I‭ n‬‭lenses,‬‭the‬‭opposite‬‭is‬‭true.

‬‭Convex‬‭lenses‬‭are‬‭converging‬‭lenses,‬‭and‬‭concave‬‭lenses‬‭are‬‭known‬‭as‬‭diverging‬
‭Geometric‬‭Optics‬ ‭lenses.‬‭There‬‭are‬‭six‬‭types‬‭of‬‭lenses‬‭that‬‭fall‬‭under‬‭those‬‭two‬‭categories.‬‭The‬‭six‬‭lens‬‭types‬‭are:‬‭plano-convex,‬
‭plano-concave,‬‭double‬‭convex,‬‭double‬‭concave,‬‭concavo-convex,‬‭and‬‭convexo-concave.‬
‭Reflection‬ ‭ uestions‬‭for‬‭this‬‭section‬‭will‬‭often‬‭ask‬‭students‬‭to‬‭measure‬‭the‬‭focal‬‭lengths‬‭of‬‭any‬‭of‬‭the‬‭above‬‭types‬‭of‬‭lenses‬
Q
‭and‬‭mirrors.‬‭Also,‬‭ray-tracing‬‭and‬‭properties‬‭of‬‭images‬‭are‬‭common‬‭topics‬‭on‬‭Optics‬‭exams.‬
‭ he‬‭l aw‬‭o f‬‭reflection‬‭states:‬‭The‬‭a ngle‬‭o f‬‭i ncidence‬‭o f‬‭a ‬‭w ave‬‭o r‬‭stream‬‭o f‬‭p articles‬‭reflecting‬‭f rom‬‭a ‬‭b oundary,‬
T
‭An‬‭important‬‭distinction‬‭is‬‭that‬‭mirrors‬‭reflect‬‭,‬‭and‬‭lenses‬‭refract‬‭.‬
‭c onventionally‬‭measured‬‭f rom‬‭t he‬‭n ormal‬‭t o‬‭t he‬‭i nterface,‬‭i s‬‭e qual‬‭t o‬‭t he‬‭a ngle‬‭o f‬‭reflection,‬‭measured‬‭f rom‬‭t he‬
‭same‬‭i nterface.‬ ‭Vocabulary‬
‭ his‬‭may‬‭seem‬‭c omplex,‬‭b ut‬‭t he‬‭scientific‬‭wording‬‭i s‬‭much‬‭more‬‭c omplex‬‭t han‬‭t he‬‭i dea‬‭i tself.‬‭R eflection‬‭requires‬‭a ‬
T
‭"wave‬‭o r‬‭stream‬‭o f‬‭p articles"‬‭a nd‬‭a n‬‭i nterface.‬‭Light‬‭t raditionally‬‭t akes‬‭t he‬‭former‬‭role‬‭i n‬‭o ptics,‬‭t hough‬‭t he‬‭i dea‬ ‭A perture:‬‭Describes‬‭h ow‬‭much‬‭l ight‬‭will‬‭b e‬‭i ntercepted‬‭b y‬‭t he‬‭mirror.‬
‭c an‬‭a pply‬‭t o‬‭o ther‬‭forms‬‭o f‬‭e lectromagnetic‬‭radiation.‬‭For‬‭t he‬‭p urposes‬‭o f‬‭Science‬‭Olympiad,‬‭t he‬‭i nterface‬‭will‬
‭u sually‬‭b e‬‭a ‬‭mirror,‬‭a ssumed‬‭t o‬‭b e‬‭p erfectly‬‭reflective.‬ ‭ enter‬‭o f‬‭c urvature:‬‭Useful‬‭when‬‭l ocating‬‭i mages,‬‭t he‬‭c enter‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭i maginary‬‭sphere‬‭u pon‬‭which‬‭a ‬‭c urved‬‭mirror‬
C
‭rests.‬‭The‬‭flatter‬‭t he‬‭mirror,‬‭t he‬‭farther‬‭a way‬‭t he‬‭c enter‬‭o f‬‭c urvature.‬
‭ igure‬‭1 ‬‭i s‬‭a ‬‭c onvenient‬‭e xample‬‭o f‬‭reflection.‬‭In‬‭t he‬‭d iagram,‬‭PO‬‭i s‬‭a n‬‭i ncoming‬‭ray‬‭o f‬‭l ight‬‭a bout‬‭t o‬‭reflect‬‭o ff‬‭a ‬
F
‭C oncave‬‭mirror:‬‭C onverging‬‭mirror‬‭which‬‭forms‬‭e ither‬‭real‬‭o r‬‭v irtual‬‭i mages‬‭which‬‭may‬‭b e‬‭magnified.‬
