UNIT III IOT PROTOCOLS

Sensors and actuators - Communication modules – Zigbee - LoRa - RFID - Wi-Fi - Power sources.

Sensors:

• Generally speaking, a sensor is a device that is able to detect changes in an environment. By itself, a
sensor is useless, but when we use it in an electronic system, it plays a key role. A sensor is able to
measure a physical phenomenon (like temperature, pressure, and so on) and transform it into an
electric signal. These three features should be at the base of a good sensor:
• It should be sensitive to the phenomenon that it measures
• It should not be sensitive to other physical phenomena
• It should not modify the measured phenomenon during the measurement process
• There is a wide range of sensors we can exploit to measure almost all the physical properties around
us. A few common sensors that are widely adopted in everyday life include thermometers, pressure
sensors, light sensors, accelerometers, gyroscopes, motion sensors, gas sensors and many more.

A sensor can be described using several properties, the most important being:

• Range: The maximum and minimum values of the phenomenon that the sensor can measure.
• Sensitivity: The minimum change of the measured parameter that causes a detectable change in
output signal.
• Resolution: The minimum change in the phenomenon that the sensor can detect.

Sensor Classification:

Sensors can be grouped using several criteria:

Passive or Active: Passive sensors do not require an external power source to monitor an environment,
while Active sensors require such a source in order to work. A passive sensor is one which just ‘listens’ to
what is happening.

Examples include:
 A light sensor which detects if a light is shining on it.
 An infra-red sensor which detects the temperature of an object.

An active sensor is one which transmits a signal into the environment and then measures the response that
comes back.
One example is an ultrasonic system:

 A pulse of ultrasound is emitted.

 If an object is in the way, the pulse is reflected back.
 The sensor detects it.
 The time taken between emission and detection gives an indication of the distance of the object.

Another classification is based on the method used to detect and measure the property (mechanical,
chemical, etc.).

Analog and Digital: Analog sensors produce an analog, or continuous, signal while digital sensors produce
a discrete signal.
There are different types of sensors that produce continuous analog output signal and these sensors are
analog sensors. This continuous output signal produced by the analog sensors is proportional to the
measurand. Generally, There are various types of analog sensors; practical examples of various types of
analog sensors are as follows: accelerometers, pressure sensors, light sensors, sound sensors, temperature
sensors, and so on.
Unlike analog sensor, Digital Sensor produce discrete values (0 and 1’s). Discrete values often called digital
or binary signals in digital communication.
Electronic sensors or electrochemical sensors in which data conversion and data transmission take place
digitally are digital sensors. These digital sensors are replacing analog sensors as they are capable of
overcoming the drawbacks of analog sensors. The digital sensor consists of majorly three components such
as senor, cable, and transmitter. But, In digital sensors, the signal measured directly converted into digital
signal output inside the digital sensor itself. So, this digital signal transmitted through cable digitally. There
are different types of digital sensors that overcome the disadvantages of analog sensors.
Then, scaler sensors basically measure scalar variables which can measure only the changes in the
magnitude whereas, the vector senses not only the magnitude, but also the direction. So, scalar sensor
example would be temperature sensor is an example of scalar sensor because you know irrespective of
which orientation you put, the sensor temperature sensor or in which direction you are taking it, it is going to
give you the magnitude value. Only the changes in the magnitude of the temperature, on the contrary we
have the vector sensor. For example, the camera sensor or the accelerometer sensor whose values are
dependent on the orientation on the direction and so on direction in which the sensor is being put and the
weight is measuring. Scalar sensors measure only the magnitude physical quantities, such as temperature
colour, pressure, strain etcetera. These are scalar quantities and measurement of the change of magnitude is
sufficient to convey the information.
On the other hand, vector sensors produce output signal of the voltage which is generally proportional to the
magnitude as well as the direction and orientation of the quantity that is being measured. So, physical
quantities such as the sound, image, velocity, acceleration orientation, these are all vector quantities and
their measurement is not just dependent on the magnitude, but also on the direction. So, for example,
accelerometer sensor, they give outputs in three dimensions x, y and z coordinate axis.

Some of the types of sensors:

1)Temperature Sensors

• Temperature sensors measure the amount of heat energy in a source, allowing them to detect
temperature changes and convert these changes to data. Machinery used in manufacturing often
requires environmental and device temperatures to be at specific levels. Similarly, within agriculture,
soil temperature is a key factor for crop growth.

2) Humidity Sensors
 • These types of sensors measure the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere of air or other gases.
Humidity sensors are commonly found in heating, vents and air conditioning (HVAC) systems in
both industrial and residential domains. They can be found in many other areas including hospitals,
and meteorology stations to report and predict weather.

3). Pressure Sensors

• A pressure sensor senses changes in gases and liquids. When the pressure changes, the sensor detects
these changes, and communicates them to connected systems. Common use cases include leak
testing which can be a result of decay. Pressure sensors are also useful in the manufacturing of water
systems as it is easy to detect fluctuations or drops in pressure.

