o NVMe: High-speed
interface for modern SSDs.
• Network Interface:
o Allows network connectivity through Ethernet or Wi-Fi.
• Ports:
 o Ethernet: Connects to wired networks. o VGA: Analog video output. o
HDMI: Digital video and audio output. o USB: Connects peripherals like
flash drives and printers.

10. Computer Components

• SMPS (Switch Mode Power Supply): o Converts electrical power to the required
voltage and current for components.
• Motherboard: o The central circuit board connecting all components.
• Storage Devices:
o HDD (Hard Disk Drive): Magnetic storage, used for large-scale data storage. o
SSD (Solid-State Drive): Faster than HDDs, uses flash memory for storage. o
NVMe: Advanced SSDs with extremely high read/write speeds.

11. Computer Components – Memory

• RAM: o Types:
 DRAM (Dynamic RAM): Requires constant refreshing to hold data.
 SRAM (Static RAM): Faster and more expensive than DRAM.
 DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate Synchronous DRAM): Common
in modern computers for high-speed processing.
• ROM (Read-Only Memory): o Stores firmware and cannot be modified easily.
• Cache:
o A small, high-speed memory located near the CPU to store frequently used data
for faster access.

Module III: Software

12. Software - Application Software, System Software, Examples

Software is divided into two major types: • Application Software: o Definition:

Software designed to perform specific tasks for the user. o
Examples:
 Microsoft Office Suite (Word, Excel, PowerPoint)
 Web Browsers (Google Chrome, Firefox)
 Media Players (VLC, Windows Media Player)
 Games (Minecraft, Fortnite)

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 Graphics Software (Adobe Photoshop, CorelDRAW) o
Function: Helps users complete tasks like word processing,
creating presentations, browsing the web, etc.

System Software: o Definition: Software that manages and operates the hardware
and software resources of a computer. o Examples:
 Operating Systems (Windows, Linux, macOS)
 Device Drivers
 Utility Software (Antivirus programs, disk cleaners) o
Function: Provides a platform for running application software
and manages hardware resources like memory, CPU, and
input/output devices.

13. Operating System – Need of OS, Types – Proprietary and Open Source,
Hardware Software Compatibility, POST, Booting
Operating System (OS) is essential software that manages hardware and software
resources and provides common services for computer programs. • Need of OS:
o The operating system is required to enable user interaction with the computer,
manage hardware resources, and run application software. Without an OS, the
user would have to interact directly with hardware via complex programming.
• Types of Operating Systems:
o Proprietary OS:
 Developed by a company and sold for a profit.
 Examples: Microsoft Windows, macOS.
o Open Source OS:
 Source code is freely available and can be modified by anyone. 
Examples: Linux (Ubuntu, Fedora), BSD.
• Hardware-Software Compatibility:
o OS acts as a bridge between hardware and software. The OS ensures that
software applications can interact effectively with hardware devices (e.g.,
printers, keyboards).
• POST (Power-On Self-Test):
o A diagnostic process run by the computer when powered on. The BIOS checks
hardware components (CPU, RAM, storage devices) to ensure they are
functioning before booting the OS.
• Booting:
o Definition: The process of starting up the computer and loading the operating
system. o Types:
 Cold Boot: Powering on the computer from an off state.
 Warm Boot: Restarting the computer without turning off the power.
14. OS Installation – Bootable Media, UEFI/Legacy BIOS, Disk Partitioning,
Dual Booting, Boot Manager – BOOTMGR, Grub, File Systems - FAT, NTFS,
ext4
This section explains the process of installing an OS and managing various
system configurations. • Bootable Media:
o A device (USB flash drive, CD/DVD) that contains an operating system
installation setup, used to install or reinstall an OS on a computer.
• UEFI/Legacy BIOS:
o UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface): A modern version of BIOS
with support for larger storage devices, faster boot times, and more security
features.
o Legacy BIOS: Older firmware used in traditional PCs, with limitations like
support for only small storage devices.
• Disk Partitioning:
o Dividing a hard drive into multiple sections, each treated as a separate disk.
o Helps organize data and enables dual-boot configurations.
• Dual Booting:
o Setting up two different operating systems on the same computer. The user can
choose between the OSes at startup.
o Common examples: Windows and Linux.
• Boot Manager: o Software that allows the user to select which OS to boot. o
BOOTMGR: Windows boot manager.
o GRUB (Grand Unified Bootloader): Commonly used in Linux distributions
to manage booting between multiple operating systems.
• File Systems:
o FAT (File Allocation Table): A file system used in older systems and smaller
devices like USB drives.
o NTFS (New Technology File System): A file system used by Windows,
providing better security, file compression, and larger storage support.
o ext4 (Fourth Extended File System): A popular file system used by Linux
due to its reliability and efficiency.