‭mirror.‬‭OQ‬‭i s‬‭t he‬‭ray‬‭a fter‬‭i t‬‭h as‬‭h it‬‭t he‬‭mirror.‬‭R eflection‬‭a lso‬‭relies‬‭o n‬‭a n‬‭i maginary‬‭l ine,‬‭c alled‬‭t he‬‭n ormal.‬‭This‬‭i s‬
‭a n‬‭i maginary‬‭l ine‬‭t hrough‬‭O‬‭a nd‬‭i s‬‭n ormal‬‭o r‬‭p erpendicular‬‭t o‬‭t he‬‭mirror.‬‭The‬‭a ngle‬‭o f‬‭i ncidence‬‭i s‬‭t he‬‭a ngle‬ ‭C onvex‬‭mirror:‬‭Diverging‬‭mirror‬‭which‬‭forms‬‭v irtual‬‭i mages‬‭which‬‭may‬‭b e‬‭magnified.‬
‭l abeled‬‭θi‬‭,‬‭a nd‬‭t he‬‭a ngle‬‭o f‬‭reflection‬‭i s‬‭t he‬‭o ne‬‭l abeled‬‭θr‬‭.‬‭B ased‬‭o n‬‭t his‬‭i nformation,‬‭t he‬‭l aw‬‭o f‬‭reflection‬‭c an‬‭b e‬ ‭F ocal‬‭l ength:‬‭The‬‭d istance‬‭from‬‭t he‬‭l ens‬‭o r‬‭mirror‬‭t o‬‭t he‬‭p rincipal‬‭focus.‬
‭summarized‬‭b y‬‭t he‬‭following‬‭simple‬‭e quation:‬‭θi=θr‬‭.‬‭Also,‬‭b ased‬‭o n‬‭g eometry,‬‭t he‬‭c omplements‬‭t o‬‭t he‬‭i ncident‬‭a nd‬
‭ rincipal‬‭a xis:‬‭The‬‭main‬‭l ine‬‭d rawn‬‭t hrough‬‭t he‬‭c enter‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭mirror‬‭o r‬‭l ens‬‭u pon‬‭which‬‭i nformation‬‭such‬‭a s‬‭c enter‬
P
‭reflected‬‭a ngles‬‭must‬‭a lso‬‭b e‬‭c ongruent.‬
‭o f‬‭c urvature‬‭o r‬‭p rincipal‬‭focus‬‭i s‬‭g iven.‬

‭Refraction‬ ‭Principal‬‭focus:‬‭The‬‭p oint‬‭where‬‭l ight‬‭rays‬‭p arallel‬‭a nd‬‭c lose‬‭t o‬‭t he‬‭p rincipal‬‭a xis‬‭c onverge‬‭o r‬‭a ppear‬‭t o‬‭d iverge.‬
‭ ay‬‭d iagram:‬‭A‬‭t racing‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭l ight‬‭rays‬‭t o‬‭show‬‭where‬‭t he‬‭i mage‬‭forms‬‭a fter‬‭b eing‬‭reflected‬‭o ff‬‭a ‬‭mirror‬‭o r‬‭refracted‬
R
‭The‬‭speed‬‭o f‬‭l ight‬‭i s‬‭a lways‬‭c onstant‬‭when‬‭i n‬‭a ‬‭v acuum.‬‭However,‬‭l ight‬‭c an‬‭c hange‬‭speeds‬‭while‬‭t raveling‬‭t hrough‬ ‭t hrough‬‭a ‬‭l ens.‬
‭d ifferent‬‭media,‬‭such‬‭a s‬‭a ir,‬‭water,‬‭a nd‬‭g lass.‬‭The‬‭o ptical‬‭d ensity‬‭o f‬‭a ‬‭medium‬‭measures‬‭h ow‬‭well‬‭i t‬‭c an‬‭t ransmit‬ ‭ eal‬‭i mage:‬‭An‬‭i mage‬‭t hat‬‭c an‬‭b e‬‭p rojected‬‭o nto‬‭a ‬‭screen‬‭a t‬‭i ts‬‭l ocation,‬‭i nverted‬‭relative‬‭t o‬‭t he‬‭o bject,‬‭a nd‬‭c an‬‭b e‬
R
‭magnified.‬
‭l ight.‬‭Water‬‭h as‬‭a ‬‭h igher‬‭o ptical‬‭d ensity‬‭t han‬‭a ir,‬‭so‬‭l ight‬‭t ravels‬‭slower‬‭i n‬‭water‬‭t han‬‭i t‬‭d oes‬‭i n‬‭a ir.‬‭Note‬‭t hat‬‭o ptical‬
‭Secondary‬‭a xis:‬‭Any‬‭l ine‬‭d rawn‬‭t hrough‬‭t he‬‭c enter‬‭o f‬‭c urvature‬‭t o‬‭t he‬‭mirror‬‭o r‬‭l ens.‬
