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CLOSELY WATCHED FILMS
Closely Watched Films
An Introduction to the Art
of Narrative Film Technique
Marilyn Fabe
Fabe, Marilyn.
Closely watched films : an introduction to the art of
narrative film technique / Marilyn Fabe.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
isbn 0-520-23862-1 (cloth : alk. paper)
isbn 0-520-23891-5 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Motion pictures—Evaluation. 2. Motion
pictures—Aesthetics. 3. Motion pictures.
I. Title.
pn1995.9.e9f17 2004
791.43'015—dc22 2004000202
13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
List of Illustrations / ix
Acknowledgments / xiii
Introduction / xv
Notes / 243
Glossary / 259
Bibliography / 267
Index / 273
Illustrations
ix
x ILLUSTRATIONS
35. Bruno has taken his father’s hand, The Bicycle Thief 118
36. Antoine’s face framed by a segment of the imprisoning
grid pattern, The 400 Blows 128
37. Children’s faces: the magical time when they still express
what they feel, The 400 Blows 129
38. The letters f-i-n, superimposed over Antoine’s frozen
face, The 400 Blows 132
39. Mrs. Whittaker (Violet Farebrother), Easy Virtue 138
40. Mrs. Danvers (Judith Anderson), Rebecca 138
41. Madame Sebastian (Leopoldine Konstantin), Notorious 139
42. Mrs. Bates (Tony Perkins), Psycho 139
43. Mrs. Brenner (Jessica Tandy), The Birds 139
44. Merging of the shadows of Sebastian (Claude Rains)
and his mother, Notorious 143
45. A deep-focus shot of Alicia (Ingrid Bergman), Notorious 146
46. Alicia in a tight medium-close shot, the background out
of focus, Notorious 146
47. The shadow on the door indicates Sebastian’s menace,
Notorious 147
48. Sebastian’s shadow looms larger, Notorious 148
49. A subjective shot of the key, Notorious 149
50. Guido enclosed by the high walls of the schoolyard,
8 1/2 161
51. Guido encircled by the arm of a looming statue
of a church dignitary, 8 1/2 161
52. Everything about Saraghina is exposed to the elements,
8 1/2 162
53. The long black robes of the priests, incongruous against
the landscape of the beach, 8 1/2 162
54. Guido’s mother sits by the portrait of a little boy
wearing a halo, 8 1/2 163
55. The statue of the virgin merges with the image
of Saraghina’s blockhouse, 8 1/2 164
56. A more angelic than devilish Saraghina, 8 1/2 165
57. The camera frames four priests sitting in a row, 8 1/2 168
58. The priests in a new location, the far corner
of the room, 8 1/2 168
59. Final shot of the sequence, the priests positioned
as before, 8 1/2 169
xii ILLUSTRATIONS
First I would like to thank Cass Canfield, Jr., who suggested that I turn
my lectures from Film 50, an introductory film course for University of
California students and the Berkeley community, into a book. He pro-
vided valuable feedback, encouragement, and editorial suggestions. I am
also indebted to Edith Kramer, director of the University of California,
Berkeley’s Pacific Film Archive, and the staff of the Pacific Film Archive
Theater for providing the perfect place to teach Film 50. While digital
video makes teaching films more convenient, there is nothing like show-
ing an archival 35mm print perfectly projected on a big screen to inspire
audiences to appreciate film art. My efforts to expand lecture notes into
a book benefited from the help of members of my Berkeley writing group,
which over the years has included Elizabeth Abel, Janet Adelman, Gayle
Greene, Jodi Halpern, Claire Kahane, Mardi Louisell, Wendy Martin,
and Madelon Sprengnether. I also received valuable feedback from the
members of the Townsend Center Working Group in Psychobiography,
including Jacquelynn Baas, Ramsay Breslin, Liz Cara, Alan Elms, Can-
dace Falk, Lorraine Kahn, Mac Runyan, Reit Samuels, Adrian Walker,
and Stephen Walrod.
Madelon Sprengnether was the book’s muse. Her kind enthusiasm and
brilliant editorial advice kept up my morale and gave me the determi-
nation to keep writing. Brenda Webster was a major impetus in con-
xiii
xiv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
How do films work? How do they tell a story? How do they move us
and make us think? This book argues that shot-by-shot analysis is the
best way for film students to learn about and appreciate the filmmaker’s
art. Having taught film studies for many years, I have learned that view-
ers trained in close analysis of single film sequences are better able to see
and appreciate the rich visual and aural complexity of the film medium.
Close analysis unlocks the secrets of how film images, combined with
sound, can have such a profound effect on our minds and emotions.
Through detailed examinations of passages from classic and near-clas-
sic films, I hope to provide nonspecialist readers with the analytic tools
and background in film theory that will help them see more in every film
they watch. As their knowledge of the vast possibilities of the film medium
thus increases, so will their enthusiasm for the films they already love.
The book focuses on exemplary works of fourteen film directors whose
careers, put together, span the history of the narrative film, beginning
with D. W. Griffith and ending with Mike Figgis. Rather than discussing
many films in a general way, I discuss a few films in detail, singling out
particular sequences from each that either best illustrate what is special
or significant about its director’s style or help to illuminate a significant
theoretical or aesthetic concern. I begin with a study of directors who
worked before synchronized sound came to the screen, focusing in chap-
xv
xvi INTRODUCTION
1
2 THE BEGINNINGS OF FILM NARRATIVE
drama and emotional power of his fiction films in three ways. First, he
paid close attention to elements of the filmic mise-en-scène. Second, he
photographed his scenes in more imaginative ways. Third, he added com-
plexity to his narratives through editing.3
ing the images, whether they are in long shot or close-up, shot from a
high or low angle, shot with a moving or static camera, or even how they
are composed within the frame, can add powerful dramatic effects to the
filmed action.
Griffith was especially sensitive to the impact of the close-up, a shot
in which the head and shoulders of a character fill the screen. As noted
above, in most film dramas prior to Griffith, the camera stayed back,
showing all of the action in long or full shots. By moving the camera
closer to a character at crucial moments of emotional significance in the
narrative, Griffith made it possible for spectators to better observe and
hence to relate empathetically to the expressions on the character’s face,
thereby increasing their emotional involvement in the story. Griffith did
not limit his close-ups to the human face. His insertion of close-up de-
tails of a significant prop such as a gun or a flower also enabled him to
direct the spectator’s attention to objects that were crucial to the dra-
matic unfolding of the plot. In most narrative films before Griffith view-
ers had to pick out the significant details of the action from a mass of
superfluous and contingent visual information. Griffith performs this job
for us. By deciding when to insert a close-up of an actor’s face or a de-
tail of the film’s mise-en-scène, he determines what viewers focus their
attention on, as well as the most dramatic moment for a plot revelation.
In addition, close-ups of objects in Griffith’s films are often imbued with
subtle symbolic resonance.
Griffith also understood the dramatic power of pulling the camera back,
far away from the action. Extreme long shots, in which a small human
figure is dominated by the landscape, can make characters seem vulner-
able to larger forces beyond their control. Also, by incorporating spec-
tacular panoramic shots of landscapes into his films—waterfalls, snow-
storms, massive battle scenes—he enhanced his narratives with a grandeur
and scope that far exceeded what was possible in even the most extrav-
agantly produced stage dramas. Further, as we shall see in the analysis
of a sequence from The Birth of a Nation, these panoramic landscape
shots, like Griffith’s close-ups of objects, often functioned symbolically
in the narrative.
Griffith did not “invent” the use of the close-up in film, nor was he
the first to use extreme long shots. A close-up had appeared in one of
Edison’s very first films, Fred Ott’s Sneeze, made in 1888, and the pio-
neering films of the Lumière brothers in 1895 included panoramic scenes
taken in extreme long shot. Not until Griffith came along, however, were
shots taken from various distances from the camera systematically com-
D. W. GRIFFITH’S THE BIRTH OF A NATION 5
EDITING
Once Griffith had taken the first crucial steps of breaking a scene down
into numerous shots (instead of photographing the action in one lengthy,
static long shot), he was faced with the problem of reconnecting the shots
smoothly, so that what was in reality a discontinuous sequence of sepa-
rate shots would appear to the viewer to be a smooth and continuous
action taking place in a unified time and space. He wanted spectators to
maintain the illusion of watching a seamless flow of reality and not be-
come distracted or disoriented by jerky edits that called attention to the
film medium. In order to accomplish this effect, Griffith systematically
developed the editing device known as the “match” or the match cut.5
The match cut, which has become a standard convention in the cin-
ema, refers to any element in conjoined shots that smooths the transi-
tion from one shot to the next, so that viewers do not notice the cut or
lose their orientation in relation to the screen space. In a movement match,
for example, if a gesture of a character raising a hand to her face is be-
gun in a long shot, the gesture must be smoothly continued in the sub-
sequent close-up shot so that the viewer focuses on the gesture. The seem-
ingly continuous gesture thus masks the fact that there has been a cut.
