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Advanced Probability and Statistics:
Applications to Physics and
Engineering
Advanced Probability and Statistics:
Applications to Physics and
Engineering

Harish Parthasarathy
Professor
Electronics & Communication Engineering
Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology (NSIT)
New Delhi, Delhi-110078
First published 2023
by CRC Press
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
and by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2023 Harish Parthasarathy and Manakin Press
CRC Press is an imprint of Informa UK Limited
The right of Harish Parthasarathy to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in
accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any
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and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Print edition not for sale in South Asia (India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan or
Bhutan).
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
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ISBN: 9781032384375 (hbk)
ISBN: 9781032384382 (pbk)
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Typeset in Arial, MinionPro, Symbol, CalisMTBol, TimesNewRoman, RupeeForadian,
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by Manakin Press, Delhi
 Preface
This book is primarily a book on advanced probability and statistics that
could be useful for undergraduate and postgraduate students of physics, engi-
neering and applied mathematics who desire to learn about the applications of
classical and quantum probability to problems of classical physics, signal pro-
cessing and quantum physics and quantum field theory. The prerequisites for
reading this book are basic measure theoretic probability, linear algebra, differ-
ential equations, stochastic differential equations, group representation theory
and quantum mechanics. The book deals with classical and quantum probabili-
ties including a decent discussion of Brownian motion, Poisson process and their
quantum non-commutative analogues. The basic results of measure theoretic
integration which are important in constructing the expectation of random vari-
ables are discussed. The Kolmogorov consistency theorem for the existence of
stochastic processes having given consistent finite dimensional probability dis-
tributions is also outlined. For doing quantum probability in Boson Fock space,
we require the construction of the tensor product between Hilbert spaces. This
construction based on the GNS principle, Schur’s theorem of positive definite
matrices and Kolmogorov’s consistency theorem has been outlined. The laws of
large numbers for sums of independent random variables are introduced here and
we state the fundamental inequalities and properties of Martingales originally
due to J.L.Doob culminating finally in the proof of the Martingale convergence
theorem based on the downcrossing/upcrossing inequalities. Doob’s Martingale
inequality can be used to give an easy proof of the strong law of large numbers
and we mention it here. Doob’s optional stopping theorem for submartingales is
proved and applied to calculating the distribution of the hitting times of Brow-
nian motion. We give another proof of this distribution based on the reflection
principle of Desire’ Andre which once again rests on the strong Markov property
of Brownian motion.