‭d ensity‬‭i s‬‭d ifferent‬‭from‬‭t he‬‭a ctual‬‭d ensity‬‭o f‬‭a ‬‭medium.‬
‭Vertex:‬‭The‬‭c enter‬‭o f‬‭a ‬‭l ens‬‭o r‬‭mirror.‬
‭ nother‬‭way‬‭t o‬‭c haracterize‬‭t he‬‭refraction‬‭o f‬‭l ight‬‭b etween‬‭media‬‭i s‬‭with‬‭t he‬‭i ndex‬‭o f‬‭refraction‬‭,‬‭which‬‭i s‬‭u seful‬‭i n‬
A
‭ irtual‬‭i mage:‬‭An‬‭i mage‬‭t hat‬‭c annot‬‭b e‬‭p rojected‬‭o nto‬‭a ‬‭screen,‬‭i s‬‭n ot‬‭i nverted‬‭relative‬‭t o‬‭a n‬‭o bject,‬‭a nd‬‭c an‬‭b e‬
V
‭d etermining‬‭t he‬‭a ngle‬‭a t‬‭which‬‭l ight‬‭refracts‬‭a t‬‭a ‬‭b oundary.‬‭The‬‭i ndex‬‭o f‬‭refraction‬‭i s‬‭d efined‬‭a s‬‭t he‬‭ratio‬‭o f‬‭t he‬
‭magnified‬
‭speed‬‭o f‬‭l ight‬‭i n‬‭a ‬‭v acuum‬‭t o‬‭t he‬‭speed‬‭o f‬‭l ight‬‭i n‬‭t he‬‭medium.‬‭When‬‭l ight‬‭strikes‬‭a ‬‭b oundary‬‭b etween‬‭media‬‭a t‬‭a n‬
‭a ngle,‬‭t he‬‭refractive‬‭i ndex‬‭c an‬‭b e‬‭c alculated‬‭b y‬‭u sing‬‭t his‬‭e quation:‬
‭Image‬‭location‬‭in‬‭mirrors‬
‭n ‬‭1‬‭sinθ‬‭1‬‭=n‬‭2‬‭sinθ‬‭2‬
‭where‬‭θ(1)‬‭i s‬‭t he‬‭a ngle‬‭t he‬‭l ight‬‭i s‬‭t raveling‬‭a t‬‭i n‬‭t he‬‭first‬‭medium‬‭relative‬‭t o‬‭t he‬‭n ormal,‬‭a nd‬‭θ(2)‬‭i s‬‭t he‬‭a ngle‬‭t he‬ ‭ ome‬‭t ests‬‭will‬‭a sk‬‭for‬‭t he‬‭a pproximate‬‭l ocation‬‭o f‬‭a n‬‭i mage‬‭o f‬‭a n‬‭o bject‬‭reflected‬‭o ff‬‭a ‬‭mirror.‬‭The‬‭following‬‭i s‬‭a ‬
S
l‭ ight‬‭i s‬‭a t‬‭a fter‬‭i t‬‭p asses‬‭t hrough‬‭t he‬‭second‬‭medium‬‭relative‬‭t o‬‭t he‬‭n ormal.‬‭The‬‭i ndex‬‭o f‬‭refraction‬‭c an‬‭t hen‬‭b e‬ ‭d iagram‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭p ossible‬‭l ocations‬‭o f‬‭a n‬‭i mage:‬
‭o btained‬‭b y‬‭d ividing‬‭t he‬‭sines‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭t wo‬‭a ngles.‬
‭ he‬‭e quation‬‭u sed‬‭a bove‬‭i s‬‭k nown‬‭a s‬‭S nell's‬‭Law‬‭.‬‭Snell's‬‭Law‬‭c an‬‭b e‬‭u sed‬‭a s‬‭a bove,‬‭o r‬‭i n‬‭reverse‬‭t o‬‭find‬‭e ither‬‭t he‬
T
‭i nitial‬‭o r‬‭final‬‭a ngle‬‭o f‬‭l ight‬‭b ased‬‭o n‬‭t he‬‭i ndex‬‭o f‬‭refraction‬‭o f‬‭b oth‬‭media.‬‭The‬‭refractive‬‭i ndex‬‭o f‬‭a ‬‭medium‬‭i s‬
‭c onstant‬‭for‬‭e very‬‭a ngle‬‭a t‬‭which‬‭l ight‬‭c an‬‭e nter,‬‭b ut‬‭i t‬‭i s‬‭d ifferent‬‭for‬‭e very‬‭wavelength‬‭o f‬‭l ight.‬‭This‬‭i s‬‭why‬
‭d ifferent‬‭wavelengths‬‭o f‬‭e lectromagnetic‬‭radiation‬‭d isperse‬‭a t‬‭d ifferent‬‭a ngles‬‭i n‬‭d ifferent‬‭p risms.‬
‭To‬‭summarize,‬‭Snell's‬‭Law‬‭i s‬‭a s‬‭follows:‬‭n 1‬‭sin‬‭0 1‬‭=‬‭n 2‬‭sin‬‭0 2‬