5. Proximity Sensors

• Proximity sensors are used for non-contact detection of objects near the sensor. These types of
sensors often emit electromagnetic fields or beams of radiation such as infrared. Proximity sensors
have some interesting use cases. In retail, a proximity sensor can detect the motion between a
customer and a product in which he or she is interested. The user can be notified of any discounts or
special offers of products located near the sensor. Proximity sensors are also used in the parking lots
of malls, stadiums and airports to indicate parking availability. They can also be used on the
assembly lines of chemical, food and many other types of industries.
6. Level Sensors

• Level sensors are used to detect the level of substances including liquids, powders and granular
materials. Many industries including oil manufacturing, water treatment and beverage and food
manufacturing factories use level sensors. Waste management systems provide a common use case as
level sensors can detect the level of waste in a garbage can or dumpster.

7. Accelerometers

• Accelerometers detect an object’s acceleration i.e. the rate of change of the object’s velocity with
respect to time. Accelerometers can also detect changes to gravity. Use cases for accelerometers
include smart pedometers and monitoring driving fleets. They can also be used as anti-theft
protection alerting the system if an object that should be stationary is moved.

8. Gyroscope

• Gyroscope sensors measure the angular rate or velocity, often defined as a measurement of speed and
rotation around an axis. Use cases include automotive, such as car navigation and electronic stability
control (anti-skid) systems. Additional use cases include motion sensing for video games, and
camera-shake detection systems.
 9. Gas Sensors

• These types of sensors monitor and detect changes in air quality, including the presence of toxic,
combustible or hazardous gasses. Industries using gas sensors include mining, oil and gas, chemical
research and manufacturing. A common consumer use case is the familiar carbon dioxide detectors
used in many homes.

10. Infrared Sensors

• These types of sensors sense characteristics in their surroundings by either emitting or detecting
infrared radiation. They can also measure the heat emitted by objects. Infrared sensors are used in a
variety of different IoT projects including healthcare as they simplify the monitoring of blood flow
and blood pressure.
• Televisions use infrared sensors to interpret the signals sent from a remote control. Another
interesting application is that of art historians using infrared sensors to see hidden layers in paintings
to help determine whether a work of art is original or fake or has been altered by a restoration
process.

11. Optical Sensors

Optical sensors convert rays of light into electrical signals. There are many applications and use cases for
optical sensors. In the auto industry, vehicles use optical sensors to recognize signs, obstacles, and other
things that a driver would notice when driving or parking. Optical sensors play a big role in the development
of driverless cars. Optical sensors are very common in smart phones. For example, ambient light sensors can
extend battery life. Optical sensors are also used in the biomedical field including breath analysis and heart-
rate monitors.

Actuators:

• An IoT device is made up of a Physical object (“thing”) + Controller (“brain”) + Sensors + Actuators
+ Networks (Internet). An actuator is a machine component or system that moves or controls the
mechanism or the system. Sensors in the device sense the environment, then control signals are
generated for the actuators according to the actions needed to perform.
• A servo motor is an example of an actuator. They are linear or rotatory actuators, can move to a
given specified angular or linear position. We can use servo motors for IoT applications and make
the motor rotate to 90 degrees, 180 degrees, etc., as per our need.
• The following diagram shows what actuators do; the controller directs the actuator based on the
sensor data to do the work.

• The control system acts upon an environment through the actuator. It requires a source of energy and
a control signal. When it receives a control signal, it converts the source of energy to a mechanical
operation. On this basis, on which form of energy it uses, it has different types given below.

Types of Actuators:

Hydraulic Actuators –

A hydraulic actuator uses hydraulic power to perform a mechanical operation. They are actuated by a
cylinder or fluid motor. The mechanical motion is converted to rotary, linear, or oscillatory motion,
according to the need of the IoT device. Example- construction equipment uses hydraulic actuators
because hydraulic actuators can generate a large amount of force. So, this name suggests, these
hydraulic actuators consist of a cylinder or fluid motor that uses hydraulic power to facilitate
mechanical operation. The mechanical motion is converted to linear rotary or oscillatory motion.
Basically when some fluid passes through, then you know that motion is converted to some linear
motion or some oscillatory motion or rotary motion and since liquids are nearly impossible to
compress, most of the hydraulic actuators basically exert considerable force which is the reason why
liquid based actuators are typically used and these are quite popular because of this particular reason.
Pneumatic Actuators –

A pneumatic actuator uses energy formed by vacuum or compressed air at high pressure to convert
into either linear or rotary motion. Example- Used in robotics, use sensors that work like human
fingers by using compressed air. Pneumatic actuator, pneumatic means air based. A pneumatic
actuator basically converts the energy formed by vacuum or compressed air at high pressure into
either linear or rotatory motion. Pneumatic actuators basically exert a lot of force and for example,
the pneumatic brakes can be very responsive to small changes in pressure that are applied by the
driver.
Pneumatic brakes are quite common in different devices like trucks etc. They use pneumatic brakes.
So, hydraulic brakes are more common in cars, in trucks pneumatic brakes are quite common. The
advantage of pneumatic brakes, is that they are very responsive to small changes.