In a direction match, the direction in which a person or object is mov-
ing is kept consistent across the splice. That is, in a chase sequence, a
character moving across the screen from left to right must continue in
the same direction from shot to shot. If the character exits screen right
at the end of a shot, he or she must enter from screen left in the subse-
quent shot. If the character were instead to exit frame right and enter the
next shot from frame right, it would appear that she had turned around
and reversed direction.
6 THE BEGINNINGS OF FILM NARRATIVE
followed by a reaction shot, a shot in which the camera captures the char-
acter’s reaction to what was seen in the POV shot. The combination of a
POV shot followed by a reaction shot is especially powerful because it
gives us two ways of identifying with on-screen characters. First we iden-
tify with them because we are seeing through their eyes, and then we iden-
tify with the reactions we see on their faces. Especially powerful effects
can be created when the reaction of the character is unexpected. (For ex-
ample, a character might see something horrifying, and smile.)7
The associative editing technique for which Griffith is best known is
the cross-cut. A cross-cut is an alternation (a cutting back and forth) from
one line of action to another, giving the impression that two or more spa-
tially separated but plot-related events are occurring simultaneously. Al-
though crosscutting appears in rudimentary form in a few early narra-
tive films, the standard narrative practice when Griffith began directing
in 1908 was to follow the actions of one character or a set of characters
in an uninterrupted linear chronology. Griffith soon realized that more
narrative excitement could be generated if he systematically intercut or
alternated between two or more narrative threads happening simulta-
neously, thus thickening his plots by giving the spectator greater knowl-
edge than the characters have. At the climax of The Lonely Villa (1909),
for example, Griffith intercut three spatially separate simultaneous ac-
tions: (1) Shots of a mother and her three little girls alone in their iso-
lated country house because the father has been called away on business;
(2) shots of three male intruders trying to break into the house; and (3)
shots of the father, who, after telephoning home, frantically rushes to
the rescue in a borrowed gypsy wagon. Here the crosscutting of the three
actions creates tremendous excitement, pace, and suspense, generating
the question: Will the father get home before the intruders get to his wife
and children? So much tension is built up by the crosscutting that, when
the father arrives in the nick of time, the relief is enormous, even to au-
diences today. This crosscutting device became famous as the Griffith last-
minute rescue, a convention that made failed last-minute rescues (the hero
does not make it in time to prevent disaster) all the more devastating.
Through constant experimentation with this technique, Griffith honed
it into an increasingly powerful and complex narrative tool. Griffith
became so excited by the potentials of crosscutting that in Intolerance
(1916), the film he made after The Birth of a Nation, he told four sepa-
rate stories, each taking place in different historical periods. At the end
of the film, for a grand finale, he cut back and forth between the climaxes
of the various tales.
8 THE BEGINNINGS OF FILM NARRATIVE
Figure 1. The long shot of Flora functions dramatically to increase our sense of her
smallness and vulnerability. The dark shadow at the base of the frame functions as
foreshadowing. (The Birth of a Nation, 1915, Film Preservation Associates.)
Flora is lit, the light coming from behind her, creates a halo effect around
her head. This technique, referred to as “angel lighting,” adds to our sense
of her innocence. A dark shadow cutting a diagonal wedge at the base
of the frame into which she is headed functions as an ominous (and lit-
eral) foreshadowing of the doom she will meet as the result of her entry
into the forest. (See figure 1.)
At this point Griffith might well have continued to follow Flora on her
journey to the spring. But at the moment she enters the shadowy portion
of the image and before she exits the frame, he interrupts her action with
a cross-cut to Gus (shot 2) standing by a fence and seeming to peer after
her. The cross-cut to Gus sets up dramatic irony, giving the viewer infor-
mation that the protagonist, Flora, does not have—that Gus is following
her into the woods. Thus, in shot 3, when Griffith cuts back to Flora head-
ing deeper into the forest, blissfully unaware of the threat that we know
has materialized, he increases our anxiety for her well-being. A cross-cut
back to Gus (shot 4), however, dispels some of the anxiety. Gus seems to
have had second thoughts about pursuing Flora and turns back.
D. W. GRIFFITH’S THE BIRTH OF A NATION 11
The first two shots of Gus in this sequence provide another example
of Griffith’s sensitivity to the symbolic potential of a film’s setting or mise-
en-scène. It is significant that in these two shots Gus shares the frame
equally with a slatted fence which juts out diagonally on the left side of
the screen. (See figure 2.) In a film obsessed with the threat of breached
boundaries between blacks and whites, the image of a fence appearing
large in the frame as a black man is about to pursue a young white woman
into a forest is anything but accidental. Gus is shown to hesitate at the
fence, as if the fence represents a kind of societal superego. He hesitates,
however, very reluctantly looking back in the direction of Flora even as
he seems to turn away from his pursuit. As a result, the question is raised
in the viewer’s mind: Will Gus’s internal restraints be sufficient to keep
him from pursuing Flora in a society where restraints have recently been
weakened? Griffith has already established that societal restraints have
been undermined by the reckless policies of Reconstruction, “the vicious
doctrines spread by the carpetbaggers” mentioned earlier in a title, and
by a law that has recently passed guaranteeing blacks “Equal Marriage.”
Here Griffith gives us a powerful dose of his ideology (that Reconstruc-
tionist policies are reckless and dangerous) through an image of Gus’s
reluctance to stop at the fence—without the need for a title.
In shot 5 Griffith cuts back to Flora, who has arrived at her destina-
tion: the spring where she is to fetch water for her mother. Here we see
Flora in a full shot bending down to fill her bucket. Shot 6 is a close-up
of the bucket being filled with spring water. Griffith then cuts back to a
full shot of Flora as she finishes her task and wipes her wet hands on her
dress. Griffith could easily have conveyed the same narrative informa-
tion in one shot, but he chooses to present it in three separate shots joined
together through match cuts on Flora’s movements.
It is interesting to speculate why Griffith took the trouble to insert the
detail of Flora’s bucket being filled with water rather than presenting the
action in one long shot. For part of the answer we need only consider
the techniques of nineteenth-century novelists such as Charles Dickens,
whose literary techniques Griffith often drew upon for inspiration in the
construction of his films.10 Dickens is renowned for the care he took to
render his fictional world in minute detail, in order to enhance the reader’s
impression that it was real. By focusing on the detail of the bucket be-
ing filled, Griffith too adds verisimilitude to his fictional world. The close-
up of the bucket also gives the action dramatic emphasis. Fetching water
at the spring was Flora’s goal, her reason for the journey through the
forest. By giving emphasis to this action through the close-up, Griffith
12 THE BEGINNINGS OF FILM NARRATIVE
Figure 2. In a film obsessed with the threat of boundary breakdowns between blacks and
whites, the image of a fence appearing large in the frame as a black man is about to pursue
a young white woman is anything but accidental. (The Birth of a Nation, 1915, Film
Preservation Associates.)
allows the viewer to breathe a sigh of relief. Flora’s task is done. Noth-
ing has happened to her. She can now return home.
But there is, I think, one more effect of Griffith’s close-up here. The
close shot of the bucket dipping into the water emphasizes the symbolic
resonance of the spring. Springs, with their pure water, are often asso-
ciated with virgins, but in myths and fairy tales, springs are also associ-
ated with the violation of virgins. Ingmar Bergman’s film Virgin Spring,
for example, is based on a legend in which a young girl on her way to
church is accosted deep in a forest by roaming vagabonds who rape and
murder her. At the very spot in the forest where her violation occurred,
a spring miraculously appears. Because of the archetypal associations
of springs with both virgins and the violation of virgins, Griffith’s close-
up heightens the sexual foreboding and anxiety that already infuse this
sequence. Adding to this effect is the female imagery suggested by the
close-up—a circular orifice in the midst of heavy foliage.
In shot 8 Griffith crosscuts from Flora back to Gus. Gus now appears
D. W. GRIFFITH’S THE BIRTH OF A NATION 13
in the same forest location where Flora appeared in shot one. Here Griffith
indicates through the location match that Gus has not turned back. He
is following Flora. Because we have seen Gus turning back from his pur-
suit of Flora in shot 4, this shot comes as a shock, illustrating how good
Griffith was at manipulating audience emotions through the careful or-
dering or editing of his shots. He is playing with our expectations: first
teasing us to think the danger to Flora has diminished, only to surprise
us now with the information that Gus has moved beyond the fence and
is still on her trail.