‭Lenses‬‭a nd‬‭Mirrors‬
‭ here‬‭are‬‭two‬‭main‬‭types‬‭of‬‭lenses‬‭and‬‭mirrors:‬‭convex‬‭and‬‭concave.‬‭Convex‬‭mirrors‬‭are‬‭known‬‭as‬‭diverging‬
T
‭mirrors‬‭because‬‭the‬‭incident‬‭rays‬‭diverge‬‭upon‬‭reflection.‬‭Similarly,‬‭concave‬‭mirrors‬‭are‬‭called‬‭converging‬‭mirrors‬
‭and‬‭lenses‬‭because‬‭the‬‭incident‬‭rays‬‭converge‬‭upon‬‭reflection.‬
 ‭ ornea:‬‭The‬‭t ransparent‬‭p art‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭e ye‬‭c overing‬‭t he‬‭i ris‬‭a nd‬‭p upil.‬‭The‬‭c ornea‬‭refracts‬‭l ight,‬‭p roviding‬‭a bout‬
C
‭t wo-thirds‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭e ye's‬‭o ptical‬‭p ower.‬
I‭ ris:‬‭The‬‭i ris‬‭c ontrols‬‭t he‬‭size‬‭a nd‬‭d iameter‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭p upils,‬‭which‬‭serves‬‭t o‬‭a djust‬‭t he‬‭a mount‬‭o f‬‭l ight‬‭t hat‬‭e nters‬‭t he‬
‭retina.‬
‭ ens:‬‭The‬‭l ens‬‭h elps‬‭t o‬‭refract‬‭l ight‬‭a nd‬‭focus‬‭i t‬‭o nto‬‭t he‬‭retina.‬‭It‬‭c hanges‬‭shape‬‭t o‬‭a djust‬‭i ts‬‭focal‬‭d istance‬‭so‬‭t hat‬
L
‭t he‬‭e ye‬‭c an‬‭focus‬‭o n‬‭o bjects‬‭a t‬‭d ifferent‬‭d istances.‬
‭ acula‬‭The‬‭macula‬‭i n‬‭t he‬‭h uman‬‭e ye‬‭i s‬‭t he‬‭p lace‬‭where‬‭l ight‬‭i s‬‭focused‬‭b y‬‭t he‬‭structures‬‭i n‬‭t he‬‭front‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭e ye‬
M
‭(cornea‬‭&‬‭l ens).‬‭It‬‭t akes‬‭t he‬‭p icture‬‭t hat‬‭i s‬‭sent‬‭t o‬‭t he‬‭b rain,‬‭where‬‭v ision‬‭i s‬‭c ompleted.‬‭The‬‭macula‬‭p rovides‬‭u s‬‭with‬
‭t he‬‭a bility‬‭t o‬‭read‬‭a nd‬‭see‬‭i n‬‭g reat‬‭d etail‬‭whereas‬‭t he‬‭rest‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭retina‬‭p rovides‬‭p eripheral‬‭v ision.‬
‭Optic‬‭Nerve:‬‭The‬‭o ptic‬‭n erve‬‭sends‬‭i nformation‬‭from‬‭t he‬‭retina‬‭t o‬‭t he‬‭b rain‬‭so‬‭t hat‬‭i t‬‭c an‬‭b e‬‭p rocessed.‬
‭ ptic‬‭Disc:‬‭The‬‭raised‬‭d isk‬‭o n‬‭t he‬‭retina‬‭a t‬‭t he‬‭p oint‬‭o f‬‭e ntry‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭o ptic‬‭n erve,‬‭l acking‬‭v isual‬‭receptors‬‭a nd‬‭so‬
O
‭c reating‬‭a ‬‭b lind‬‭spot.‬
‭ etina:‬‭The‬‭retina‬‭l ines‬‭t he‬‭i nner‬‭surface‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭e ye‬‭a nd‬‭c reates‬‭i mages‬‭b ased‬‭o n‬‭t he‬‭l ight‬‭p assing‬‭t hrough‬‭t he‬‭e ye.‬
R
‭These‬‭i mages‬‭a re‬‭t hen‬‭sent‬‭t o‬‭t he‬‭b rain‬‭v ia‬‭t he‬‭o ptic‬‭n erve.‬