Electrical Actuators –

An electric actuator uses electrical energy, is usually actuated by a motor that converts electrical energy into
mechanical torque. An example of an electric actuator is a solenoid based electric bell. An electric actuator
is generally powered by a motor that converts electrical energy into mechanical torque. So, this electrical
energy is used to actuate the equipment, such as the solenoid valve which control the flow of water in pipes
in response to electrical signals.
Thermal /Magnetic Actuators –

• Actuators are simply devices used to transform energy into motion. A thermal actuator is a type of
non-electric motor made of components such as a piston and a thermal sensitive material capable of
producing linear motion in response to temperature changes.

• Magnetic Actuators: Magnetic Actuators use magnetic effects to generate forces which impact on the
motion of a part in the actuator.

Mechanical Actuators –

• A mechanical actuator executes movement by converting rotary motion into linear motion. It
involves pulleys, chains, gears, rails, and other devices to operate.

Communication modules:
Zigbee Architecture

ZigBee is a Personal Area Network task group with low rate task group 4. It is a technology of home
networking. ZigBee is a technological standard created for controlling and sensing the network. As we know
that ZigBee is the Personal Area network of task group 4 so it is based on IEEE 802.15.4 and is created by
Zigbee Alliance.

ZigBee is a standard that addresses the need for very low-cost implementation of Low power devices with
Low data rates for short-range wireless communications.

Types of ZigBee Devices:

• Zigbee Coordinator Device: It communicates with routers. This device is used for connecting the
devices.
• Zigbee Router: It is used for passing the data between devices.
• Zigbee End Device: It is the device that is going to be controlled.

General Characteristics of Zigbee Standard:

• Low Power Consumption

• Low Data Rate (20- 250 kbps)
• Short-Range (75-100 meters)
• Network Join Time (~ 30 msec)
• Support Small and Large Networks (up to 65000 devices (Theory); 240 devices (Practically))
• Low Cost of Products and Cheap Implementation (Open Source Protocol)
• Extremely low duty cycle.
• 3 frequency bands with 27 channels.

Operating Frequency Bands (Only one channel will be selected for use in a network):
1. Channel 0: 868 MHz (Europe)
2. Channel 1-10: 915 MHz (the US and Australia)
3. Channel 11-26: 2.4 GHz (Across the World)
Zigbee Network Topologies:
 • Star Topology (ZigBee Smart Energy): Consists of a coordinator and several end devices, end
devices communicate only with the coordinator.
• Mesh Topology (Self Healing Process): Mesh topology consists of one coordinator, several routers,
and end devices.
• Tree Topology: In this topology, the network consists of a central node which is a coordinator,
several routers, and end devices. The function of the
router is to extend the network coverage.

Architecture of Zigbee:

Zigbee architecture is a combination of

1. Application Layer
2. Network Layer
3. Medium Access Control Layer
4. Physical Layer

• Physical layer: The lowest two layers i.e the physical and the MAC (Medium Access Control) Layer
are defined by the IEEE 802.15.4 specifications. The Physical layer is closest to the hardware and
directly controls and communicates with the Zigbee radio. The physical layer translates the data
packets in the over-the-air bits for transmission and vice-versa during the reception.

• Medium Access Control layer (MAC layer): The layer is responsible for the interface between the
physical and network layer. The MAC layer is also responsible for providing PAN ID and also
network discovery through beacon requests.

• Network layer: This layer acts as an interface between the MAC layer and the application layer. It is
responsible for mesh networking.

• Application layer: The application layer in the Zigbee stack is the highest protocol layer and it
consists of the application support sub-layer and Zigbee device object. It contains manufacturer-
defined applications.

Channel Access:

1. Contention Based Method (Carrier-Sense Multiple Access With Collision Avoidance Mechanism)
2. Contention Free Method (Coordinator dedicates a specific time slot to each device (Guaranteed
Time Slot (GTS)))

Zigbee Applications:
1. Home Automation
2. Medical Data Collection
3. Industrial Control Systems
4. meter reading system
5. light control system

LoRa and LoRaWAN

The LoRaWAN protocol is a Low Power Wide Area Networking (LPWAN) communication protocol that
functions on LoRa. The LoRaWAN specification is open so anyone can set up and operate a LoRa network.
LoRa is a wireless audio frequency technology that operates in a license-free radio frequency spectrum.
LoRa is a physical layer protocol that uses spread spectrum modulation and supports long-range
communication at the cost of a narrow bandwidth. It uses a narrow band waveform with a central frequency
to send data, which makes it robust to interference.