Our knowledge that Gus is in pursuit makes the next series of shots
(shots 11 through 15) all the more alarming. Flora, rather than going
straight home after filling the bucket with water, becomes distracted by
a squirrel in a tree. Griffith conveys the depth of her distraction by cut-
ting from shots of Flora gazing screen right to POV shots of a close-up
of a squirrel from Flora’s perspective. The squirrel appears surrounded
by an iris, or circular matte, also signifying that we are seeing it through
Flora’s eyes. Griffith then cuts back to reaction shots of Flora from a re-
verse angle, capturing her fascination and delight in observing the for-
est creature.
Aside from making us worry that Flora is so involved with the squir-
rel that she will be taken unaware by Gus, Griffith’s cuts between the
squirrel and reaction shots of Flora have other narrative functions. Flora’s
interest in the squirrel provides a vivid visual means of characterization.
Small animals like squirrels convey a sense of harmlessness, helplessness,
and innocence, and these characteristics spill over onto Flora by associ-
ation. If Griffith had depicted her as fascinated instead by the sight of a
spider eating a fly or two moles mating, the effect would be quite differ-
ent. Finally, and most crucially, cutting back and forth between Flora and
the squirrel artificially prolongs the moment before the dreaded outcome
we all fear, when Gus reveals his presence to Flora. Literary critics refer
to this technique of delaying a denouement as “retardation.” Here, the
13 shots this sequence devotes to Flora interacting with the squirrel en-
able the tension to build, in the cinematic equivalent of foreplay.
The rhythmic alternation between shots of Flora and the squirrel is
suddenly interrupted by shot 16, a cross-cut to Gus emerging, as if from
out of a cave, from the murky depths of the forest. Tangled, dead branches
fill the top third of the frame. Gus stares intently, crouched and preda-
tory, creating the impression that he is more a wild beast than a man.
This shot comes as a shock not only because of the sudden appearance
of Gus, but also because the film’s mise-en-scène has totally changed. Up
14 THE BEGINNINGS OF FILM NARRATIVE
Figure 3. Griffith was intuitively aware that as an image gets bigger on the screen, the
intensity of its emotional effect grows proportionately. (The Birth of a Nation, 1915, Film
Preservation Associates.)
to this point we have been in a sunny forest filled with leafy foliage. But
now, Gus appears surrounded by darkness with an eerily illuminated tan-
gle of dead white branches framing his head, a skeletal configuration as-
sociating Gus with death. While Gus’s facial expression is neutral (he’s
not foaming at the mouth or gnashing his teeth like a stage villain), the
black-and-white color symbolism and nightmarish setting in which he is
placed tell us all we need to know about his evil nature.
Shot 17, a POV shot, reveals the not-unexpected object of Gus’s in-
tent stare—Flora, who is rocking back and forth on a log, still fascinated
with the squirrel. The camera has moved even closer to her now, fram-
ing her in medium shot, conveying the impression that Gus is moving in
on her. Like the squirrel, she too appears in an iris, but now we know
that the watcher is not a benign child gazing at a cute forest creature,
but an evil stalker staring at a cute little girl. In a foreshadowing of her
doom, the screen has darkened within the circular iris that surrounds
her. Shot 18 is a POV shot of the squirrel from Flora’s perspective, fol-
lowed by shot 19, a reaction shot of Flora who continues to rock on the
D. W. GRIFFITH’S THE BIRTH OF A NATION 15
Figure 4. Because we know we are looking at Flora through Gus’s eyes, her actions
become sexualized. (The Birth of a Nation, 1915, Film Preservation Associates.)
log and look up at the squirrel in innocent delight. Shot 20 is the most
ominous in the sequence. The camera has moved up to a big close up of
Gus. Just his face fills the left half of the frame; on the right are the dead
tangled skeletal branches. (See figure 3.) Griffith was intuitively aware
that as an image gets bigger on the screen, the intensity of its emotional
effect grows proportionately. When a character is sympathetic, a big close-
up can increase our feeling of intimacy and deepen our identification with
the character. When a character is unsympathetic, the big close-up has
the opposite effect, making the character seem threatening and intrusive
because it is “in our face.”
The intense effect of the big close-up in shot 20 heightens the effect
of shot 21. Here Flora appears as in shot 19, from Gus’s point of view
in a medium shot. She is laughing and blowing kisses at the squirrel. (See
figure 4.) If we were to see this shot in almost any other context it would
connote innocence and joy. But because we know we are looking at Flora
from Gus’s perspective her actions take on new significance. She not only
seems terribly vulnerable because we know she is being watched by some-
one with evil designs, but her actions of blowing kisses and rocking on
16 THE BEGINNINGS OF FILM NARRATIVE
the log become sexualized. (A student once suggested that Flora’s rock-
ing was masturbatory, a thought that would not have occurred to him,
I suspect, if this shot had appeared in another context.) Through the use
of the POV shot here, Griffith places the spectator inside Gus’s subjec-
tivity and invites us to participate in a perverse excitement.
This perverse excitement is all the more heightened, we might specu-
late, because, as Christian Metz observes in The Imaginary Signifier, his
influential psychoanalytic investigation into the pleasure and fascination
of cinema, we are all voyeurs when we go to the movies.11 Whether or
not the cinematic scenario involves explicitly sexual scenes, an impor-
tant part of the excitement and appeal of most narrative films is the il-
lusion that we are secret observers looking into private lives and worlds.
We can watch a film’s characters in their most private moments to our
heart’s content, while they remain unaware that they are being observed.
Griffith gives us the double pleasure of spying on Gus (who is hidden in
the dark like the film spectator), while Gus is spying on Flora. Perhaps
the moviegoer’s secret kinship with Gus’s voyeurism accounts for the ex-
tra appeal, the frisson, of these eye-line shots of Flora.
EISENSTEIN’S BACKGROUND
In 1925, ten years after The Birth of a Nation established the potency
of Griffith’s narrative techniques, the Soviet filmmaker Sergei Eisenstein’s
The Battleship Potemkin dazzled film audiences around the world. “This
is not a picture—” the film critic of Germany’s leading newspaper, the
Berliner Tageblatt, wrote, “it is a reality. Eisenstein has created the most
powerful and artistic film in the whole world.” 1 The film is still acclaimed
today: it is included in almost every introductory course in film history
and aesthetics. Interestingly, the German film critic praises Potemkin for
being profoundly real (“This is not a picture—it is a reality”) and at the
same time for being powerfully artistic. The film, which recounts a his-
torical incident in the city of Odessa in 1905, primarily featured the
people of Odessa (as opposed to professional actors) and was shot on
location. Both of these factors partially account for the film’s reality ef-
fect. But, paradoxically, it is the artfulness of Eisenstein’s techniques, in
particular the editing of his shots, that gives the filmed action such a felt
sense of reality. Eisenstein, who was a theorist as well as a filmmaker,
explored entirely new principles of film art which took the form well be-
yond the conventions of realism that Griffith had pioneered. The result,
ironically, is that despite Potemkin’s artistic stylization of reality, never
before had a film been experienced as so “real.”
19
20 THE ART OF MONTAGE
for a short time, encouraged its artists to create original and vital new
art forms in the service of the new society.
Lenin pronounced the cinema the most influential of all the arts. Film,
he believed, should do more than entertain: the powerful picture language
of the new medium could instruct the illiterate masses in the history and
theory of socialism. Moving pictures, moreover, could be used to mold
and reinforce the values of the people so that the Bolshevik revolution
would prosper. On August 27, 1919, Lenin nationalized the film indus-
try, and established state film workshops to undertake a systematic, the-
oretical study of film art. The goal of these workshops was to determine
the best methods for shaping the film medium into a powerful tool of in-
struction and propaganda.
As they began to study film systematically in these workshops, Soviet
film pioneers were deeply impressed by the emotional effects generated
by D. W. Griffith’s narrative techniques—his use of the close-up, his in-
novative camera movements, and the way he changed camera angles.
They were especially excited by his crosscutting and editing rhythms. The
Soviet pioneers were influenced most by Griffith’s Intolerance (1919),
the next film Griffith made after The Birth of a Nation. “All that is best
in the Soviet film,” Eisenstein later acknowledged, “has its origins in In-
tolerance.” 4 On the foundation of Griffith’s achievement, Soviet film-
makers sought to establish general principles about film art which they
could apply to their project of creating powerful political propaganda
that would entertain, inspire, and instruct the masses.
