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Intro to
Software Engineering
LECTURE: PROTOTYPING MODEL, SPIRAL MODEL, RAD
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SOFTWARE
PROTOTYPING
  A prototype is an initial version of
a system used to demonstrate
concepts and try out design
options.
 A prototype can be used in:
Software  The requirements engineering
prototyping process to help with requirements
elicitation and validation;
 In design processes to explore
options and develop a UI design;
 In the testing process to run back to
back tests.

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Improved system usability.

A closer match to users’ real needs.

Benefits of Improved design quality.

prototyping
Improved maintainability.

Reduced development effort.

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Prototype Development Process Model

  May be based on rapid prototyping
languages or tools
 May involve leaving out functionality
 Prototype should focus on areas of
Prototype the product that are not well
understood;
development  Error checking and recovery may
not be included in the prototype;
 Focus on functional rather than non
functional requirements such as
reliability and security

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Examples
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My own
prototypes
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  Prototypes should be discarded after
development as they are not a good
basis for a production system:
 It may be impossible to tune the
system to meet non functional
requirements;
Throw away  Prototypes are normally
prototypes undocumented;
 The prototype structure is usually
degraded through rapid change;
 The prototype probably will not meet
normal organizational quality
standards.

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Controlling
changes
with
prototyping
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Advantages

 This model is flexible in design.

 It is easy to detect errors.
 We can find missing functionality easily.
 There is scope of refinement, it means new requirements can be easily accommodated.
 It can be reused by the developer for more complicated projects in the future.
 It ensures a greater level of customer satisfaction and comfort.
 It is ideal for online system.
 It helps developers and users both understand the system better.
 Integration requirements are very well understood and deployment channels are
decided at a very early stage.
 It can actively involve users in the development phase.
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Disadvantages

 This model is costly.

 It has poor documentation because of continuously changing customer
requirements.
 There may be too much variation in requirements.
 Customers sometimes demand the actual product to be delivered soon
after seeing an early prototype.
 Customers may not be satisfied or interested in the product after seeing
the initial prototype.
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 Prototype model should be used when the
desired system needs to have a lot of
interaction with the end users.
 Typically, online systems, web interfaces
have a very high amount of interaction
with end users, are best suited for
Prototype model. It might take a while for
When to use a system to be built that allows ease of use
prototyping and needs minimal training for the end
user.
 Prototyping ensures that the end users
constantly work with the system and
provide a feedback which is incorporated
in the prototype to result in a useable
system. They are excellent for designing
good human computer interface systems.
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SPIRAL MODEL
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Process is represented as a spiral rather
than as a sequence of activities with
backtracking.

Each loop in the spiral represents a

phase in the process .
Boehm’s
No fixed phases such as specification or spiral model
design loops in the spiral are chosen
depending on what is required.

Risks are explicitly assessed and

resolved throughout the process.
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 Objective setting
 Specific objectives for the phase are identified.
 Risk assessment and reduction
 Risks are assessed and activities put in place to
Spiral model reduce the key risks.
Development and validation
sectors


 A development model for the system is chosen

which can be any of the generic models.
 Planning
 The project is reviewed and the next phase of
the spiral is planned.
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Boehm’s
spiral model
of the
software
process
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 Spiral model has been very influential in

helping people think about iteration in
software processes and introducing the risk
driven approach to development.
Spiral model  In practice, however, the model is rarely
usage used:
 Can be a costly model to use
 Risk analysis requires highly specific expertise
 Doesn’t work well for smaller projects.
  When costs and risk evaluation is
important
 For medium to high risk projects
 Long term project commitment unwise
because of potential changes to
When to use economic priorities
Spiral Model  Users are unsure of their needs
 Requirements are complex
 New product line
 Significant changes are expected
(research and exploration)

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Benefits Drawbacks
Allows the use prototyping Management is more
complex
Client can see the system
early on
Should not be used for
small projects
Benefits &
Changes in requirements This method requires a drawbacks:
can be made easily lot of documentation
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Rapid Application
Development (RAD)
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 Rapid application development (RAD) is a

linear sequential S/W development
process model that emphasizes on
extremely short development cycle.
 high speed RAD is achieved by using a
Benefits of component based project construction
approach.
RAD  If requirements are well understood and
project scope is constrained (i.e. goals/
are fixed / freezed )
 the RAD enables a development team to
create a “fully functional system” within very
short time (e.g. 60 - 90 days).
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RAD
MODEL
  1. Business Modeling (Business
Processes)
 What information is generated?
 Who generates it?
 Where does the information go?
 Who processes it?
2. Data Modeling
RAD Phases 

 The information flow is refined into a

set of data objects that are needed
to support the business
 Characteristics
 of each object are identified and
 Relationships between these objects
are defined

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  3. Process modeling
 The data object defined in the data
modeling phase are transformed to
achieve the information flow
necessary to implement a business
function (i e transformation of input
object to output object defines flow
of information in a process/function)
 Such processing descriptions are
RAD Phases (2) created for adding, modifying,
deleting, or retrieving a data object
 4. Application Generation
 RAD process works to re use existing
components (when possible)
 Create re useable components
(when necessary) In all cases
automated tools are used to
facilitate construction of S/W
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  5. Testing and Turnover
New components must be tested and all
interfaces must be fully exercised.

 Drawbacks
For large scalable projects RAD
RAD Phases (3) 
requires sufficient human resources
to create right number of RAD teams
 RAD requires developers customers
committed to complete a system in
a short time frame, other wise if
commitment is lacking from either
side, RAD projects will fail

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