15. Device Drivers – Need of Device Drivers, Driver Interactions (Basic Concept
Only)
Device Drivers are small software programs that allow the operating system to
communicate with hardware components, such as printers, graphics cards, network cards,
etc. • Need of Device Drivers:
o Without drivers, the operating system would not be able to interact with
hardware devices. Drivers translate general commands from the OS into
specific commands understood by the hardware.

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• Driver Interactions:
 o When the operating system wants to access a hardware device, it sends
commands to the corresponding driver. The driver then translates these commands
into a form the hardware understands and executes. o Example: The OS sends a
print command to a printer, and the printer’s driver handles the communication
between the OS and the printer.

Module IV: Computer Science and Computational

Thinking

16. Computer Science – Role of Computer Science in the Modern Era

Role of Computer Science:
Computer science plays a crucial role in various domains:

• Automation: Streamlines repetitive tasks in industries and homes.

• Data Analysis: Enables insights and decision-making through tools like AI and Big
Data.
• Communication: Powers internet technologies, making instant global communication
possible.
• Healthcare: Assists in diagnostics, telemedicine, and electronic health records.
• Education: Enhances learning through e-learning platforms and virtual classrooms.
• Transportation: Facilitates traffic management, GPS navigation, and autonomous
vehicles.
• Research: Accelerates progress in science, engineering, and social sciences.

17. Problem Solving – Defining the Problem, Systematic Approach

Problem Solving:
The process of identifying, analyzing, and implementing solutions to challenges. •

Defining the Problem:

o Clearly understanding the problem statement. o

Example: "How to sort a list of numbers in ascending order?"
• Systematic Approach:
1. Understand the problem: Gather information and clarify requirements.
2. Break down the problem: Divide it into smaller, manageable parts.
3. Plan the solution: Decide on methods or algorithms to use.
4. Implement the solution: Write the program or perform the steps.
5. Test and refine: Check if the solution works and improve it if necessary.

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18. Computational Thinking – Problem Decomposition, Pattern Identification,
Abstraction, Generalization
Computational Thinking involves using computer science principles to solve problems
effectively:

1. Problem Decomposition:
Breaking a complex problem into smaller, manageable sub-problems. o
Example: Building a website involves sub-tasks like designing the layout,
writing code, and testing.
2. Pattern Identification:
Recognizing repeated patterns in problems to simplify solutions. o Example:
Searching for a specific word in a document is similar to finding data in a
database.
3. Abstraction:
Focusing only on relevant details while ignoring irrelevant complexities. o
Example: In a driving simulation, you consider speed and direction but
ignore the engine's internal details.
4. Generalization:
Applying a solution to a broader set of problems by finding common elements. o
Example: Developing a sorting algorithm that works for any type of data, not
just numbers.

19. Logical Thinking – Inductive and Deductive Reasoning, Logical Expressions

Logical Thinking is essential for analyzing problems and arriving at conclusions:

1. Inductive Reasoning:
o Deriving general conclusions from specific observations. o Example:
Observing that all tested apples are sweet and concluding that all apples are
sweet (though not always true).
2. Deductive Reasoning:
o Drawing specific conclusions from general premises.
o Example:
 Premise: All fruits have seeds.
 Premise: An apple is a fruit.
 Conclusion: An apple has seeds.
3. Logical Expressions:
o Representing logical statements using operators like AND (∧), OR (∨), NOT
(¬). o Example: In programming, if (A && B) checks if both A and B are
true.
20. Algorithmic Thinking – Intuition vs Precision, Defining Algorithms
Algorithmic Thinking: Creating step-by-step instructions to solve problems.

• Intuition vs Precision:
o Intuition: A general idea of solving the problem.
 Example: "To find the largest number, compare them all." o
Precision: Detailed steps for implementation.
 Example:
1. Start with the first number.
2. Compare it with the next number.
3. Keep the larger number as the maximum.
4. Repeat until all numbers are compared.
• Defining Algorithms:
o Algorithms must be precise, finite, and efficient.
o Example: Steps to make tea:
1. Boil water.
2. Add tea leaves.
3. Add sugar and milk.
4. Strain and serve.

21. Algorithm – Need of Algorithm, Qualities of a Good Algorithm, Examples

Need of Algorithm:

• Provides a clear solution to a problem.

• Serves as a blueprint for programming.
• Ensures the solution is efficient and reliable.