‭ rial‬‭1 ‬‭: ‬‭(Concave‬‭M irror)‬‭The‬‭o bject‬‭i s‬‭l ocated‬‭b eyond‬‭t he‬‭c enter‬‭o f‬‭c urvature‬‭.‬‭The‬‭i mage‬‭i s‬‭l ocated‬‭b etween‬‭t he‬
T
‭c enter‬‭o f‬‭c urvature‬‭(C)‬‭a nd‬‭t he‬‭p rincipal‬‭focus‬‭(F).‬‭It‬‭i s‬‭reduced‬‭i n‬‭size‬‭a nd‬‭i nverted.‬‭The‬‭i mage‬‭i s‬‭real.‬ ‭ ods:‬‭The‬‭p hotoreceptors‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭e ye.‬‭R ods‬‭sense‬‭b rightness‬‭a nd‬‭a re‬‭favored‬‭d uring‬‭n ighttime,‬‭when‬‭c olor‬‭i s‬‭mostly‬
R
‭a bsent‬‭a nd‬‭o bjects‬‭a re‬‭v iewed‬‭o n‬‭a ‬‭g rayscale.‬‭There‬‭a re‬‭1 20‬‭million‬‭rods‬‭i n‬‭t he‬‭h uman‬‭e ye.‬
‭ rial‬‭2 ‬‭: ‬‭(Concave‬‭M irror)‬‭The‬‭o bject‬‭i s‬‭l ocated‬‭a t‬‭t he‬‭c enter‬‭o f‬‭c urvature‬‭.‬‭The‬‭i mage‬‭i s‬‭l ocated‬‭a t‬‭t he‬‭c enter‬‭o f‬
T
‭c urvature.‬‭It‬‭i s‬‭i nverted.‬‭The‬‭i mage‬‭i s‬‭real.‬ ‭Sclera‬‭The‬‭white‬‭o uter‬‭l ayer‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭e yeball.‬‭At‬‭t he‬‭front‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭e ye‬‭i t‬‭i s‬‭c ontinuous‬‭with‬‭t he‬‭c ornea.‬

‭ rial‬‭3 ‬‭: ‬‭(Concave‬‭M irror)‬‭The‬‭o bject‬‭i s‬‭l ocated‬‭b etween‬‭t he‬‭c enter‬‭o f‬‭c urvature‬‭a nd‬‭t he‬‭p rincipal‬‭f ocus‬‭.‬‭The‬‭i mage‬
T
‭i s‬‭l ocated‬‭b eyond‬‭t he‬‭c enter‬‭o f‬‭c urvature.‬‭It‬‭i s‬‭e nlarged‬‭i n‬‭size‬‭a nd‬‭i nverted.‬‭The‬‭i mage‬‭i s‬‭real.‬
‭ rial‬‭4 ‬‭: ‬‭(Concave‬‭M irror)‬‭The‬‭o bject‬‭i s‬‭l ocated‬‭a t‬‭t he‬‭p rincipal‬‭f ocus‬‭.‬‭No‬‭i mage‬‭i s‬‭formed.‬‭All‬‭rays‬‭a re‬‭reflected‬
T
‭from‬‭t he‬‭mirror‬‭a s‬‭p arallel‬‭rays.‬
‭ rial‬‭5 ‬‭: ‬‭(Concave‬‭M irror)‬‭The‬‭o bject‬‭i s‬‭l ocated‬‭b etween‬‭t he‬‭p rincipal‬‭f ocus‬‭a nd‬‭t he‬‭mirror‬‭.‬‭The‬‭i mage‬‭a ppears‬‭t o‬
T
‭b e‬‭l ocated‬‭b ehind‬‭t he‬‭mirror.‬‭It‬‭i s‬‭e nlarged‬‭i n‬‭size.‬‭The‬‭i mage‬‭i s‬‭v irtual.‬
‭Trial‬‭6 ‬‭: ‬‭(Convex‬‭M irrors)‬‭All‬‭c onvex‬‭mirrors‬‭f orm‬‭a ‬‭v irtual‬‭i mage‬‭reduced‬‭i n‬‭size.‬
‭NOTE:‬‭On‬‭Trial‬‭4 ,‬‭t he‬‭ray‬‭t hat‬‭d oes‬‭n ot‬‭g o‬‭t hrough‬‭t he‬‭c enter‬‭o f‬‭c urvature‬‭should‬‭g o‬‭t hrough‬‭t he‬‭p rincipal‬‭focus.‬

‭Equations‬
‭Diseases‬‭o f‬‭the‬‭Eye‬
‭Images‬‭i n‬‭m irrors‬‭a nd‬‭l enses‬