The most influential of the state-run film schools was Lev Kuleshov’s
workshop. Kuleshov conducted experiments which seemed to prove that
film art did not begin when the cameraman photographed an action (en-
framed the image) but when the individual shots took on new meanings
as they were arranged in editing. A famous Kuleshov experiment, for ex-
ample, purported to prove that it was the editing or arrangement of shots
that creates meaning in the mind of the spectator, above and beyond the
meaning of the content of each individual shot. In the experiment, a close-
up of the prerevolutionary cinema matinee idol Mosjukhin was juxta-
posed in turn with shots of a plate of soup on the table, a coffin con-
taining a dead woman, and a little girl playing with a toy bear. According
to an account by the Soviet director V. I. Pudovkin, who attended
Kuleshov’s workshop, “When we showed the three combinations to an
audience which had not been let into the secret the result was terrific.
The public raved about the acting of the artist. They pointed out the heavy
22 THE ART OF MONTAGE
pensiveness of his mood over the forgotten soup, were touched and moved
by the deep sorrow with which he looked on the dead woman, and ad-
mired the light, happy smile with which he surveyed the girl at play. But
we knew that in all three cases the face was exactly the same.”5
Kuleshov concluded from this and similar experiments that “an ac-
tor’s play reaches the spectator just as the editor requires it to, because
the spectator himself completes the connected shots and sees in it what
has been suggested to him by the montage.”6 Kuleshov’s experiments and
the example of Griffith’s powerful shot juxtapositions suggested to the
Soviet filmmakers and theoreticians that editing was the foundation of
film art. They termed the process of creative, artful arrangement of shots
“montage,” in order to distinguish it from the simple process of editing
or splicing shots together simply to obtain narrative continuity. While
few filmmakers today would accept the proposition that editing counts
for everything in the art of making films, Soviet filmmakers were inspired
by their fascination with the effects achieved through editing to create
works that opened up new channels of expression for film art.
Like Pudovkin, Eisenstein attended Kuleshov’s workshop, where he
studied for three months in 1923, but originally he applied the princi-
ples of montage not to film but to the stage. Eisenstein’s revolutionary
ideas for the theater inspired many of his innovations in film art. The
Proletkult theater where Eisenstein worked after the end of the Civil War
was dedicated to promoting culture among the workers and encourag-
ing them to seek artistic self-expression. But, as I noted above, the rev-
olution had drastically changed Russian society’s attitude toward art. The
basic precept of the Proletkult theater was that bourgeois culture must
be forced to give way to a new, purely proletarian culture. The purpose
of art under the new revolutionary order was not to provide intellectual
or aesthetic pleasure to the privileged few, but to educate the workers
and reinforce their dedication to the values of socialism. The function of
art was also seen as an energizer, a force that would pump up the people
with the psychic wherewithal necessary for the hard work of building a
socialist society.
In this context, the traditional, realistic theater (the theater of Chekhov
and Ibsen) that created the illusion that the spectator was looking in on
a slice of real life with the fourth wall removed, would not do. Realistic
theater, it was believed, encouraged viewers to become too vicariously
involved with the fictional action, a process that, it was thought, siphoned
off their revolutionary energies. Eisenstein, who had been brought up on
(and loved) the traditional theater, quickly realized that it was inappro-
SERGEI EISENSTEIN’S THE BATTLESHIP POTEMKIN 23
priate for the new society. “What diabolical mechanism lies hidden in
this art that I serve!” he wrote. “It’s not merely a cheat and a swindle.
It’s poison—a dreadful, terrifying poison. For, if you can get your en-
joyment through fantasy, who is going to make the effort any more to
find in real experiences what can be had without moving from the the-
atre seat?”7
Heavily influenced by the famed avant-garde theater director Vsevolod
Meyerhold, Eisenstein enthusiastically developed original theatrical
methods for conveying revolutionary themes. He sought a means to in-
tensely affect the audience in a different way from that by which audi-
ences are affected in the traditional theater, that is, not through the fan-
tasy immersion in a realistic theatrical world where meaning and emotion
are communicated primarily through the word. He thought theater
should be based on what he called a “montage of attractions,” which
would take theater back to its primitive roots in spectacle or circus en-
tertainment. Eisenstein envisioned a political theater in which spectators
could be pleasured and thrilled by wondrous circus attractions and spec-
tacles, while at the same time they were instructed in correct political
views and values through carefully constructed political satires.
Eisenstein’s theatrical productions were performed not on a traditional
stage but in an area resembling a circus arena, with most of the players
wearing masks. While the actors enacted political satires, acrobats per-
formed. At one point in Eisenstein’s production of Ostrovsky’s Even a
Wise Man Stumbles a player exited on a tightrope above the audience’s
head. Caps exploded under the audience’s seats. As chaotic as it all
seemed, there was a method to the madness. The caps were to keep every-
one awake and alert. The acrobatics and circus performances both en-
tertained the audience and mirrored and reinforced the emotions and
ideas conveyed by the actors. As Eisenstein writes, “A gesture expands
into gymnastics, rage [of an actor] is expressed through a somersault [per-
formed by an acrobat], exaltation through a salto-mortale. . . . The gro-
tesque of this style permitted leaps from one type of expression to another,
as well as unexpected intertwinings of the two expressions.”8
Eisenstein abandoned the traditional form of the nineteenth-century
realistic theater for a theater based on attractions—spectacles and sights—
in which the audience’s attention is pulled back and forth between two
or more simultaneous scenes, so that the meaning of one spills over into
and reinforces the meaning of the other. As we shall see, Eisenstein would
exploit more fully the methods of his montage of attractions when he
moved beyond theater to film. The influence of his theatrical experiments
24 THE ART OF MONTAGE
is evident in his most famous and successful film, The Battleship Potem-
kin, and especially in the style of the famous sequence in which the cit-
izens of Odessa are massacred on the Odessa Steps.
The Battleship Potemkin, Eisenstein’s second film, was commissioned
by the government of the Soviet Union to commemorate the twentieth
anniversary of the uprisings in Russia in 1905, a year of general strikes
and demonstrations against the government of Czar Nicholas II. The gov-
ernment retaliated by killing hundreds of demonstrators, but the revo-
lutionary spirit was never completely quelled. The 1905 unrest, includ-
ing the takeover of the armored cruiser Potemkin in the port of Odessa
by revolutionary soldiers, was understood by Bolsheviks as a precursor
to their 1917 revolution.
Originally Eisenstein had planned a monumental eight-part work to
capture all aspects of the uprisings of 1905, from the Russo-Japanese
War to the armed uprisings in Moscow. In the original script, only forty-
two shots had been planned to cover the Potemkin mutiny off the shore
of Odessa. But when Eisenstein saw the dazzling white flight of marble
steps leading down to Odessa’s harbor, he saw a spectacular stage upon
which to film a massacre of unarmed citizens who supported the mutiny,
even though this event never actually occurred.9 Eisenstein reconceived
the entire film. It would now center on just one revolutionary episode
from the many uprisings of 1905—the mutiny of the sailors on the ar-
mored cruiser Potemkin. This one incident, culminating in the fictional
bloody massacre on the Odessa Steps, would epitomize the age-old op-
pression of the Russian people by the corrupt Czarist regime and dram-
atize the necessity of revolt.
the mother unwittingly becomes the cause of her infant’s demise. Her
body, as it falls, pushes the carriage with her infant off the landing send-
ing the helpless baby rolling down the huge flight of steps to certain death.
At the bottom of the steps murderous Cossacks on horseback armed with
swords cut off the escape routes of those who have survived to reach the
bottom. A woman wearing a pince-nez is shot in the right eye. Blood
spurts from underneath the shattered lens.
Images such as these are a far cry from Eisenstein’s comedic circus at-
tractions, but they serve the same function—to keep the spectator’s eyes
cemented to the screen. This mise-en-scène of horror leaves an even
stronger impression on our psyches and nervous systems because of the
way Eisenstein breaks down the action of the massacre into separate shots
and joins them together using innovative methods of montage.