Qualities of a Good Algorithm:

1. Correctness: Solves the problem correctly.

2. Efficiency: Uses minimal time and resources.
3. Clarity: Easy to understand and implement.
4. Generality: Can solve a range of similar problems.

Examples:

• Sorting Algorithm: Bubble Sort, Quick Sort.

• Search Algorithm: Binary Search, Linear Search.

22. Flowchart – Flowchart Symbols, Examples, Raptor

Flowchart: A graphical representation of an algorithm using standardized symbols.
• Symbols:

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 oOval: Start/End. o Rectangle: Process or instruction. o
Diamond: Decision.
o Arrow: Flow direction.
• Examples:
1. Flowchart for finding the largest of two numbers:  Start → Input
numbers → Compare → Output largest → End.
2. Flowchart for a simple calculator:
 Start → Input two numbers → Choose operation → Perform operation
→ Display result → End.
•
• Raptor: o A flowchart-based tool for creating and testing algorithms. o Allows users to
design flowcharts and execute them to see results

Module V: Open-Ended Module

1. Identify, Categorize, and List Out Specifications of Given Electronic

Components
Activity:

• Inspect electronic components like resistors, capacitors, and transistors.

• Note their specifications (e.g., resistance in ohms, capacitance in farads).
• Categorize components as active (transistors, ICs) or passive (resistors, capacitors).

Example:

• Resistor: 1kΩ, 5% tolerance. • Capacitor: 100μF, 16V.

• Transistor: NPN type, current rating 0.5A.

2. Identify and List Out Specifications of Given Motherboard Components

Activity:

• Examine components on a motherboard (e.g., CPU socket, RAM slots).

• Record specifications like socket type, chipset model, or supported RAM type.

Example:

• CPU Socket: LGA 1200, compatible with Intel Core i7.

• RAM Slots: 4 DIMM slots, DDR4 up to 64GB.
• Chipset: Intel Z590.
3. Identify and Describe Various Ports and Connectors on Motherboard
Activity:

• Locate and describe ports like USB, HDMI, and SATA on the motherboard.
• Mention their purpose and version (e.g., USB 3.0 for faster data transfer).

Examples of Ports:

• USB Port: Connects peripherals like a mouse or keyboard.

• HDMI Port: Outputs video and audio to a display.
• Ethernet Port: Enables wired internet connection.
• SATA Connector: Connects storage devices like HDDs and SSDs.

4. Installation of Various Components on Motherboard

Activity:

• Install and secure components such as the CPU, cooling fan, and RAM on the
motherboard.

Steps:

1. Processor:
o Align the CPU with the socket notch, place it gently, and lock the lever.
2. Cooling Fan and Heat Sink:
o Apply thermal paste to the CPU.
o Attach the fan and heat sink over the CPU and secure with screws.
3. RAM: o Insert the RAM module into the slot until it clicks.

5. Hands-on Experience in Assembling and Disassembling a Computer System

Activity:

• Practice assembling and disassembling a desktop system to understand internal

connections.

Steps: 1.

Assembling:

oMount the motherboard in the case. o Connect components (CPU,

RAM, GPU, storage).
o Connect cables (power supply, SATA cables).
2. Disassembling:

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 o Disconnect all cables and remove components systematically.

6. Accessing and Configuring BIOS/UEFI Settings

Activity:

• Learn to access BIOS/UEFI settings (e.g., pressing F2 or DEL during startup).

Key Configurations:

• Change boot priority to load an OS from a USB.

• Enable or disable virtualization for virtual machines.
• Update system time and date.

7. Preparation of Bootable Media with Software Like Rufus

Activity:

• Use tools like Rufus to create bootable USB drives for OS installation.
Steps:

1. Download the OS image file (ISO).

2. Open Rufus and select the USB drive.
3. Choose the ISO file and click Start to create the bootable media.

8. Check Hardware Compatibility and Install OS (Single Boot)

Activity:

• Verify that the hardware meets the OS requirements.

• Install a single operating system (e.g., Windows or Linux).

Steps:

1. Boot from the prepared bootable USB.

2. Follow the installation wizard.
3. Partition the disk if needed and proceed with installation.

9. Check Hardware Compatibility and Install OS (Dual Boot)

Activity:
• Install two operating systems on the same machine (e.g., Windows and Linux). Steps:

1. Install the first OS (Windows) and leave unallocated space for the second OS.
2. Boot from the Linux bootable USB.
3. During installation, choose the unallocated space for Linux.
4. Install a boot manager like GRUB to select between OS at startup.

Example Use Case:

• Dual booting allows using Windows for general tasks and Linux for development
purposes.

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