Applications of the theory of stochastic processes especially higher order

statistics and spectra to the characterizing of diseased brain EEG and speech
signals has also been discussed in here. Several different models of diseased
brain data have been proposed here as an application of higher order spectra.
These include (a) modeling the brain signals as the output of Volterra filters to
Gaussian signals and estimating the Volterra coefficients from the higher order
spectra of the output measured EEG, speech and MRI data, and (b) construct-
ing dynamical models for the speech, EEG and MRI signal field data as solutions
to partial differential equations in space-time with Gaussian noise input and then
estimating the parameters of these pde’s from noisy sparse measurements using
the extended Kalman filter. We propose this method as a training process for
determining the diseased brain parameters for each disease and then given fresh
data, we estimate the same parameters using the EKF and match it to those
obtained during the training process.
Here, we assume that the reader is familiar with non-linear filtering theory
based on the Kushner-Kallianpur approach. Of course, the derivation of this
filter requires knowledge of conditional expectations and Ito’s formula for Brow-
v
nian motion, and of course also basic facts about Markov processes. We also
in this section discuss group theoretic signal and image processing and apply
these methods also to EEG data analysis in the sense that when the dynam-
ics of the spatio-temporal dynamics of the EEG field data is invariant under a
Lie group of transformations acting on the spatial variables and also when the
noise has G-invariant statistics, how the dynamics can be simplified by taking
group theoretic Fourier transforms based on the irreducible representations of
the group. With a simplified dynamics, the parameters of the dynamical system
are more easily estimated. We also discuss statistical aspects of 3-dimensional
robot links with random torque using the techniques of Lie-group, Lie algebra
theory applied to the 3-dimensional rotation group. The theory of quantum
neural networks has also been outlined here. It involves estimating dynami-
cally the probability density of a random vector using the modulus square of a
wave function following Schrodinger’s equation and driven by a potential that
represents the difference between the true pde and the Schrodinger pdf. This
is a natural approach since the Schrodinger equation by virtue of its unitary
evolution has the property of naturally generating a whole family of probability
densities indexed by time, no matter what the driving potential is as long as it is
real, so that the Hamiltonian is a self-adjoint operator. In this section, we also
introduce the reader to how probabilities of events are computed in quantum
scattering theory based on the wave operators associated with two Hamiltoni-
ans. The ultimate aim of scattering theory is to get to know the asymptotic
probability distribution of scattered particles when the particles are free projec-
tiles which get to interact with a scattering centre. One important probabilistic
feature of scattering theory is to determine the relative average time spent by
the scattered particle within a Borel set in position space and we discuss this
problem here. We also discuss in this section some work carried out by the
author’s doctoral student along with the author on quantum image processing.
This involves encoding classical image fields into quantum states and designing
quantum unitary processors that will denoise this state and then decoding the
processed state back into a classical image field. The other parts of the work
carried out by the the author’s doctoral student along with the author deals with
estimating time varying classical parameters of a quantum electromagnetic field
(ie a quantum image field) by allowing the quantum field to interact with an
electron of an atom and measuring the transition probabilities of the electron
between two of its stationary states as a function of time. The EKF has been
applied to this problem to obtain real time estimates of the classical parameters
that are governed by a classical stochastic differential equation. Applications of
V.P.Belavkin’s theory of quantum filtering with non-demolition measurements
taken on the Hudson-Parthasarathy noisy Schrodinger equation are discussed.
These include problems like obtaining real time estimates of the cavity electro-
magnetic field, the cavity gravitational field etc when the bath surrounding the
cavity has a noisy electromagnetic field. This problem can be viewed as an exer-
cise in non-commutative probability theory. We also present some work dealing
with linearization of the Einstein-Maxwell field equations since this work fits
into the framework of linear partial differential equations driven by stochastic

vi
fields and hence is a problem in advanced stochastic field theory. We also discuss
some applications of advanced probability to general electromagnetics and ele-
mentary quantum mechanics like what is the statistics of the far field radiation
pattern produced by a random current source and how when this random elec-
tromagnetic field is incident upon an atom modeled by the Schrodinger or Dirac
equation, the stochastically averaged transition probability can be computed in
terms of the classical current correlations. Many other problems in statistical
signal processing like prediction and filtering of stationary time series, Kalman,
Extended Kalman and Unscented Kalman filters, the MUSIC and ESPRIT al-
gorithms for estimating the directions of random signal emitting sources, the
recursive least squares lattice algorithm for order and time recursive prediction
and filtering are discussed. We have also included some material on superstring
theory since it is closely connected with the theory of operators in Boson and
Fermion Fock spaces which is now an integral component of non-commutative
probability theory. Some aspects of supersymmetry have also been discussed
in this book with the hope that supersymmetric quantum systems can be used
to design quantum gates of very large size. Various aspects and applications
of large deviation theory have also been included in this book as it forms an
integral part of modern probability theory which is used to calculate the prob-
ability of rare events like the probability of a stochastic dynamical system with
weak noise exiting the stability zone. The computation of such probabilities
enables us to design controllers that will minimize this deviation probability.
The chapter on applied differential equations focuses on problems in robotics
and other engineering or physics problems wherein stochastic processes and field
inevitably enter into the description of the dynamical system. The chapter on
circuit theory and device physics has also been included since it tells us how to
obtain the governing equations for diodes and transistors from the band struc-
ture of semiconductors. When a circuit is built using such elements and thermal
noise is present in the resistances, then the noise gets distorted and even am-
plified by the nonlinearity of the device and the mathematical description of
such circuits can be calculated by perturbatively solving associated nonlinear
stochastic differential equations. Quantum scattering theory has also been in-
cluded since it tells us how quantum effects make the probability distribution of
scattered particles different from that obtained using classical scattering theory.
Thus, quantum scattering theory is an integral part of quantum probability.
Many discussions on the Boltzmann kinetic transport equation in a plasma are
included in this book since the Boltzmann distribution function at each time
t can be viewed as an evolving probability density function of a particle in
phase space. In fact, the Bolzmann equation is so fundamental that it can be
used to derive not only more precise forms of the fluid dynamical equations but
also describe the motion of conducting fluids in the presence of electromagnetic
fields. Any book on applications of advanced probability theory must therefore
necessarily include a discussion of the Boltzmann equation. It can be used to
derive the Fokker-Planck equation for diffusion processes after making approx-
imations and by including the nonlinear collision terms, it can also be used to
prove the H-theorem ie the second law of thermodynamics. The section on the