Characteristics of LoRaWAN technology

 Long range communication up to 10 miles in line of sight.

 Long battery duration of up to 10 years. For enhanced battery life, you can operate your devices in
class A or class B mode, which requires increased downlink latency.
 Low cost for devices and maintenance.
 License-free radio spectrum but region-specific regulations apply.
 Low power but has a limited payload size of 51 bytes to 241 bytes depending on the data rate. The
data rate can be 0,3 Kbit/s – 27 Kbit/s data rate with a 222 maximal payload size.

Advantages:

8. Long Range: LoRaWAN can provide long-range communication, spanning several kilometers
in urban areas and even greater distances in rural environments. This long-range capability is a
significant advantage for applications that require wide-area coverage.

9. Low Power Consumption: IoT devices using LoRaWAN can operate on batteries for an
extended period, often several years, before needing a battery replacement or recharge. This low
power consumption is crucial for remote and battery-powered devices.

10. Scalability: LoRaWAN networks are highly scalable, allowing for the addition of a large
number of devices to a single network without significant infrastructure changes.

11. Cost-Efficiency: Due to its low power requirements and long-range capabilities, LoRaWAN
can be a cost-effective solution for many IoT applications. It reduces the need for frequent
battery replacements and complex power infrastructure.

12. License-Free Spectrum: LoRaWAN operates in unlicensed ISM radio bands, reducing
regulatory and licensing requirements. This simplifies deployment and lowers operational costs.

13. Wide Adoption: LoRaWAN has gained widespread adoption and support from various
companies and organizations, creating a thriving ecosystem of devices, gateways, and network
providers.

14. Security Features: LoRaWAN includes security features such as encryption and device
authentication to protect data transmitted between devices and the network.

8. Use Cases: LoRaWAN is suitable for a wide range of IoT use cases, including smart agriculture, smart
cities, industrial IoT, asset tracking, and environmental monitoring, among others.

Disadvantages:

15. Low Data Rate: LoRaWAN is designed for low-data-rate applications. If you need to transmit
large amounts of data quickly, it may not be the best choice.
 16. Limited Bandwidth: LoRaWAN networks have limited available bandwidth, which can lead
to network congestion in areas with a high density of devices.

17. Latency: LoRaWAN is optimized for low power and long range, which can result in higher
latency compared to other wireless technologies. This may not be suitable for applications
requiring real-time data transmission.

18. Interference: In crowded radio frequency environments, interference from other devices
operating in the same frequency bands can affect LoRaWAN communication quality.

19. Not Suitable for High Mobility: LoRaWAN is designed for stationary or slowly moving
devices. It may not be suitable for applications that require high mobility, such as asset tracking
on fast-moving vehicles.

20. Initial Deployment Complexity: Setting up a LoRaWAN network can be more complex than
other wireless technologies, as it requires the installation of gateways and configuration of
network servers.

21. Dependence on Gateways: LoRaWAN devices rely on gateways to relay data to the network.
If gateways are unavailable or experience issues, communication can be disrupted.

8. Limited Use Cases: While LoRaWAN is versatile, it may not be the best choice for all IoT applications,
especially those that require high bandwidth, low latency, or high mobility.

6LowPAN

6LoWPAN is an IPv6 protocol, and It’s extended from is IPv6 over Low Power Personal Area Network. As
the name itself explains the meaning of this protocol is that this protocol works on Wireless Personal Area
Network i.e., WPAN.

WPAN is a Personal Area Network (PAN) where the interconnected devices are centered around a person’s
workspace and connected through a wireless medium. You can read more about WPAN at WPAN.
6LoWPAN allows communication using the IPv6 protocol. IPv6 is Internet Protocol Version 6 is a network
layer protocol that allows communication to take place over the network. It is faster and more reliable and
provides a large number of addresses.

6LoWPAN initially came into existence to overcome the conventional methodologies that were adapted to
transmit information. But still, it is not so efficient as it only allows for the smaller devices with very limited
processing ability to establish communication using one of the Internet Protocols, i.e., IPv6. It has very low
cost, short-range, low memory usage, and low bit rate.

It comprises an Edge Router and Sensor Nodes. Even the smallest of the IoT devices can now be part of the
network, and the information can be transmitted to the outside world as well. For example, LED Streetlights.
 • It is a technology that makes the individual nodes IP enabled.

• 6LoWPAN can interact with 802.15.4 devices and also other types of devices on an IP Network. For
example, Wi-Fi.

• It uses AES 128 link layer security, which AES is a block cipher having key size of 128/192/256 bits
and encrypts data in blocks of 128 bits each. This is defined in IEEE 802.15.4 and provides link
authentication and encryption.

