Behaviorism: Theory of learning that is interested in observable changes in behavior.

&&Conditioning: Forming associations or connections between experiences (stimuli) and

Social Cognitive Theory: Learning occurs from interacting with and watching other people, as well as witnessing the resulting consequences. && It emphasizes learning by
observation and modeling Constructivism: Individuals construct what they learn and understand. &&Emphasizes: 1.Learners contribute to their own learning 2.Knowledge and
information is discovered through some activity and interactions. 3.importance of social interaction in development of skills and knowledge

Individual vs Social Constructivism: Piaget (individual) proposed universal, qualitatively distinct stages; and believed children learn and develop via equilibration &&Vygotsky
(social) purported that language is one of the most important cognitive tools; Challenging yet attainable tasks promote maximum growth (ZPD); Play is an important means of learning
to appropriate cultural tools

Unit2 Cognitive Theories: Contextual Theories: 1. Situated Cognition: knowledge is situated within authentic activity, context, and culture&&Authentic activities help students
transfer learning to real world contexts. Communities of practice: shared domain, relationships, shared practice/values/beliefs 2. Distributed Cognition: knowledge is distributed
across objects, individuals, artifacts, and tools&&Cognitive artifacts have affordances and constraints and help offload tasks3.Embodied Cognition: out brains affect and are
affected by our bodies&&Seen in body based experiences, gestures, language
Information Processing Theory (IPT) 1.learning = acquisition of mental representations2.Knowledge is organized and interrelated 3.Dominant view of memory is the Dual-Store
Memory Model and the process of encoding, organizing, and storing information. Metacognition & S-R: 1.Metacognition:-Thinking about thinking -Awareness-Knowledge
(3types)&&2.Self-Regulation:-Controlling cognitive activities-An active process-Involves practice. Study Strategies: HIGH UTILITY:1.Practice Testing2. Distributed Practice
&& MEDIUM UTILITY:1.laborative Interrogation 2.Self-explanation. 3.Interleaved practice &&LOW UTILITY:1.Summarization. 2.Highlighting/underlining3.Keyword
mnemonics 4.Imagery for text 5.Rereading. What about Learning Styles? There has been no evidence for learning stylesin education research
Unit3: Motivation & Attribution : 2 Types of Motivation: 1.Extrinsic: An environmentally created reason to engage in an action or activity e.g. money, grades, praise 2.Intrinsic:
Desire to engage one’s interests and to exercise and develop one’s capacities e.g. passion, interest.
Overjustifaction: 1.“It is easy to get people to do things by paying them if you’ve got enough money and they’ve got the necessary skills, but…2.They will keep doing it only as
long as you keep paying them. 3.And even if they were doing it before, when you stop paying them the behavior drops to a lower level than when you started paying them. Edward
Deci, Why We Do What We Do
Attribution Theory: Causal Attributions: Our interpretations of why things happened as they did. 1.Locus--Is it an internal or external cause?
2.Stability--Will it keep happening? 3.Controllability--Am I in control of it?
Interactions: Imagine you did poorly at practice Stability—Unstable Stable and internal: Controllable Effort: “I should work harder or work differently”
Unstable Stable and External Factors: Luck: “I was lucky she missed the basket” Stable and Internal Factors : Uncontrollable Ability: “I’m just not fast enough” Stable and
External Factors :Uncontrollable Task difficulty: “Math is hard”. Effort: Internal locus, controllable, unstable
Ability: Internal locus, uncontrollable, stab Luck: External locus, uncontrollable, unstable. Task difficulty: External locus, uncontrollable, stable

Goal Types Mastery Goal: Focused on learning, improving, or mastering a skill &&Performance Goal: Focused on demonstrating competence 1.Performance-Approach Goal:
want to display competency and receive approval 2.Performance-Avoidance Goal: don’t want to display incompetency and receive unfavorable judgements &&Social Goals, Work-
Avoidance Goals, and Career Goals
Mindsets – Carol Dweck* Fixed: •1.Intelligence is stable, uncontrollable2.Ability can’t be change3.Mistakes can be devastating4.Difficulties are obstacles and more likely to give
up5.Failure is inevitable &&(Learned helplessness). &&Growth: 1.Intelligence is unstable, controllable2.Ability can be changed3.Mistakes can increase effort4.Difficulties are
challenges to be overcome5. Effort will lead to improvement
Learned Helplessness: Belief that we can’t change the course of negative events, that failure is inevitable and insurmountable1.Response to failure, NOT success 2.A controllability
problem, not a competency one
Verbal Feedback: Praise effort and learning process, not success or intelligence 1.I like the way you tried a lot of different strategies on that math problem until you finally got it.
2.That was a hard assignment but you stuck with it 3.I like that you took on a challenging project for your science class. 4.Mistakes are so interesting. Here’s a wonderful mistake.
Let’s see what we can learn from it.