vii
Atiyah-Singer index theorem has been included because it forms an integral part
of calculating anomalies in quantum field theory which is in turn a branch of
non-commutative probability theory.

At this juncture, it must be mentioned that this book in the course of dis-
cussing applied probability and statistics, also surveys some of the research
work carried out by eminent scientists in the field of pure and applied prob-
ability, quantum probability, quantum scattering theory, group representation
theory and general relativity. In some cases, we also indicate the train of thought
processes by which these eminent scientists arrived at their fundamental con-
tributions. To start with, we review the axiomatic foundations of probability
theory due to A.N.Kolmogorov and how the Indian school of probabilists and
statisticians used this theory effectively to study a host of applied probability
and statistics problems like parameter estimation, convergence of a sequence
of probability distributions, martingale characterization of diffusions enabling
one to extend the scope of the Ito stochastic differential equations to situations
when the drift and diffusion coefficients do not satisfy Lipschitz conditions, gen-
eralization of the large deviation principle and apply it to problems involving
random environment, interacting particle systems etc. We then discuss the work
of R.L.Hudson along with K.R.Parthasarathy on developing a coherent theory
of quantum noise and apply it to study in a rigorous mathematical way the
Schrodinger equation with quantum noise. This gives us a better understand-
ing of open quantum systems, ie systems in which the system gets coupled to
a bath with the joint system-bath universe following a unitary evolution and
after carrying a out a partial trace of the environment, how one ends up with
the standard Gorini-Kossokowski-Sudarshan-Lindblad (GKSL) equation for the
system state alone–this is a non-unitary evolution. The name of George Su-
darshan stands out here as not only one of the creators of open quantum sys-
tem theory but also as the physicist involved in developing the non-orthogonal
resolution of the identity operator in Boson Fock space which enables one to
effectively solve the GKSL equation. We then discuss the work of K.B.Sinha
along with W.O.Amrein in quantum scattering theory especially in the devel-
opment of the time delay principle which computes the average time spent by
the scattered particle in a scattering state relative to the time spent by it in the
free state. We discuss the heavy contributions of the Indian school of general
relativitsts like the Nobel laureate Subramaniyam Chandraskehar on developing
perturbative tools for solving the Einstein-Maxwell equations in a fluid (post-
Newtonian hydrodynamics) and also the work of Abhay Ashtekar and Ashoke
Sen on canonical quantization of the gravitational field and superstring the-
ory. We discuss the the train of thought that led the famous Indian probabilist
S.R.S.Varadhan to develop along with Daniel W.Stroock the martingale charac-
terization of diffusions and along with M.D.Donsker to develop the variational
formulation of the large deviation principle which plays a fundamental role in
assessing the role of weak noise on a system to cause it to exit a stability zone
by computing the probability of this rare event. We then discuss the work of
the legendary Inidian mathematician Harish-Chandra on group representation