Basic Requirements of 6LoWPAN:

1. The device should be having sleep mode in order to support the battery saving.
2. Minimal memory requirement.
3. Routing overhead should be lowered.

Features of 6LoWPAN:

1. It is used with IEEE 802.15,.4 in the 2.4 GHz band.

2. Outdoor range: ~200 m (maximum)
3. Data rate: 200kbps (maximum)
4. Maximum number of nodes: ~100

Advantages of 6LoWPAN:

1. 6LoWPAN is a mesh network that is robust, scalable, and can heal on its own.
2. It delivers low-cost and secure communication in IoT devices.
3. It uses IPv6 protocol and so it can be directly routed to cloud platforms.
4. It offers one-to-many and many-to-one routing.
5. In the network, leaf nodes can be in sleep mode for a longer duration of time.

Disadvantages of 6LoWPAN:
 1. It is comparatively less secure than Zigbee.
2. It has lesser immunity to interference than that Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.
3. Without the mesh topology, it supports a short range.

Applications of 6LoWPAN:

1. It is a wireless sensor network.

2. It is used in home-automation,
3. It is used in smart agricultural techniques, and industrial monitoring.

Security and Interoperability with 6LoWPAN:

• Security: 6LoWPAN security is ensured by the AES algorithm, which is a link layer security, and
the transport layer security mechanisms are included as well.
• Interoperability: 6LoWPAN is able to operate with other wireless devices as well which makes it
interoperable in a network.

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)

 Frequency Identification (RFID) is a form of wireless communication that incorporates the use of
Radio
electromagnetic or electrostatic coupling in the radio frequency portion of the electromagnetic spectrum to
uniquely identify an object, animal or person. It uses radio frequency to search ,identify, track and
communicate with items and people. it is a method that is used to track or identify an object by radio
transmission uses over the web. Data digitally encoded in an RFID tag which might be read by the reader.
This device work as a tag or label during which data read from tags that are stored in the database through
the reader as compared to traditional barcodes and QR codes. It is often read outside the road of sight either
passive or active RFID.
Kinds of RFID :

There are many kinds of RFID, each with different properties, but perhaps the most fascinating aspect of
RFID technology is that most RFID tags have neither an electric plug nor a battery. Instead, all of the energy
needed to operate them is supplied in the form of radio waves by RFID readers. This technology is called
passive RFID to distinguish it from the(less common) active RFID in which there is a power source on the
tag.

UHF RHID ( Ultra-High Frequency RFID ).

It is used on shipping pallets and some driver’s licenses. Readers send signals in the 902-928 MHz band.
Tags communicate at distances of several meters by changing the way they reflect the reader signals; the
reader is able to pick up these reflections. This way of operating is called backscatter.

HF RFID (High-Frequency RFID ).

It operates at 13.56 MHz and is likely to be in your passport, credit cards, books, and noncontact payment
systems. HF RFID has a short-range, typically a meter or less because the physical mechanism is based on
induction rather than backscatter.
There are also other forms of RFID using other frequencies, such as LF RFID(Low-Frequency RFID),
which was developed before HF RFID and used for animal tracking
There are two types of RFID :

1. Passive RFID –

Passive RFID tags does not have their own power source. It uses power from the reader. In this
device, RF tags are not attached by a power supply and passive RF tag stored their power. When
it is emitted from active antennas and the RF tag are used specific frequency like 125-134KHZ as
low frequency, 13.56MHZ as a high frequency and 856MHZ to 960MHZ as ultra-high
frequency.

2. Active RFID –

In this device, RF tags are attached by a power supply that emits a signal and there is an antenna
which receives the data. means, active tag uses a power source like battery. It has it’s own power
source, does not require power from source/reader.

Working Principle of RFID :

Generally, RFID uses radio waves to perform AIDC function. AIDC stands for Automatic Identification and
Data Capture technology which performs object identification and collection and mapping of the data.
An antenna is an device which converts power into radio waves which are used for communication between
reader and tag. RFID readers retrieve the information from RFID tag which detects the tag and reads or
writes the data into the tag. It may include one processor, package, storage and transmitter and receiver unit.
Working of RFID System :

Every RFID system consists of three components: a scanning antenna, a transceiver and a transponder.
When the scanning antenna and transceiver are combined, they are referred to as an RFID reader or
interrogator. There are two types of RFID readers — fixed readers and mobile readers. The RFID reader is a
network-connected device that can be portable or permanently attached. It uses radio waves to transmit
signals that activate the tag. Once activated, the tag sends a wave back to the antenna, where it is translated
into data.
The transponder is in the RFID tag itself. The read range for RFID tags varies based on factors including the
type of tag, type of reader, RFID frequency and interference in the surrounding environment or from other
RFID tags and readers. Tags that have a stronger power source also have a longer read range.
Features of RFID :

 An RFID tag consists of two-part which is an microcircuit and an antenna.