Eisenstein, as we have seen, owed much to Griffith’s contributions to
the development of film as a narrative art, but he both developed
Griffith’s ideas further and broke Griffith’s rules to obtain startlingly new
cinematic effects. The Soviet filmmakers learned from their close study
of Griffith’s methods that if a film narrative was to be dramatically ef-
fective it had to free itself from the model of filming a dramatic action
from a fixed distance as if the camera were a spectator watching the ac-
tion in a theater. As I remarked earlier, by fragmenting the proscenium
space that early cinema had left whole, Griffith gave varying dramatic
emphasis to the action as the story demanded. In the sequence we ana-
lyzed from The Birth of a Nation, for example, Griffith breaks down the
action of Flora filling the bucket with spring water into three separate
shots, emphasizing, through the use of an inserted close-up, the action
of her dipping the bucket into the spring. The close-up gives the movie-
goer a privileged intimacy with the action in a manner that would be im-
possible for the spectator in the theater. In the same sequence, Griffith
reconnected the discontinuous shots by matching Flora’s movement from
shot to shot. Match cutting was important to Griffith because he wanted
the viewer to remain mentally immersed in the dramatic action, in a state
of mind that would be disrupted if the viewer were to become aware of
the medium through jerky or mismatched shots. Later theorists refer to
deliberately mismatched shots as “jump cuts.” By matching the move-
ments of Flora in long shot with her movements in close-up as she fills
the bucket, Griffith gives the film audience a closer, more dramatically
satisfying view of the action while still maintaining the illusion that we
are watching an unmediated reality in a coherent screen space. Griffith’s
goal was to offer the moviegoer an experience similar to that of watch-
SERGEI EISENSTEIN’S THE BATTLESHIP POTEMKIN 27
ing realistic theater, with the advantage of having an even better view of
the action.
Since, as we have seen, realistic theater was precisely the kind of the-
ater Eisenstein had renounced, he did not feel constrained by the rules
of editing that would maintain the viewer’s illusions of a coherent, seem-
ingly real space. In fact, he was adamantly opposed to films that slav-
ishly tried to maintain the illusionism of realistic theater by smoothly
joining shots. Eisenstein held that proper film continuity should not pro-
ceed smoothly, but through a series of shocks. Whenever possible, he tried
to create some kind of visual conflict or discontinuity between two shots,
with the goal of creating a jolt in the spectator’s psyche. The visual ex-
plosions on the screen were intended to create a continual source of stim-
ulants or shocks to keep the audience wide awake, a practice having the
same goal as his theater of attractions, or his ploy of exploding caps un-
der the audience’s seats. In his essay “The Cinematographic Principle and
the Ideogram,” Eisenstein compares the process of montage to the ex-
plosions of an internal combustion engine, in which each explosion drives
the machine forward. “[S]imilarly,” he writes, “the dynamics of mon-
tage serve as impulses driving forward the total film.” 10
Eisenstein’s belief that films should be constructed through a series
of shocks or conflicts, he claimed, was inspired by Hegel’s concept of
dialectics, on which Marx’s theories of revolution were based.11 The di-
alectical method, according to Hegel, is the principle behind change, a
universal law of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis, of contradiction and rec-
onciliation, that governed all matter and history. The Bolshevik revolu-
tion itself was seen as a clash of dialectical opposites, between the work-
ers and the property-owning establishment, resulting in the synthesis of
the new workers’ state. Eisenstein felt that a work of art would have more
power if it was structured according to these same dialectical principles,
involving a continual clash of opposites. Hence, he imbued his films with
conflict, starting at the most fundamental graphic level.
Eisenstein created optical conflicts by juxtaposing shots whose graphic
elements visually contrasted. For example, he followed an extreme long
shot of the citizens of Odessa running down the stairs (figure 5) with an
extreme close-up of the legs of a man on the verge of falling (figure 6).
Griffith deliberately avoided such a practice, cutting gradually from long
shot to medium shot to close-up, fearing that abrupt changes in the size
of the image would unsettle the viewer and call attention to the film’s
editing, disturbing the spectator’s immersion in the story. Eisenstein, who
was striving to move his audiences without letting them relax into illu-
28 THE ART OF MONTAGE
In the first place, noticing the frenzied condition of the people and
masses that are portrayed, let us go on to find what we are looking for in
structural and compositional indications.
Let us concentrate on the line of movement.
There is, before all else, a chaotic close-up rush of figures. And then, as
chaotic, a rush of figures in long-shot.
Then the chaos of movement changes to a design: the rhythmic descend-
ing feet of the soldiers.
Tempo increases. Rhythm accelerates.
In this acceleration of downward rushing movement there is a suddenly
upsetting opposite movement—upward: the break-neck movement of the
mass downward leaps over into a slowly solemn movement upward of the
mother’s lone figure, carrying her dead son.
Mass. Break-neck speed. Downward.
And then suddenly: A lone figure. Slow solemnity. Upward.
But—this is only for an instant. Once more we experience a returning
leap to the downward movement.
Rhythm accelerates. Tempo increases.12
The clashing movements and rhythms of the montage pieces keep the
spectator disturbed and off balance, just like a fleeing citizen of Odessa.
Eisenstein believed so strongly in the power of graphic conflict to add
visual excitement and drama to his films that he even composed his in-
dividual shots with intraframe contrasts in mind. That is, he created
conflicts not just between juxtaposed shots but within each individual
shot as well. A famous example of intraframe graphic conflict occurs
Figure 5. An extreme long shot of the people running down the Odessa Steps.
(The Battleship Potemkin, 1925, Sovexport Films.)
Figure 6. A big close-up of a pair of legs creates a visual conflict with the previous shot
(figure 5). (The Battleship Potemkin, 1925, Sovexport Films.)
Figure 7. The purposeful, organized movement of the soldiers. (The Battleship Potemkin,
1925, Sovexport Films.)
Figure 8. The chaotic, disorganized movements of the victims, in studied juxtaposition with
figure 7. (The Battleship Potemkin, 1925, Sovexport Films.)
SERGEI EISENSTEIN’S THE BATTLESHIP POTEMKIN 31
Figure 9. The line of a boy’s body creates a graphic conflict with the line of the steps.
(The Battleship Potemkin, 1925, Sovexport Films.)
when the sick child is shot by the soldiers. His fallen body is positioned
in such a way that it lies perpendicular to the line of the steps, the line of
the boy’s body creating a graphic conflict with the line of the steps. (See
figure 9.) While Griffith composed his shots primarily according to the
meaning each shot conveyed through the action within the shot, Eisen-
stein believed that emotional effects derived not just from the content of
the shot but also from the way the shot was graphically composed.
Eisenstein’s insistence on the importance of exposing the viewer to a
constant barrage of graphic conflicts and visual shocks, and his disdain
for the rules of smooth editing continuities established by Griffith, en-
abled him to achieve striking narrative effects. At the beginning of the
Odessa Steps massacre we see a young woman with dark bobbed hair
react to what we later realize is her first sight of the soldiers marching in
rank and firing on the crowd. Here, Eisenstein does not express the
woman’s shocked reaction simply by photographing her facial expres-
sion and gestures, as Griffith would have done. Rather he presents the
woman’s reaction in a series of four close-ups, jerkily edited together
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ses luttes, pour ses foudres contre Rome, pour les services rendus à
la vérité évangélique, dont il avait été le premier promoteur et le
premier flambeau dans la chrétienté.
Il invoquait souvent le nom et l'autorité de Luther ; il en citait les
exemples et les maximes.
« Que je le veuille ou non, je suis forcé de devenir plus savant de
jour en jour, » disait-il quelquefois avec l'ami de Mélanchthon.
Et encore :
« Jésus-Christ lui-même est né d'une femme, ce qui est un grand
éloge du mariage. »
« Voilà pourquoi, ajoutait Knox, je me suis marié une et même
deux fois. J'ai accompli le précepte de Dieu et de la nature. »
Il avait le don d'imposer et d'entraîner. Il était exemplaire,
persévérant, infatigable. Souvent à la merci, soit des paysans, soit
des seigneurs, son intrépidité était sans égale. Témoin de leurs
excès, il les rappelait sans cesse à la modération, à la pureté de la
morale. Non-seulement il échappait ainsi à tous les périls, mais il
s'emparait de la souveraineté spirituelle. Il était si dévoué, si
éloquent! et puis son prestige auprès du peuple, c'était sa sainteté ;
auprès des nobles, c'était son courage.
Quelque temps après son arrivée en Écosse, Marie, qui sentait
instinctivement la force du protestantisme religieux où s'allumait le
protestantisme politique, double foyer entretenu et soufflé par
l'Angleterre, Marie comprit de quelle importance il serait pour elle de
conquérir John Knox. « Il faut le gagner, disait-elle, ou bien il fera
couler plus de larmes qu'il n'y a de flots dans le Forth. »
On avait tant répété à la reine qu'elle était irrésistible! Elle voulut
essayer la séduction de son intelligence et de sa courtoisie sur le
réformateur.
Elle eut plusieurs entretiens familiers avec lui.