viii
theory especially his creation of the discrete series of representations for groups
having both non-compact and compact Cartan subgroups to finally obtain the
Plancherel formula for such semisimple Lie groups. We discuss the impact of
Harish-Chandra’s work on modern group theoretical image processing, for ex-
ample in estimating the element of the Lorentz group that transforms a given
image field into a moving and rotating image field. We then discuss the con-
tributions of the famous Indian probabilist Gopinath Kallianpur to developing
non-linear filtering theory in its modern form along with the work of some other
probabilists like Kushner and Striebel. Kallianpur’s theory of nonlinear filter-
ing is the most general one as we know today since it is applicable to situations
when the process and measurement noises are correlated. Kallianpur’s mar-
tingale approach to this problem has in fact directly led to the development
of the quantum filter of V.P.Belavkin as a non-commutative generalization of
the classical version. Nonlinear filtering theory has been applied in its linearized
approximate form-the Extended Kalman filter to problems in robotics and EEG-
MRI analysis of medical data. It is applicable in fact to all problems where the
system dynamics is described by a noisy differential or difference equation and
one desires to estimate both the state and parameters of this dynamical system
on a real time basis using partial noisy measurement data. We conclude this
work with brief discussions of some of the contributions of the Indian school
of robotics and quantum signal processing to image denoising, robot control
via teleoperation and to artificial intelligence/machine learning algorithms for
estimating the nature of brain diseases from slurred speech data. This review
also includes the work of K.R.Parthasarathy on the noiseless and noisy Shan-
non coding theorems in information theory especially to problems involving the
transmission of information in the form of stationary ergodic processes through
finite memory channels and the computation the Shannon capacity for such
problems. It also includes the pedagogical work of K.R.Parthasarathy in sim-
plfying the proof of Andreas Winter and A.S.Holevo on computing the capacity
of iid classical-quantum channels wherein classical alphabets are encoded into
quantum states and decoding positive operator valued measures are used in the
decoding process. We also include here the work of K.R.Parthasarathy on realiz-
ing via a quantum circuit, the recovery operators in the Knill-Laflamme theorem
for recovering the input quantum state after it has been transmitted through a
noisy quantum channel described in the form of Choi-Krauss-Stinespring opera-
tors. Some generalizations of the single qubit error detection algorithm of Peter
Shor based on group theory due to K.R.Parthasarathy are also discussed here.
This book also contains some of the recent work of the Indian school of robotics
involving modeling the motion of rigid 3-D links in a robot using Lie group-Lie
algebra theory and differential equations on such Lie groups. After setting up
these kinematic differential equation in the Lie algebra domain of SO(3)⊗n , we
include weak noise terms coming from the torque and develop a large deviation
principle for computing the approximate probability of exit of the robot from
the stability zone. We include feedback terms to this robot system and optimize
this feedback controller so that the probability of stability zone exit computed
using the large deviation rate function is as small as possible.

ix
 Table of Contents

1. Classical and Quantum Probability 1–38

2. Quantum Scattering Theory 39–56

3. Linear Algebra and Operator Theory 57–98

4. Group Theory in Statistical Signal Processing and Control 99–134

5. Statistical Aspects of EEG Signal Analysis and

Image Processing in the Medical Sciences 135–168

6. Electromagnetism and Quantum Field Theory 169–208

7. Some Aspects of Superstring Theory 209–244

8. Superconductivity 245–248

9. Some Aspects of Large Deviation Theory 249–272

10 Conributions of Some Indian Scientists 273–296

 $SSOLHG'L൵HUHQWLDO(TXDWLRQV ±

12. Quantum Signal Processing 333–394

13. Aspects of Circuit Theory and Device Physics 395–398

14. Index on the Contents and Notes 399–414

 Chapter 1

Classical and Quantum

Probability

[1] Classical probability spaces:

This is a triple (Ω, F, P ) where Ω is the sample space of all elementary out-
comes of the experiment, F is the σ-field of events. The elements of F are
subsets of Ω and the class F is closed under countable unions and comple-
mentation and therefore by De-Morgan’s rules, it is also closed under countble
intersections. P : F → [0, 1] is a countably additive map satisfying P (Ω) = 1
and therefore P (φ) = 0. The surprising thing is that non-empty events can
have zero probability, ie, such events can also occur. An example of this is
the uniform probability distribution over [0, 1] any event here that has non-zero
probability is an uncountable union of single point events and each single point
event has zero probability.