 This tag is covered by protective material which acts as a shield against the outer environment
effect.
 This tag may active or passive in which we mainly and widely used passive RFID.

Application of RFID :

 It utilized in tracking shipping containers, trucks and railroad, cars.

 It uses in Asset tracking.
 It utilized in credit-card shaped for access application.
 It uses in Personnel tracking.
 Controlling access to restricted areas.
 It uses ID badging.
 Supply chain management.
 Counterfeit prevention (e.g., in the pharmaceutical industry).

Advantages of RFID :

 It provides data access and real-time information without taking to much time.
 RFID tags follow the instruction and store a large amount of information.
 The RFID system is non-line of sight nature of the technology.
 It improves the Efficiency, traceability of production.
 In RFID hundred of tags read in a short time.

Disadvantages of RFID :

 It takes longer to program RFID Devices.

 RFID intercepted easily even it is Encrypted.
 In an RFID system, there are two or three layers of ordinary household foil to dam the radio
wave.
  There is privacy concern about RFID devices anybody can access information about anything.
 Active RFID can costlier due to battery.
Wi-Fi
 Wi-Fi, a brand name given by the Wi-Fi Alliance (formerly Wireless Ethernet Compatibility
Alliance), is a generic term that refers to the communication standard for the wireless network which
works as a Local Area Network to operate without using the cable and any types of wiring.
 It is known as WLAN. The communication standard is IEEE 802.11. Wi-Fi works using Physical
Data Link Layer.
 Nowadays in all mobile computing devices such as laptops, mobile phones, also digital cameras,
smart TVs has the support of Wi-Fi. The Wi-Fi connection is established from the access point or
base station to the client connection or any client-to-client connection within a specific range, the
range depends on the router which provides the radio frequency through Wi-Fi. These frequencies
operate on 2 types of bandwidth at present, 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz.
All the modern laptops and mobiles are capable of using both bandwidths, it depends on the Wi-Fi adapter
which is inside the device to catch the Wi-Fi signal. 2.4 GHz is the default bandwidth supported by all the
devices. 2.4 GHz can cover a big range of areas to spread the Wi-Fi signal but the frequency is low, so in
simple words, the speed of the internet is less and 5 GHz bandwidth is for a lower range of area but the
frequency is high so the speed is very high.
Let’s say, if there is an internet connection of 60 MB/s bandwidth, then for 2.4 GHz bandwidth, it provides
approx 30 to 45 MB/s of bandwidth connection and for 5 GHz bandwidth, it provides approx 50 to 57 MB/s
bandwidth.

History:

The concept of Wi-Fi is very old but its implementation is not so old. At first ALOHA System is a wireless
network system that is used to connect Hawaii island via a network in the year 1971. Where the protocol is
used for this was ALOHA protocol and the network used packet transfer. Later it’s converted to IEEE
802.11 protocol.
Then in 1985, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) released a new network for general uses
which works on 900 Mhz, 2.4 GHz, and 5.8 GHz bandwidth. This is known as the ISM band. Also, IBM
introduced a Token Ring LAN network for connecting several computers, it can transfer data at 4 Mb/s
speed. Then in 1988, a wireless cashier system was invented based on the Token Ring LAN network known
as waveLAN, it operates at 900MHz or 2.4 GHz band and offers speeds of 1 to 2 Mbps. Then it was
converted to IEEE 802.11LAN/MAN standards in 1989. ?Then in 1990, IEEE 802.11 Working Group for
Wireless LANs is established by Vic Hayes, who was known as the “Father of WiFi”.
Then in 1994, Dr. Alex Hills introduced a research project on the wireless network, which provided
coverage of the network to 7 buildings wirelessly.
Then in 1996 Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) introduced a
wireless network based on the same protocol 802.11, later it was known as IEEE 802.11a standards.
Then after all this in 1997 the first version of Wi-Fi is released officially which is 802.11 and it can support
a maximum of 2 Mb/s link speed. Then in 1999, the link speed is increased to 11 Mb/s over the 2.4 GHz
frequency band, this version is known as 802.11b
Then after a month, the IEEE 802.11a standard is approved officially, which provides up to 54 Mb/s link
speed over the 5 GHz band, but the signal range is weaker than the 2.4 GHz band.
Then in 2003, the speed is increased in a new version, known as 802.11g. The speed offers up to 54 to 108
Mb/s over 2.4 GHz.
After this two more versions were introduced that are, 802.11i and 802.11e. In 802.11i, the security
mechanism was increased and in 802.11e, Voice over Wireless LAN and multimedia streaming are
involved.
Then in 2009, 802.11n is developed, which supports both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz radiofrequency. And these are
used simultaneously by dual-band routers and can reach maximum speeds of 600 Mbps.
Then in 2014, a new version was introduced that offers a potential speed of 1733 Mb/s in the 5 GHz band.
This version is known as 802.11ac. Till now this is the latest version of Wi-Fi.