Les timides amis de Knox craignirent les enchantements de la
sirène papiste, et conseillèrent à leur guide vénéré d'éviter les
piéges, afin de n'être pas tenté. Mais, amoureux de controverse,
Knox ne craignait rien. D'ailleurs ses disciples ardents avaient
confiance aussi, et disaient de lui ce que les catholiques avaient dit
de saint Filan : « Satan ne peut rien sur l'homme dont la main
gauche jette une flamme qui éclaire la main droite, lorsqu'il copie la
nuit les saintes Écritures. »
Knox, sûr de lui-même, alla donc au palais où l'attendait la reine.
Il se présenta fièrement, sa Bible sous le bras, avec la morgue
presbytérienne, vêtu de l'habit brun introduit par Calvin et du
manteau drapé sur l'épaule, à la mode de Genève.
Introduit sans retard près de Marie, il la salua silencieusement.
Elle le pria de s'asseoir et lui dit : « Je souhaiterais, monsieur Knox,
que ma parole agît sur vous comme votre parole agit sur l'Écosse.
Nous serions amis, et ce serait le bien du royaume.
— Madame, répondit Knox, sourd à cette flatterie de princesse, la
parole est plus stérile que le rocher, quand elle est mondaine ; mais
quand elle est inspirée par Dieu, les fleurs, les épis et les vertus en
sortent. »
Animé par la discussion et par le sentiment de sa supériorité,
Knox fut âpre avec la reine qui était charmante avec lui, et qui
espérait, à force de grâces, trouver le défaut de la cuirasse du
sectaire ou du citoyen. Knox resta invulnérable. Au milieu de ses
respects officiels il fut franc, ironique, intraitable. Il écrasa le
catholicisme ; il attenta même à la royauté de Marie.
« Madame, lui dit-il, j'ai parcouru l'Allemagne, et je suis un peu
pour le droit saxon. Lui seul est juste. Il réserve le sceptre à
l'homme : il se contente de donner à la femme une place au foyer et
une quenouille. »
Knox était comme Luther. Le diable qu'il redoutait le plus, ce
n'était pas le diable de la ruse et de la volupté : c'était le diable de la
théologie. Il traita donc Marie Stuart avec cette superbe qui lui était
naturelle, et que centuplait la dictature sacerdotale qu'il exerçait sur
l'opinion publique de son pays. Républicain et protestant, il haïssait
deux fois Marie. Il lui reprocha parures, festins, bals, spectacles. Il
exprima même des soupçons cruels, et prononça des mots
outrageants.
Marie s'humilia, désespérant de gagner autrement le puissant
fanatique.
Un jour, elle dit à Knox qu'elle rendait justice à ses intentions et à
ses lumières, et qu'elle le priait de l'avertir toutes les fois qu'il la
surprendrait en faute. Knox répondit avec emphase qu'il était trop
absorbé par les intérêts de la communauté chrétienne pour
s'occuper de détails particuliers, et que le soin des peuples lui
semblait plus obligatoire et plus digne de lui que la direction des
consciences privées, fussent-elles des consciences royales. Marie fut
si honteuse de sa condescendance, et si blessée de l'insolence de
Knox, qu'elle ne put retenir ses larmes.
Un autre jour, elle lui dit :
« Vous ne mettez pas un sceau assez fort à vos lèvres ; vous
prêchez, vous armez nos sujets contre nous, quoique le Christ
recommande l'obéissance aux rois. Votre livre contre le
gouvernement des femmes est dangereux et incendiaire.
— Qu'importe, madame, s'il est vrai? Vous avez nommé mon
maître. Il s'appelle Christ. Lorsqu'il est venu sur terre, s'il n'eût pas
été loisible aux hommes de rejeter l'ancienne erreur, où en serait
l'Évangile? Les apôtres l'embrassèrent avec amour.
— Ils ne se révoltaient pas.
— En ne se soumettant pas, ils se révoltaient. Résister par
conscience est le premier des devoirs.
— Croyez-vous donc, reprit Marie avec emportement, que les
peuples aient droit contre les rois? »
A cela, Knox répondit longuement, puis s'animant :
« Il est écrit, madame, que les rois sont des pères. S'ils font le
bien, s'ils ouvrent les yeux à la lumière, les sujets doivent les bénir ;
sinon, s'ils sont insensés, tyranniques, aveugles, s'ils se complaisent
dans la nuit, dans le mensonge, dans la volupté, les sujets peuvent
leur arracher l'épée, la couronne, la liberté. Il vaut mieux obéir à
Dieu qu'aux rois.
— Prétendriez-vous, reprit vivement la reine, que nos sujets
fussent vos sujets? Leur conseilleriez-vous de m'abandonner pour
vous suivre?
— Non, madame, si vous écoutez la voix des saints. Car il est
encore écrit : « Les rois sont les pasteurs, les reines sont les mères,
les nourrices de l'Église. »
— De quelle Église?
— De la seule bonne, répliqua Knox.
— La seule bonne, celle que je défendrai, dont je serai en effet
mère et nourrice, je vous le déclare en face, c'est l'Église de Rome. »
A ces mots, Knox devint pâle de colère ; ses yeux brillèrent
comme deux astres, et il s'écria d'une voix tonnante : « Malheur à
vous, si vous faites de votre cause la cause du pape ; si la cause de
l'Église déchue et souillée, la cause de la grande prostituée, de la
prostituée romaine, devient votre cause!… »
Il se sépara d'elle d'un pas lent, d'un air grave, après ces
menaçantes paroles. Il alla rejoindre ses disciples, ses amis, toute
l'élite du parti protestant, dont les cœurs l'attendaient, dont les
oreilles étaient avides d'entendre le récit de ses conférences
décisives avec la reine.
« La Guisarde parodie la France, leur dit Knox : farces,
prodigalités, banquets, sonnets, déguisements ; le paganisme
méridional nous envahit. Pour suffire à ces abominations, les
bourgeois sont rançonnés, le trésor des villes est mis au pillage.
L'idolâtrie romaine et les vices de France vont réduire l'Écosse à la
besace. Les étrangers que cette femme nous amène ne courent-ils
pas la nuit dans la bonne ville d'Édimbourg ivres et perdus de
débauche?
« Il n'y a rien à espérer de cette Moabite, ajouta-t-il ; autant
vaudrait pour l'Écosse bâtir sur des nuages, sur un abîme, sur un
volcan. L'esprit de vertige et d'orgueil, l'esprit du papisme, l'esprit de
ses damnés oncles les Guise, est en elle. »
Knox demeura donc inflexible. Un chevalier aurait été vaincu sous
sa cuirasse de fer ; lui, le prêtre, le docteur, ne le fut pas sous son
vêtement de bure. Il garda l'implacabilité de son fanatisme. Ni la
jeunesse, ni la beauté, ni les talents de Marie, ne le touchèrent. Il ne
voulait d'elle que sa conversion ou son abdication. Telle était la
terrible alternative où il s'efforçait déjà de précipiter Marie et
l'Écosse.
L'âpre pédanterie de Knox célébrée dans les presbytères et dans
la vieille ville, fut blâmée à la cour. Les seigneurs protestants eux-
mêmes s'en plaignirent. « Vous connaissez, écrivait Maitland à Cecil,
la véhémence de tempérament de M. Knox. Elle ne se laisse pas
modérer. Je souhaiterais qu'il parlât d'une façon plus douce et plus
aimable avec la reine, qui déploie vis-à-vis de lui une sagesse bien
au-dessus de son âge. »
Marie en effet, quoique impatientée et surprise de son
impuissance, parvint à se contenir. Elle échoua avec un dépit
intérieur contre le théologien, mais elle ne le méprisa point. Elle
resta épouvantée de son audace et de sa force : « Sa voix, disait-
elle, est le rugissement du lion. Quel dommage qu'un tel homme soit
contre notre bien et celui de notre royaume! Mais il hait le pape, les
rois, et encore plus les reines. » Après chaque entretien avec Knox,
on remarqua toujours que Marie était triste. Ce n'était pas doute sur
le catholicisme, c'était peut-être un peu déplaisir de coquetterie
royale, qui n'aime pas à se donner en vain la peine de discuter ;
mais c'était surtout terreur secrète des maux que ce demi-dieu de la
multitude pouvait déchaîner sur l'Écosse.
LIVRE IV.
Marie était arrivée ennemie sur une terre ennemie. Elle s'était
avancée avec les élégances et les mœurs du Midi dans cette Écosse
grossière, sauvage, passionnée pour la liberté et pour la réforme.
