RESEARCH DESIGN

This is a systematic plan to study a scientific problem. It is the blue print that is followed to
complete a study. The design of a study defines the study types ( descriptive, experinmental etc)
or subtypes ( descriptive longitudinal, true experinmental etc). There is different research design
use in nursing. This is because the early nurse researchers got their training in social science field
such as psychology etc before the doctorate level training becomes available in departments of
nursing. This makes social scientific designs more popular in nursing literature. The design can
be a) Experimental research design b)Non experimental research design

Experimental research design

This involves carrying out an experiment and must have two groups namely the control group
and the experimental group. Experimental group in medical literature is called randomized
controlled trials or randomized clinical trial (RCT). It is divided into two namely

o True experimental research design

o Quasi experimental research design

A true experimental design is characterizes by the following features

• Manipulation: The researcher does something to at least some participants that is, there is
some type of intervention. Experimenters manipulate the independent variable by administering
a treatment (intervention) to some people and withholding it from others, or administering a
different treatment.

• Control: The researcher introduces controls over the experimental situation, a control group
does not receive the intervention.

• Randomization: The researcher assigns participants to a control or experimental condition on

a random basis. Randomization is also called random assignment or random allocation involves
assigning participants to treatment conditions at random. Random means that everyone has an
equal chance of being assigned to any group. If people are placed in groups randomly, there is no
bias in the groups .

Basic Experimental Design

Post test only design or after only design. This involves collecting data on the dependent
variable only once after randomization and completion of the intervention.

Pre test post test design or a before after design. This involves data collection at multiple
times from two groups before and after intervention
Factorial design. It involves more than one experimental group. This involves collecting data
from two or more independent variables at the same time and check for main effect (effect
from the manipulation) and interaction effects ( effects from combining treatment).

Crossover design: A crossover design involves exposing the same people to more than one
condition. For example if a crossover design were used to compare the effects of auditory and
tactile stimulation on infant development, some infants would be randomly assigned to receive
auditory stimulation first, and others would be assigned to receive tactile stimulation first.
Problem of this is the issue of carry-over effects which occurs when people are exposed to two
different conditions or treatments. Example the issue of drug, a person that is given drug B
before drug A will not necessarily get the same result as to when drug A is given before drug B

Quasi Experimental Design

Quasi-experiments is called controlled trials without randomization in the medical literature.

It involves an intervention but they lack randomization, the signature of a true experiment. Some
quasi-experiments even lack a control group. The signature of a quasi-experimental design, then,
is an intervention in the absence of randomization.

Types of Quasi experimental Design

Nonequivalent Control Group Designs pretest and post test design

The nonequivalent control group pretest–posttest design involves two groups of participants,
from whom outcome data are collected before and after implementing an intervention. The
design is similar to pretest–posttest design except there is no randomization participants have
not been randomized to groups.

Time series design . Here there is no comparison group; information on the dependent variable is
collected over a period of time before and after treatment

Non Experimental Design

When researchers do not intervene by manipulating the independent variable. The study is non
experimental . In the medical literature, it is called observational study . Most nursing studies
are nonexperimental, mainly because most human characteristics (e.g., birth weight, ethnicity,
lactose intolerance) cannot be experimentally manipulated. Also, many variables that could
technically be manipulated cannot be manipulated ethically. For example, if we were studying
the effect of prenatal care on infant mortality, it would be unethical to provide such care to one
group of pregnant women while deliberately depriving a randomly assigned second group. We
would need to locate a naturally occurring group of pregnant women who had not received
prenatal care. Their birth outcomes could then be compared with those of women who had
received appropriate care. The problem, however, is that the two groups of women are likely to
differ in terms of many other characteristics, such as age, education, and income, any of which
individually or in combination could affect infant mortality, independent of prenatal care. This is
precisely why experimental designs are so strong in demonstrating cause-and effect
relationships. Many nonexperimental studies are designed to explore causal relationships when
experimental work is not possible.

Examples of non experimental design

A. Descriptive research

This observes and describes aspect of situation as it naturally occurs. It is the broadest group of
non experimental research. It involves the systematic collection, analysis and presentation of data
to give a clear picture of the present situation. There is no manipulation of independent variable.
The researcher only provides an account of the characteristics of particular individuals, groups or
situation, it studies relationships between variables, describes events, determines their
frequencies and present then the way they are. It could be used to generate hypothesis or develop
theories. Factors such as practices, knowledge, attitude, belief or opinion could be studied
through descriptive research

Two types of descriptive study come from the field of epidemiology are

1. Prevalence studies are done to estimate the prevalence rate of some condition (e.g., a disease
or a behavior, such as smoking) at a particular point in time. Prevalence studies rely on cross-
sectional designs in which data are obtained from the population at risk of the condition. The
researcher takes a “snapshot” of the population at risk to determine the extent to which the
condition of interest is present. The formula for a prevalence rate (PR) is:

K is the number of people for whom they researchers want to have the rate established (e.g., per
100 or per 1,000 population), the denominator is the size of the sample, and the numerator is the
number of cases with the condition, as identified in the study

2. Incidence studies estimate the frequency of developing new cases. Longitudinal designs are
needed to estimate incidence because the researcher must first establish who is at risk of
becoming a new case—that is,who is free of the condition at the outset. The formula for an
incidence rate (IR) is:
 B. Descriptive Correlational

Descriptive correlational research describes relationships among variables

C Retrospective Designs

Studies with a retrospective design are ones in which a phenomenon existing in the present is
linked to phenomena that occurred in the past. The signature of a retrospective study is that the
researcher begins with the dependent variable (the effect) and then examines whether it is
correlated with one or more previously occurring independent variables (potential causes). Most
early studies of the smoking–lung cancer link used a retrospective case-control design, in which
researchers began with a group of people who had lung cancer (cases) and another group who
did not (controls). The researchers then looked for differences between the two groups in
antecedent behaviors or conditions, such as smoking. In designing a case-control study,
researchers try to identify controls without the disease or condition who are as similar as possible
to the cases with regard to key confounding variables (e.g., age, gender). Researchers sometimes
use matching or other techniques to control for confounding variables

Retrospective studies are often cross-sectional with respect to data collection. Data are collected
once.