‭M yopia:‬‭n earsightedness;‬‭rays‬‭c onverge‬‭i n‬‭front‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭retina.‬‭C orrected‬‭with‬‭a ‬‭d iverging‬‭l ens.‬
‭hiho=−dido‬‭,‬‭where‬‭hi‬‭=‬‭i mage‬‭h eight,‬‭ho‬‭=‬‭o bject‬‭h eight,‬‭di‬‭=‬‭i mage‬‭d istance,‬‭and‬‭do‬‭=‬‭o bject‬‭d istance.‬ ‭Hyperopia:‬‭farsightedness;‬‭rays‬‭c onverge‬‭b ehind‬‭t he‬‭retina.‬‭C orrected‬‭with‬‭a ‬‭c onverging‬‭l ens‬
‭ stigmatism:‬‭i rregularly‬‭shaped‬‭c ornea;‬‭i n‬‭some‬‭c ases‬‭c aused‬‭b y‬‭l ens‬‭(lenticular‬‭a stigmatism).‬‭C orrected‬‭with‬
A
‭Focal‬‭l ength‬‭o f‬‭m irrors‬‭a nd‬‭l enses‬
‭e yeglasses;‬‭a stigmatism‬‭c auses‬‭n ear‬‭a nd‬‭farsightedness.‬
‭1f=1do+1di‬‭,‬‭where‬‭f‬‭=‬‭focal‬‭Length,‬‭do‬‭=‬‭o bject‬‭d istance,‬‭and‬‭di‬‭=‬‭i mage‬‭d istance.‬ ‭ ataract:‬‭Doesn’t‬‭c ause‬‭p ain,‬‭redness,‬‭o r‬‭t earing.‬‭When‬‭t he‬‭i nner‬‭l ens‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭e ye‬‭b ecomes‬‭d arkened‬‭o r‬‭o paque,‬‭t he‬
C
‭c ondition‬‭i s‬‭c alled‬‭a ‬‭c ataract.‬‭The‬‭l ens‬‭may‬‭b e‬‭surgically‬‭replaced‬‭with‬‭a ‬‭p lastic‬‭l ens.‬‭The‬‭i mplanted‬‭l ens‬‭i s‬‭o f‬‭fixed‬
‭Prism‬‭a ngles‬‭formula‬ ‭focal‬‭l ength,‬‭so‬‭i t‬‭i s‬‭n ot‬‭c apable‬‭o f‬‭a ccommodation‬‭l ike‬‭t he‬‭n atural‬‭l ens.‬‭This‬‭i s‬‭u sually‬‭n ot‬‭a ‬‭major‬‭c oncern,‬
‭b ecause‬‭p ersons‬‭who‬‭d evelop‬‭c ataracts‬‭a fter‬‭a ge‬‭6 0‬‭d o‬‭n ot‬‭h ave‬‭much‬‭a ccommodation‬‭remaining‬‭b ecause‬‭t he‬‭i nner‬
‭d =i+e−A‬‭,‬‭where‬‭d ‬‭=‬‭angle‬‭o f‬‭d eviation,‬‭i‬‭=‬‭angle‬‭o f‬‭i ncidence,‬‭A‬‭=‬‭Apex‬‭angle,‬‭and‬‭e ‬‭=‬‭angle‬‭o f‬‭emergence‬
‭l ens‬‭h as‬‭b ecome‬‭l ess‬‭p liable‬‭with‬‭a ge.‬

‭Eye‬ ‭ phakia:‬‭Aphakia‬‭i s‬‭t he‬‭a bsence‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭l ens‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭e ye.‬‭It‬‭c auses‬‭a ‬‭l oss‬‭o f‬‭a ccommodation,‬‭farsightedness‬
A
‭(hyperopia),‬‭a nd‬‭a ‬‭d eep‬‭a nterior‬‭c hamber.‬‭C omplications‬‭i nclude‬‭d etachment‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭v itreous‬‭o r‬‭retina,‬‭a nd‬
‭You‬‭may‬‭b e‬‭a sked‬‭several‬‭q uestions‬‭c oncerning‬‭t he‬‭e ye.‬‭Here's‬‭a ‬‭simple‬‭d efinition‬‭o f‬‭what‬‭d ifferent‬‭p arts‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭e ye‬ ‭g laucoma.‬
‭d o.‬
‭ laucoma:‬‭A‬‭g roup‬‭o f‬‭d iseases‬‭t hat‬‭d amages‬‭t he‬‭o ptic‬‭n erve.‬‭This‬‭c an‬‭b e‬‭d ue‬‭t o‬‭a n‬‭i nfection‬‭o r‬‭o ther‬‭c ritical‬