C'était la reine catholique, la reine bien-aimée du pape, de Philippe
II et des Guise, l'héroïne du pouvoir absolu, l'adversaire
irréconciliable du calvinisme. Il y avait sourdement aussi en elle je ne
sais quelle âme de feu trempée dans cet idéal dépravé d'art, de
volupté et de sang qui est le fond de la cour des Valois.
É
Élisabeth, éclairée par sa haine, comprit tout cela. Elle se promit
d'attendre avec patience, et de saisir avec habileté les avantages qui
lui donneraient le caractère et la situation de sa rivale.
Elle accueillit hypocritement le premier acte politique de Marie,
qui avait été de lui dépêcher Maitland, afin de lui témoigner son
désir de la paix. Marie, par son ambassadeur, s'avouait heureuse de
renoncer à tous ses droits au trône d'Angleterre du vivant
d'Élisabeth ; elle se bornait à prier sa « bonne cousine » de la
reconnaître pour héritière légitime. Élisabeth, qui n'avait pas
d'enfants, aurait pu accéder aux demandes de la reine d'Écosse ;
mais la colère et l'envie dévoraient son cœur.
Marie s'acclimatait en soupirant à Holyrood. Elle traitait lord
James moins en souveraine qu'en sœur. Elle le créa d'abord comte
de Marr, puis comte de Murray, en joignant à ce titre une grande
partie des biens immenses qui dépendaient de ce comté
septentrional et qui appartenaient à la couronne. Malgré son
ambition, Murray méritait ces distinctions par la politique de
ménagements qu'il s'efforçait d'insinuer à Marie envers le parti
protestant et la reine d'Angleterre. Seulement il voulait être le chef
de cette politique dans laquelle il eût été si désirable que Marie sût
persévérer.
Le comte de Huntly fut offensé d'une munificence qui semblait
menaçante pour lui. Il était le seigneur le plus brave, le plus sage et
le plus puissant du nord de l'Écosse. Il possédait une portion des
domaines du comté de Murray. Il se résolut à ne rien céder de ses
droits à lord James. Murray, maître du gouvernement, frère et favori
de la reine, attira facilement Marie dans sa querelle particulière ; il
l'entraîna même à l'armée. Par sa présence elle fit de cette querelle
une affaire d'État. Elle se mit hardiment en campagne. L'air libre des
Highlands l'enivra de vie. Elle montait un beau cheval qu'elle maniait
et dirigeait aux applaudissements de ses nobles et de Murray. Elle
regrettait de n'être pas un chevalier, pour dormir la moitié de l'année
sur la dure, pour ceindre la cuirasse et l'épée. Elle respirait la guerre
et les aventures en fille des Stuarts et des Guise. Elle se montrait
contente de n'avoir plus pour dais royal que la voûte du ciel, et pour
Holyrood que sa tente de tartan bordée de soie et d'or.
Déjà, au siége du château d'Inverness, Randolph, le spirituel et
turbulent ambassadeur d'Élisabeth, raconte les témérités de Marie et
les transports qu'excitaient son ardeur, sa grâce. « Nous étions là
tout prêts à combattre, dit-il. O les beaux coups qui se seraient
portés devant une si belle reine et ses dames! Jamais je ne la vis
plus gaie, ni plus alerte ; nullement inquiète. Je ne croyais pas
qu'elle eût cette vigueur. »
Cette vigueur de jeunesse animait la reine dans l'expédition
conseillée par Murray, et un autre sentiment s'y mêlait : c'était une
admiration nouvelle, involontaire pour son royaume d'Écosse, dont
les mœurs étaient barbares, mais dont la nature agreste et sublime
ravissait son imagination de poëte.
Moins pittoresque et plus unie vers le sud, l'Écosse se plonge
jusqu'au golfe de Solway en vastes plaines égayées de collines
fertiles et de glens riants. Au centre et au nord, dans les contrées
que gravissait Marie, l'aspect change et devient grandiose. Les
Highlands succèdent aux Lowlands.
L'Écosse est alors une terre d'explosions et d'éclosions, brisée en
caps, en montagnes, déchirée en vallées, creusée en précipices, en
abîmes ; un sol par moments volcanique, où le bitume bouillonne
sous la glace, où l'herbe courte et pierreuse fume sous la neige ; où
les convulsions sourdes, où les bruits intérieurs et profonds des
éléments correspondent à l'âme désordonnée des siècles écoulés et
aux révolutions guerrières de l'histoire.
Là, les sommets stériles se revêtent de fauves bruyères, de
tristes et rares forêts de sapins. Là, les rivières torrentueuses se
précipitent dans les ravins et lavent en courant les tours des
châteaux, les ruines des vieux monastères, les cabanes couvertes de
chaume. Là, les vastes marécages où paissait et mugissait le bétail
noir au XVIe siècle, et où s'accroupissent aujourd'hui les troupeaux
de moutons gras, s'étendent au milieu des brouillards, sous les
nuages pluvieux. Là, les innombrables lacs aux baies romantiques et
aux anses vertes reflètent dans leurs eaux plombées, métalliques, un
ciel d'ardoise ou de cuivre avec les pics sombres des cimes
rocheuses. Là, une mer de tempêtes bat les rivages solitaires,
blanchit contre mille écueils, et les rouges falaises qui se découpent
en sauvages monuments au-dessus de l'écume des grèves,
retentissent éternellement des longs souffles et des rugissements
immenses de l'Océan.
Dans cette campagne, ou plutôt dans ce voyage, Marie s'étonnait
d'admirer son Écosse, où malgré l'ignorance des foules, les lettres
qu'elle aimait étaient cultivées, et où, dès le XIIe siècle, les
architectes nationaux avaient élevé les chapelles d'Holyrood et de
Dryburg, les abbayes de Melrose et de Roslin, ces chefs-d'œuvre
gothiques.
Du reste, l'illusion de Marie sur les hommes qui l'entouraient était
complète. Elle les croyait sincères et dévoués. Eux, voilaient avec
soin leurs secrètes pensées et leurs vices sous la flatterie. Les
grands seigneurs écossais du siècle de Marie, ceux qui
l'accompagnaient dans cette expédition, étaient, à peu d'exceptions
près, astucieux et cruels. Leur politique s'aidait au besoin de
l'assassinat. Ils avaient réduit le meurtre en principe et en habitude.
Ils marchaient environnés d'embûches et de terreurs. Marie ne
voyait en eux que des sujets fidèles, tandis qu'avec moins
d'imagination, et avec des nerfs plus fermes, des cœurs plus
inaccessibles à la crainte, ils ressemblaient aux Italiens des Borgia.
C'étaient des fourbes intrépides.
Murray profita de cet élan et de cette gaieté de sa sœur. Il
rencontra le comte de Huntly qui avait levé le drapeau de la révolte,
non contre la reine, disait-il, mais contre Murray, l'oppresseur de la
reine et de l'Écosse. Les deux armées s'entre-choquèrent à Corrichie,
le 28 octobre 1562. Le comte de Huntly perdit la bataille et la vie.
Murray fut impitoyable comme son ambition. Il jeta un plaid de
montagnard sur le corps de son ennemi, et le traîna devant une cour
de justice qui prononça contre ce cadavre glorieux la sentence
flétrissante des traîtres. Trois jours après la bataille, Murray fit
trancher la tête à sir John Gordon, fils du comte de Huntly ; et,
s'étant mis en possession de ses nouveaux domaines, il revint
triomphant à Édimbourg avec la reine, aux acclamations du peuple,
des nobles, et surtout des presbytériens, qui célébraient cette
victoire sur un seigneur catholique comme leur propre victoire.
Cependant les états s'étaient assemblés, et, malgré la présence
de Marie, ils avaient décrété l'érection des temples calvinistes, la
démolition des églises et des monastères.
Ils avaient adjoint aussi à la reine un conseil de douze seigneurs
pour l'assister dans les soins du gouvernement. Ils avaient montré
beaucoup de faveur au frère naturel de Marie, à Murray, qui,
s'emparant de plus en plus de la confiance de sa sœur, prit ainsi des
deux mains le timon des affaires, cher à la fois au peuple et à la
reine.