Applications of Wi-Fi :

Wi-Fi has many applications, it is used in all the sectors where a computer or any digital media is used, also
for entertaining Wi-Fi is used. Some of the applications are mentioned below –

 Accessing Internet: Using Wi-Fi we can access the internet in any Wi-Fi-capable device
wirelessly.
 We can stream or cast audio or video wirelessly on any device using Wi-Fi for our entertainment.
 We can share files, data, etc between two or more computers or mobile phones using Wi-Fi, and
the speed of the data transfer rate is also very high. Also, we can print any document using a Wi-
Fi printer, this is very much used nowadays.
 We can use Wi-Fi as HOTSPOTS also, it points Wireless Internet access for a particular range
of area. Using Hotspot the owner of the main network connection can offer temporary network
access to Wi-Fi-capable devices so that the users can use the network without knowing anything
about the main network connection. Wi-Fi adapters are mainly spreading radio signals using the
owner network connection to provide a hotspot.
 Using Wi-Fi or WLAN we can construct simple wireless connections from one point to another,
known as Point to point networks. This can be useful to connect two locations that are difficult to
reach by wire, such as two buildings of corporate business.
 One more important application is VoWi-Fi, which is known as voice-over Wi-Fi. Some years
ago telecom companies are introduced VoLTE (Voice over Long-Term Evolution ). Nowadays
they are introduced to VoWi-Fi, by which we can call anyone by using our home Wi-Fi network,
only one thing is that the mobile needs to connect with the Wi-Fi. Then the voice is transferred
using the Wi-Fi network instead of using the mobile SIM network, so the call quality is very
good. Many mobile phones are already getting the support of VoWi-Fi.
 Wi-Fi in offices: In an office, all the computers are interconnected using Wi-Fi. For Wi-Fi, there
are no wiring complexities. Also, the speed of the network is good. For Wi-Fi, a project can be
presented to all the members at a time in the form of an excel sheet, ppt, etc. For Wi-Fi, there is
no network loss as in cable due to cable break.
 Also using W-Fi a whole city can provide network connectivity by deploying routers at a specific
area to access the internet. Already schools, colleges, and universities are providing networks
using Wi-Fi because of its flexibility.
 Wi-Fi is used as a positioning system also, by which we can detect the positions of Wi-Fi
hotspots to identify a device location.

Types of Wi-Fi:

Wi-Fi has several types of standards, which are discussed earlier, here just the name of the standards are
defined,

Year of
Standards Release Description
Wi-Fi-1 This version has a link speed from 2Mb/s to 11 Mb/s over a 2.4 GHz
(802.11b) 1999 frequency band
Wi-Fi-2 After a month of release previous version, 802.11a was released and it
(802.11a) 1999 provide up to 54 Mb/s link speed over 5 Ghz band
Wi-Fi-3 In this version the speed was increased up to 54 to 108 Mb/s over 2.4
(802.11g) 2003 GHz
 This is the same as 802.11g but only the security mechanism was
802.11i 2004 increased in this version
This is also the same as 802.11g, only Voice over Wireless LAN and
802.11e 2004 multimedia streaming are involved
Wi-Fi-4 This version supports both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz radio frequency and it
(802.11n) 2009 offers up to 72 to 600 Mb/s speed
Wi-Fi-5
(802.11ac) 2014 It supports a speed of 1733 Mb/s in the 5 GHz band
A new version will release in 2020 named 802.11ax developed by Huawei, which can support, a maximum
of 3.5 Gb/s. it will know Wi-Fi 6.

How does Wi-Fi work?

Wi-Fi is a wireless technology for networking, so it uses Electromagnetic waves to transmit networks. We
know that there are many divisions of Electromagnetic waves according to their frequency such as X-ray,
Gamma-ray, radio wave, microwave, etc, in Wi-Fi, the radio frequency is used. For transmitting Wi-Fi
signal there is three medium,
 Base station network or an Ethernet(802.3) connection: It is the main host network from
where the network connection is provided to the router.
 Access point or router: it is a bridge between a wired network and a wireless network. It accepts
a wired Ethernet connection and converts the wired connection to a wireless connection and
spreads the connection as a radio wave.
 Accessing devices: It is our mobile, computer, etc from where we use the Wi-Fi and surfing
internet.