G
‭ ones:‬‭The‬‭c olor‬‭receptors‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭e ye.‬‭C ones‬‭a re‬‭u sed‬‭more‬‭d uring‬‭d aytime‬‭when‬‭c olors‬‭a re‬‭more‬‭v ibrant‬‭a nd‬
C ‭c onditions‬‭a nd‬‭may‬‭l ead‬‭t o‬‭b lindness‬‭i f‬‭n ot‬‭c ured‬‭e arly.‬‭It‬‭i s‬‭d ue‬‭t o‬‭a ‬‭b uild-up‬‭o f‬‭p ressure‬‭i n‬‭t he‬‭e ye.‬
‭p ronounced.‬‭There‬‭a re‬‭7 ‬‭million‬‭c ones‬‭i n‬‭t he‬‭h uman‬‭e ye.‬
‭ resbyopia:‬‭Presbyopia‬‭i s‬‭a ‬‭c ondition‬‭a ssociated‬‭with‬‭a ging‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭e ye‬‭t hat‬‭results‬‭i n‬‭p rogressively‬‭worsening‬
P
‭a bility‬‭t o‬‭focus‬‭c learly‬‭o n‬‭c lose‬‭o bjects.‬‭Presbyopia‬‭i s‬‭a ‬‭n atural‬‭p art‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭a ging‬‭p rocess.‬‭It‬‭i s‬‭d ue‬‭t o‬‭h ardening‬‭o f‬
‭t he‬‭l ens‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭e ye‬‭c ausing‬‭t he‬‭e ye‬‭t o‬‭focus‬‭l ight‬‭b ehind‬‭rather‬‭t han‬‭o n‬‭t he‬‭retina‬‭when‬‭l ooking‬‭a t‬‭c lose‬‭o bjects‬
‭P hysical‬‭Optics‬
‭ mblyopia:‬‭A‬‭t ype‬‭o f‬‭e ye‬‭d isease‬‭t hat‬‭i s‬‭c ommonly‬‭referred‬‭t o‬‭a s‬‭a ‬‭"lazy‬‭e ye".‬‭This‬‭i s‬‭g enerally‬‭d ue‬‭t o‬‭a ‬‭n erve‬
A
‭p athway‬‭b eing‬‭d amaged‬‭i n‬‭t he‬‭b rain‬‭d uring‬‭c hildhood‬‭a nd‬‭may‬‭l ead‬‭t o‬‭b lindness‬‭i f‬‭n ot‬‭t reated‬‭e arly.‬
‭Physical‬‭Properties‬‭of‬‭Light‬

‭ ight,‬‭as‬‭understood‬‭from‬‭a‬‭quantum‬‭perspective,‬‭exhibits‬‭properties‬‭of‬‭both‬‭a‬‭wave‬‭and‬‭particle.‬‭All‬‭light‬‭comes‬
L
‭Colors‬ ‭from‬‭electromagnetic‬‭waves,‬‭which‬‭is‬‭a‬‭transverse‬‭wave‬‭propagated‬‭through‬‭the‬‭electromagnetic‬‭field.‬‭Photons,‬
‭Many‬‭optics‬‭tests‬‭will‬‭include‬‭sections‬‭about‬‭various‬‭forms‬‭of‬‭color‬‭mixing.‬‭It‬‭is‬‭critical‬‭to‬‭understand‬‭these‬ ‭particles‬‭that‬‭carry‬‭the‬‭electromagnetic‬‭force,‬‭are‬‭massless‬‭units‬‭that‬‭hold‬‭energy‬‭and‬‭induce‬‭electromagnetic‬
‭concepts.‬ ‭radiation.‬
‭ he‬‭primary‬‭colors‬‭of‬‭light‬‭are‬‭red,‬‭green,‬‭and‬‭blue.‬‭The‬‭secondary‬‭colors,‬‭meanwhile,‬‭are‬‭yellow,‬‭magenta,‬‭and‬
T
‭Energy‬‭of‬‭a‬‭Photon‬
‭cyan.‬‭Colors‬‭can‬‭be‬‭mixed‬‭in‬‭two‬‭different‬‭ways‬‭-‬‭additive‬‭and‬‭subtractive.‬