Assessment Types: Formal: preplanned and systematic Tests, homework, projects, papers&& Formative: progress&&Exit slip, check for understanding, in class work, homework
&& Norm-Referenced: compares students to students Curved test, 2 points added to Weekly Synthesis && Traditional: assessments in schools Tests, papers, quizzes, oral
presentations. Informal: spontaneous, daily Listening, observing student interactions, asking questions&& Summative: mastery Unit test, term paper, final project &&
Summative: mastery Unit test, term paper, final project && Criterion-Referenced: compares students to a set standard Paper scored by rubric, test with correct answers &&
Authentic: meaningful activities within real-life contexts Portfolios, performances, demonstrations, internships

Assessing Assessment: Reliability: Consistency of the assessment&&Validity: How well the assessment measures what it claims to &&Fairness: Unbiased so that all students
have an equal likelihood of success. Reliability vs. Validity: Transfer defined :Transfer is when we apply knowledge or skills:1. in new ways, 2.in new situations, or in3. familiar
situations with different content Situated learning is helpful for transferring!

Analogical Problem Solving: Using a solution to a similar problem&&Depends on three steps: 1.Noticing that an analogical connection exists. 2.Mapping corresponding parts of
the problems.3. Applying the mapping to generate a parallel solution to the target problem

Types of Transfer :Vertical: Prior knowledge essential Arithmetic and multiplication&& Positive: Prior knowledge enhances learning PowerPoint and Presi &&Low Road:
Spontaneous and automatic use of skills and knowledge Typing on a laptop and keyboard

Lateral: Prior knowledge not essential Physics and geology &&Negative: Prior knowledge interferes with learning Mac and PC && Far: Old and new contexts are not similar
Teaching and Owning a business && High Road: Purposeful and effortful abstraction and search for connections Chess and politics
Key Principles of Expertise 1.Fluent Retrieval (Chess): ability to effortless retrieve necessary information for a problem 2.Meaningful Patterns (Chess): chunking knowledge into
meaningful patters3.Context and Access to Knowledge (Physics): facts situated within meaningful contexts4.Organization of Knowledge (Physics): use abstract ideas to organize
knowledge in efficient ways5.Adaptive Expertise (Historians): ability to approach new situations flexibly and learn continuously
Expertise Misconception “An expert is someone who knows all the answers”. Expertise and Teaching:Content Knowledge: 1.“What” to teach 2.Subject knowledge necessary to be
an expert in that discipline 3.Strong subject knowledge can lead to Expert Blind Spot
Pedagogical Content Knowledge: 1.“How” to teach a specific subject 2.Teaching strategies differ across disciplines
Well-Defined vs. Ill-Defined: Well-defined problems 1.Clear goals 2.Only one correct solution 3.Defined procedure for reaching a solution 4.All information is specified
5.Examples: chess, saving money, getting a car fixed, school word problems && Ill-defined problems 1.Ambiguous goals2.More than one solution3.Multiple solution
paths4.Incomplete information5.Examples: writing poetry, learning an instrument, social issues, internship
Problem-Based Learning (PBL)An active approach to learning in which learners collaborate in understanding and solving complex, ill-defined problems
Assessing Creativity :The Guilford Measures: Fluency: total number of interpretable, meaningful, and relevant ideas generated in response to the stimulus. Flexibility: number of
different categories of relevant responses. Originality: statistical rarity of the responses. Elaboration: amount of detail in the responses.
Do Schools Kill Creativity?: “I believe this passionately that we don’t grow into creativity; we grow out of it or rather we get educated out of it.” – Sir Ken Robinson
When does Identity matter? 1.Identity salience: the likelihood the identity will be invoked in diverse situations2.Stereotype threat: situational predicament in which people are or feel
themselves to be at risk of confirming negative stereotypes about their social group 3.Stereotype Exception-to-the-Rule: When people see or interact with a person that doesn’t
conform to a particular stereotype, they make an exception for that particular person.
The Danger of a Single Story:1. Stereotyping is easy and automatic.2.The problem with stereotypes is not that they are untrue, but they are incomplete.3.Focusing on a single story
emphasizes differences among people rather than similarities.
Culture Defined & Terms: 1.The knowledge, values and traditions that guide the behavior of a group of people and allow them to solve the problems of living in their
environment .2.Cultural Capital: Refers to the non-financial social assets that promote social mobility beyond economic means&& Example: Role of Questioning Study (IRE vs
analogical/metaphorical), familiarity with local community