D. Prospective Nonexperimental Designs

It is called a cohort design in medical circles; researchers start with a presumed cause and then
go forward in time to the presumed effect. For example, we might want to test the hypothesis
that rubella during pregnancy (the independent variable) is related to birth defects (the dependent
variable). To test this hypothesis prospectively, we would begin with a sample of pregnant
women, including some who contracted rubella during pregnancy and others who did not. The
subsequent occurrence of congenital anomalies would be assessed for all participants, and we
would examine whether women with rubella were more likely than other women to bear infants
with birth defects. Prospective studies are more costly than retrospective studies, in part because
prospective studies require at least two rounds of data collection. A substantial follow-up period
may be needed before the outcome of interest occurs, as is the case in prospective studies of
cigarette smoking and lung cancer.

E. Natural Experiments
 Researchers are sometimes able to study the outcomes of a “natural experiment” in which a
group exposed to a phenomenon with potential health consequences is compared with a
nonexposed group. Natural experiments are nonexperimental because the researcher does not
intervene. For example, the psychological well-being of people living in a community struck
with a natural disaster (e.g., a volcanic eruption) could be compared with the well-being of
people living in a similar but unaffected community.

f. Survey research.

This involves the collection and analysis of responses of large numbers of people ( the whole
population ) or sample who represent the population. It is designed to elicit their opinion, attitude
about the specific topic.

g. Historical research

This involves systematic collection of data on things that happened in the past. Historical
research examines events in the past using sources like written record, letters, memo etc it
requires no manipulation or control variable. It helps to increase understanding of the present
phenomemon. The sources of data in historical research design are of two types namely primary
and secondary. Primary source is one obtained from individual who was an eye witness or actual
involved in the event while secondary sources are those who reconstructed the information from
the primary sources. Example Development of Nursing education in Nigeria 1884-1004

h. Correlational research

To correlate means to establish mutual relationship between two or more variables. Correlational
studies are designed to find statistical connections between variables so that some factors can be
used to predict others. Variable may be positively correlated ie increase in one variable are
accompanied by increase in the other or negatively correlated ie increase in one variable are
accompanied by decrease in the other

i Case study

This is an in depth study of a unit ( small sample) which is the case, here the researcher studies
the case in details example information on both the present and the past bio data, family history,
social history, health history, previous medical history etc are collected which will enable the
researcher to study the case effectively. Case study is an in depth investigation of an individual.
Group or institution in order to understand the variables that are important to the study. It is an
intensive probing investigation example “ wound care in hospital; a case study of FMC Owerri.
Data are collected from multiple sources like observation, questionnaire etc to elicit these
information

J Developmental research
This involves the study of gradual changes of a phenomenon from one stage to another over a
period of time. There are two types namely longitudinal developmental studies and cross
sectional studies. Longitudinal developmental studies involve taking only one person or unit and
studying it from one stage to another over a period of time. Example Piaget studied the
intellectual development of his grand child for a period of 21 years so as to establish the various
intellectual developmental stages in man within the age range.

Cross sectional developmental studies involve taking sample from various stages and studing
them at once bearing in mind the variations

K. Path Analytic Studies. Researchers interested in testing theories of causation based on

nonexperimental data are increasingly using a technique known as path analysis(or similar
techniques). Using sophisticated statistical procedures, researchers test the theories to make an
inference

Quantitative Research

This is formal structured objective process which deals with numerical data. It is known as hard
science because it has vigorous control in term of sample selection, data collection and analysis
and data are analyzed statistically. It is used to test theory. It works on deductive reasoning and
its findings are generalizable. Example include descriptive research, experimental and quasi
experimental

Qualitative research

Is a formal unstructured and subjective process which deals with narrative information. It is
known as soft science. Data analysis is through interpretation of individual responses. Findings
are unique to the study and cannot be generalized beyond the target population. Example
grounded theory, ethnography , phenomenological research

Differentiate between qualitative and quantitative designs

Criteria Qualitative Quantitative

Purpose To discover facts To text hypothesis , look at
cause effect relationship
Group studied Smaller and not randomly Larger and randomly selected
selected
Variables Study the whole Specific variables studied
Types of data collected Words Number
Forms of data collected Unstructured data collection Structure data collection
method example group method example questionnaire
discussion
Type of data analysis No statistical analysis, there is Statistical analysis is used to
 narrative description and analyzed numerical data
interpretation
Researcher objective Explore and discover Describe, explain and predict.

Focus Wide angle lens, examine the Narrow angle lens, examine
depth of the topic the specific topic
Logical reasoning Inductive, may generate Deductive, test theory
theory
design Flexible, emerges during the Developed prior to the study
study
scope Broad Narrow
approach subjective objective
Element of analysis Words Numerical data
Nature holistic particularistic
hypothesis generated Tested
Finding unique, cannot be generalized it can be generalized