Working of Wi-Fi

All the electronics devices read data in binary form, also router or our devices, here routers provide radio
waves and those waves are receive by our devices and read the waves in binary form. We all know how a
wave looks like, the upper pick of the wave is known as 1 and the lower pick of the wave is known as 0 in
binary. Like below:
Data transmissionSome more terminologies

 SSID (Service Set Identifier): It is a 32 character name that identifies the Wi-Fi network and
differentiates one Wi-Fi from another Wi-Fi. All the devices are attempting to connect a
particular SSID. Simply, SSID is the name of the wireless network.
 WPA-PSK (Wi-Fi Protected Access- Pre-Shared Key): It is a program developed by the Wi-Fi
Alliance Authority to secure wireless networks with the use of Pre-Shared Key(PSK)
authentication. WPA has 3 types, such as WPA. WPA2, WPA3. It is a way of encrypting the Wi-
Fi signal to protect from unwanted users.
 Wi-Fi uses Ad-Hoc networks to transmit. It is a point-to-point network without any interface.
How signals are reached to our devices?

Base Station
Advantages of Wi-Fi

 It is a flexible network connection, no wiring complexities. Can be accessed from anywhere in

the Wi-Fi range.
 It does not require regulatory approval for individual users.
 It is salable, can be expanded by using Wi-Fi Extenders.
 It can be set up in an easy and fast way. Just need to configure the SSID and Password.
 Security in a high in Wi-Fi network, its uses WPA encryption to encrypt radio signals.
 It is also lower in cost.
 It also can provide Hotspots.
 it supports roaming also.

Disadvantages of Wi-Fi

 Power consumption is high while using Wi-Fi in any device which has a battery, such as mobile,
laptops, etc.
 Many times there may be some security problems happening even it has encryption. Such as
many times has known devices become unknown to the router, Wi-Fi can be hacked also.
 Speed is slower than a direct cable connection.
 It has lower radiation like cell phones, so it can harm humans.
 Wi-Fi signals may be affected by climatic conditions like thunderstorms.
 Unauthorized access to Wi-Fi can happen because it does not have a firewall.
 To use Wi-Fi we need a router, which needs a power source, so at the time of power cut, we
cannot access the internet.

Power Source

 Power sources in IoT (Internet of Things) devices are a critical consideration as they directly impact
the device's functionality, longevity, and deployment options.

Here are some important notes about power sources in IoT:

1. Battery Power:

- Advantages:
 Portability: Battery-powered IoT devices are highly portable and can be placed virtually anywhere
without the need for a power outlet.
 Low Maintenance: Batteries can provide power for extended periods (months to years) without the
need for frequent maintenance.

- Disadvantages:
 Limited Lifetime: Batteries have a finite lifespan, and their replacement or recharging can be costly
and impractical for certain deployments.
 Size and Weight: Batteries can add bulk and weight to IoT devices, which may not be suitable for
small or lightweight applications.
 Environmental Impact: Battery disposal and the environmental impact of disposable batteries are
concerns.

2. Solar Power:

- Advantages:

 Renewable Energy: Solar panels harness energy from the sun, providing a renewable and eco-
friendly power source.
  Extended Lifespan: Solar-powered IoT devices can operate for extended periods without the need for
battery replacement.

- Disadvantages:

 Sunlight Dependency: Solar power is dependent on sunlight, which can be limited in certain
geographic locations or during cloudy days.
 Initial Costs: Solar panel installation can have high upfront costs, although it can lead to long-term
savings.

3. Energy Harvesting:

- Advantages:
 Energy from the Environment: Energy harvesting technologies, such as vibration, thermal, or
kinetic energy, allow IoT devices to capture energy from their environment.
 Continuous Operation: When implemented effectively, energy harvesting can enable continuous
device operation without the need for battery replacement.

- Disadvantages:
 Variable Energy Availability: The availability of environmental energy sources can vary, making
it challenging to ensure consistent device operation.
 Energy Storage: Energy harvested must be stored efficiently for later use, which may require
specialized components.

4. Wired Power:

- Advantages:
 Reliable and Stable: Wired power sources, such as AC or DC power outlets, provide a stable and
reliable source of energy.
 High Power Capacity: Wired connections can support high-power IoT devices and applications.

- Disadvantages:
 Limited Mobility: Devices relying on wired power sources are typically fixed and cannot be
easily moved.
 Installation Complexity: Installing wired power connections may be labor-intensive and costly,
especially in remote or outdoor locations.

5. Hybrid Power:

- Advantages:
 Combining Sources: Hybrid power systems can combine multiple power sources, such as
batteries and solar panels, to provide redundancy and extended operation.
 Flexibility: Hybrid systems can adapt to changing environmental conditions and energy
availability.

- Disadvantages:
 Complexity: Designing and managing hybrid power systems can be complex and may require
specialized knowledge.

6. Ultra-Low Power Consumption:

- Reducing power consumption through efficient hardware design and software optimization is crucial for
extending the lifespan of battery-powered IoT devices.
7. Energy-Efficient Communication Protocols:

- Choosing energy-efficient communication protocols like LoRaWAN or MQTT-SN can minimize the
power required for data transmission.

8. Energy Monitoring and Management:

- Implementing energy monitoring and management features in IoT devices can help optimize power
usage and extend battery life.