[2] Quantum probability spaces: This is a triple (H, P, ρ) where H is a

Hilbert space, P is a lattice of orthogonal projections in H and ρ is a state, ie
a positive definite operator in H having unit trace.
If (Ω, F, P ) is a classical probability space, then we can define H = L2 (Ω, F, μ),
P as consisting of orthogonal projections having the form of χF , F ∈ F, ie, mul-
tiplication by the indicator of F and ρ to be such that

< f, ρg >= f¯(ω)g(ω)dP (ω), f, g ∈ H
Ω

Here μ is a measure on (Ω, F) such that P is absolutely continuous w.r.t μ. In

order that ρ have unit trace, we require that if en , n = 1, 2, ... is an onb in H,

then
|en (ω)|2 dP (ω) = 1
n Ω


We note that
T r(ρ.χF ) = |en (ω)|2 dP (ω)
n F

1
2 Advanced Probability and Statistics: Applications to Physics and Engineering


In particular, if we choose the en s such that n |en (ω)|2 = 1 for P a.e.ω, then
we get
T r(ρ.χF ) = P (F ), F ∈ F
(H, F, P ) is a quantum probability space.

[3] Random variables in classical and quantum probability. In classical prob-

ability, we are given a probability space (Ω, F, P ) and a random variable is then
simply a measurable mapping X from the sample space to the real line or more
generally from the sample space to another measurable space (G, B). The prob-
ability distribution of the random variable is then P X −1 . This probability
distribution is then a probability measure on (G, B). If the range space of the
random variable is (Rn , B(Rn )), then by using the countable additivity prop-
erty of the probability measure and elementary properties of the inverse image
mapping of sets, it is easily seen that the probability distribution function of X
defined as

FX (x1 , ..., xn ) = P X −1 ((−∞, x1 ] × ... × (−∞, xn ])

is right continuous in each variable, non-decreasing in each variable, and and

converges as xn → ∞ to FY (x1 , ..., xn−1 ) and to zero as xn → −∞ where Y is
the r.v. obtained by deleting the last component of X. In quantum probability,
we are given a quantum probability space (H, P (H), ρ) and a random variable,
also called an observable is a self-adjoint operator X in H. If the spectral
representation of X is known, X can be regarded as a real valued random
variable in the state ρ with probability distribution T r(ρEX (x)).
[4] Expectation, variance, moments of r.v’s in classical and quantum proba-
bility.
If X is an observable with spectral measure EX (.) and Y is another observ-
able with spectral measure EY (.), then if X and Y commute, so do their spectral
measures and then the joint probability distribution of (X,Y) in any state ρ can
be defined as
F (dλ, dμ) = T r(ρ.EX (dλ)EY (dμ)
It is easily seen that F is a probability measure, ie, non-negative and whose
double integral is unity. If however X and Y do not commute then their spectral
measures will not commute and F as defined above is in general not even real
valued. This fact can be attributed to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle
which states that two non-commuting observables cannot be simultaneously
measured in any state. In fact, we can easily prove using the Cauchy-Schwarz
inequality that for any two observables X,Y and a state ρ, we have that

T r(ρ.X 2 ).T r(ρ.Y 2 ) ≥ |T r(ρ.X.Y )|2 ≥ (Im(T r(ρXY )))2

= (1/4|T r(ρ.[X, Y ]))|2

which means that if the observables do not commute then the product of their
variances in a given state will in general be positive meaning that if we try
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