Murray n'était pas seulement un général éminent, c'était encore
un chef d'État incomparable. Il avait de grandes aptitudes, de
grandes vertus et de grands vices. Austère, sobre, dévoué à la
réforme, mais avide de popularité et d'influence, secret, dissimulé,
son ambition était immense, son audace invincible. Nul ne savait
aussi bien que lui discerner les hommes et les plier avec un artifice
profond, selon leur passion ou leur talent, à ses propres desseins ;
et, en même temps, nul ne voyait de près, ne découvrait de loin
avec une clairvoyance plus merveilleuse l'enchaînement des causes
et des effets ; nul, par des voies plus diverses, ne transformait les
événements en échelons de sa grandeur, n'amenait soit ses amis,
soit ses ennemis à lui servir d'instruments ; de telle sorte que rien ne
lui étant obstacle sans lui devenir moyen, il faisait tout concourir au
but qu'il s'était promis d'atteindre et que personne, excepté lui,
n'avait aperçu d'avance sous les trappes de sa diplomatie
mystérieuse.
Sa politique fut toujours une stratégie. Il se constitua peu à peu
le maître du royaume, d'où il cherchait à extirper l'anarchie, le
censeur tout-puissant de Marie, à qui il reprochait ses goûts
mondains et son horreur pour la religion nouvelle. Le peuple appuyé,
quelquefois même excité dans l'ombre par Murray, détestait la reine,
qu'il appelait une Jézabel, et qu'il aurait volontiers lapidée comme
idolâtre, au nom de Knox et du saint Évangile.
Murray, qui était un grand homme, avait tous les dons et tous les
besoins du génie. Après l'action, quand venait le soir, et qu'il se
sentait fatigué de politique ou d'administration, ou de combinaisons
militaires ; pendant la paix, en sa maison, au milieu de sa famille
qu'il aimait, pendant la guerre, sous sa tente, d'où il veillait au bien-
être de ses soldats, dont il était le père, Murray se reposait et se
fortifiait dans la méditation. Souvent aussi il faisait ouvrir sa Bible et
priait ses hôtes, tantôt l'un, tantôt l'autre, de lui lire ses pages de
prédilection dans ce livre divin qui ne le quittait pas plus que son
épée, et qu'il plaçait respectueusement à son chevet, comme
Alexandre l'Iliade. Il préférait aux prophètes, l'histoire des rois et les
Proverbes de Salomon. Il avait marqué à l'encre un certain nombre
de versets qui lui suggéraient de hautes pensées ; et ces pensées il
les exprimait avec une éloquence mâle et simple qui ravissait les
généraux, les hommes d'État, les diplomates et les ministres
presbytériens de son intimité.
Voici quelques-unes des sentences auxquelles il se plaisait et
dont il ne se lassait jamais :
. . . . . . . . . .
O déesse…
Marie répondit à ces vers. Elle embrasa les sens, elle exalta
l'imagination du pauvre jeune gentilhomme. Elle lui donna la fièvre
et le délire. Chastelard, éperdu, décidé à tout, se cacha sous le lit de
la reine, dont les dames le découvrirent. Marie, plus amusée
qu'irritée, pardonna à Chastelard et le congédia. Il ne tarda pas à
reparaître, et Marie recommença ses jeux. Elle l'enflamma de
nouveau, et le fascina si bien, que Chastelard se glissa dans le
cabinet de toilette, et de là encore sous le lit de la reine à Burnt-
Island. Trahi une seconde fois par les femmes de Marie, il ne trouva
plus qu'indifférence et abandon dans cette princesse.
La reine qui, lorsqu'elle aimait, était si téméraire avec l'opinion
publique, fut timide, lâche même en cette circonstance. Elle
s'épouvanta des calomnies répandues et prêchées contre elle jusque
dans les temples par les ministres protestants. Elle leur concéda
comme gage de sa vertu cette tête dévouée. Elle résista à toutes les
instances qui lui furent adressées. Revenue à Holyrood, elle refusa
de commuer la peine de mort prononcée contre Chastelard par des
juges fanatiques, et elle ordonna d'effacer ces deux petits vers
gravés par une main inconnue sur un des lambris de sa chambre :
É
Marie Stuart, depuis son retour en Écosse, était assaillie d'affaires
politiques et religieuses. Elle recherchait d'autant plus les
distractions. Elle s'entourait de joueurs de violon, de luth et de flûte.
Elle s'empressa d'attacher à sa personne un musicien qui avait
chanté devant elle. Il s'appelait David Riccio. Il était de Turin. Son
père, maître de chapelle, lui avait donné des leçons de son art.
Riccio s'y était exercé avec succès. Il plut à l'imagination de la reine.
Elle le demanda au marquis de Morette, ambassadeur de Savoie,
que Riccio avait suivi en Écosse, et dont il était le cameriere. Le
marquis le céda courtoisement à la reine.
Au fond, Marie était triste. Elle ne portait plus la vie légèrement.
Le plaisir ne remplissait plus toutes ses heures. Elle regrettait la
France, la conversation des beaux esprits, la galanterie des jeunes
seigneurs, les fêtes chevaleresques de Saint-Germain, de Chambord,
de Fontainebleau et du Louvre. Holyrood lui semblait l'image de sa
destinée. Elle le trouvait sinistre malgré tous les enchantements du
palais et du parc, des jardins et des prairies, où les biches et les
oiseaux de mer buvaient au courant des sources. Le château de ses
ancêtres était dominé de deux rochers sauvages. Par les courts
soleils du Nord, ces rochers jettent une ombre froide et menaçante
sur la demeure des Stuarts. Cette ombre avait pénétré Marie, qui
sentait avec douleur combien tout était changé pour elle. On ne la
traitait pas en femme et en reine, mais en pouvoir politique. Elle
rencontrait sur son chemin des rudesses de mœurs, d'attitude et de
langage qui la révoltaient. Sa noblesse même était barbare et n'avait
ni la politesse, ni la culture du continent. Le mérite de Riccio fut de
comprendre les impressions de Marie Stuart, son secret fut de lui
alléger le poids des jours. Comment n'aurait-il pas été le favori de la
reine? Elle s'ennuyait, il l'amusa.
C'était un homme de vingt-huit ans. Sa figure, sans être belle,
était expressive. Il avait les cheveux d'un châtain foncé, la peau
brune et cuivrée, le front large, bombé et mat, le nez vivant et
dilaté, les dents admirables, les yeux vifs et perçants sous des
sourcils touffus qui accentuaient dans ses traits mâles une énergie
qui manquait à son âme. Son abord était communicatif et rusé. Son
regard était d'un artiste, son sourire d'un diplomate ; son intarissable
esprit était d'autant plus séduisant qu'il se colorait, dans sa mobilité,
de toutes les lueurs de la fantaisie. Un chaud rayon de soleil italien
ruisselait de ce visage méditatif comme celui d'un Écossais ou d'un
Anglais. C'étaient sous l'éclat du Midi les plis déliés de la réserve et
de la prudence du Nord. Son malheur était de ne pas porter la tête
en gentilhomme, et de l'incliner trop bas au dédain ou à l'injure. Les
efforts de sa volonté ne purent jamais dompter la nature, qui se
troublait et défaillait en lui devant le péril. D'un homme rien ne lui
faisait défaut que le courage, et encore en avait-il le masque. Sa
physionomie virile était d'un héros ; mais quoique Piémontais
d'origine, il avait quelque chose du lazzarone dans le cœur. Doué du
reste de tous les talents, excellent mime, souple, insinuant, habile,
né pour l'intrigue et pour les affaires, capable de charmer une
femme et de gouverner un royaume, s'il avait eu la fermeté à un
aussi haut degré que l'intelligence. Il s'éleva très-vite à la toute-
puissance par les agréments de sa voix, de ses manières et de sa
conduite (1561-1565). De joueur de luth, il devint secrétaire des
dépêches françaises et premier ministre. C'était un caprice de la
reine. Cette dictature timide et insolente à la fois irrita profondément
les grands d'Écosse, et singulièrement le comte de Murray, dont
l'autorité dans le conseil se trouvait affaiblie, presque annulée par les
manéges adroits et par les sourdes menées de ce parvenu.
Plusieurs avis sages furent donnés à Riccio. On lui conseillait de
ne pas battre monnaie avec sa faveur, et de ménager un peu la
bourse de ceux qui avaient des grâces à solliciter. Jacques Melvil
l'engageait à ne pas être toujours chez la reine, ou du moins à se
retirer par respect lorsque les lords y arrivaient. Riccio, encouragé
par Marie, qui le préférait à toute l'Écosse, continua ses habitudes
familières. Parmi les nobles, les plus spirituels, comme Lethington,
se moquaient de ses assiduités ; les plus violents, comme Ruthven,
s'en offensaient. « J'ai eu ce soir chez la reine une forte tentation,
disait Lindsey à Knox. — Laquelle? demanda le réformateur. — Celle
de jeter par la fenêtre ce valet italien, qui n'est pas fait pour
s'asseoir devant les lords, mais pour leur offrir l'aiguière et pour leur
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