‭ dditive‬‭mixing‬‭occurs‬‭in‬‭light,‬‭such‬‭as‬‭on‬‭a‬‭computer‬‭screen‬‭where‬‭red,‬‭green,‬‭and‬‭blue‬‭are‬‭mixed‬‭in‬‭different‬
A ‭E=hf,‬‭where‬‭E‬‭=‬‭energy‬‭of‬‭photon,‬‭h‬‭=‬‭Planck's‬‭Constant‬‭(6.62606957⋅10−34‬ ‭J/s),and‬‭f‬‭=‬‭frequency.‬‭E=hcλ,‬‭where‬‭c‬
‭proportions‬‭to‬‭create‬‭all‬‭the‬‭other‬‭colors.‬‭Yellow‬‭is‬‭made‬‭of‬‭red‬‭and‬‭green,‬‭magenta‬‭is‬‭made‬‭of‬‭red‬‭and‬‭blue,‬‭and‬ ‭=‬‭the‬‭speed‬‭of‬‭light‬‭(299792458‬‭ms)‬‭and‬‭λ‬‭=wavelength‬‭(in‬‭meters).‬‭Simplified‬‭and‬‭giving‬‭the‬‭units‬‭of‬ ‭λ‬‭in‬
‭cyan‬‭is‬‭made‬‭of‬‭green‬‭and‬‭blue.‬‭Many‬‭optics‬‭questions‬‭will‬‭describe‬‭shining‬‭multiple‬‭lights‬‭onto‬‭a‬‭single‬‭spot,‬
‭which‬‭is‬‭another‬‭form‬‭of‬‭additive‬‭color‬‭mixing.‬ ‭microns‬‭(‬‭μm‬‭)‬‭and‬ ‭E‬‭in‬‭electron‬‭volts‬‭(‬‭e V‬‭),‬‭the‬‭above‬‭expression‬‭can‬‭be‬‭simplified‬‭and‬‭rounded‬

‭ ubtractive‬‭mixing‬‭occurs‬‭with‬‭physical‬‭dyes,‬‭like‬‭in‬‭printing‬‭or‬‭in‬‭paints.‬‭When‬‭cyan,‬‭magenta,‬‭and‬‭yellow‬‭dyes‬
S ‭to:‬‭E=1.2398λ‬‭,‬‭where‬‭1.2398‬‭is‬‭the‬‭rounded‬‭product‬‭of‬ ‭h ,‬‭c ,‬‭e V(1.602⋅10−19J),‬‭and‬ ‭μm(1⋅10−6)‬‭.‬‭T his‬
‭are‬‭mixed,‬‭only‬‭the‬‭primary‬‭colors‬‭in‬‭common‬‭are‬‭visible.‬‭Thus,‬‭yellow‬‭and‬‭magenta‬‭form‬‭red,‬‭cyan‬‭and‬‭yellow‬ ‭allows‬‭much‬‭greater‬‭convenience‬‭assuming‬‭the‬‭correct‬‭units‬‭are‬‭used.‬
‭form‬‭green,‬‭and‬‭cyan‬‭and‬‭magenta‬‭form‬‭blue.‬
‭ nother‬‭consideration‬‭is‬‭colored‬‭filters.‬‭A‬‭colored‬‭filter‬‭will‬‭transmit‬‭only‬‭the‬‭colors‬‭of‬‭light‬‭required‬‭to‬‭form‬‭that‬
A ‭Electromagnetic‬‭Spectrum‬
‭color.‬‭Therefore,‬‭a‬‭cyan‬‭filter‬‭would‬‭absorb‬‭red‬‭light,‬‭while‬‭transmitting‬‭blue‬‭and‬‭green‬‭light,‬‭and‬‭a‬‭red‬‭filter‬‭would‬
‭absorb‬‭both‬‭blue‬‭and‬‭green‬‭light‬‭while‬‭transmitting‬‭red‬‭light.‬
‭ omplementary‬‭colors‬‭are‬‭2‬‭colors‬‭that‬‭create‬‭black‬‭(‬‭for‬‭subtractive‬‭),‬‭or‬‭white‬‭(‬‭for‬‭additive‬‭).‬‭So,‬‭for‬‭example,‬
C
‭additive‬‭light,‬‭red‬‭and‬‭cyan‬‭are‬‭complementaries‬‭because‬‭those‬‭2‬‭colors‬‭together‬‭will‬‭create‬‭white,‬‭as‬‭cyan‬‭is‬‭both‬
‭green‬‭and‬‭blue‬‭--‬‭the‬‭other‬‭2‬‭primary‬‭colors‬‭that‬‭arent‬‭red.‬‭So,‬‭complementary‬‭colors‬‭will‬‭be‬‭a‬‭primary‬‭color,‬‭and‬‭a‬
‭secondary‬‭color‬‭made‬‭up‬‭by‬‭the‬‭other‬‭2‬‭primaries.‬
‭ nother‬‭thing‬‭that‬‭may‬‭show‬‭up‬‭on‬‭tests‬‭are‬‭questions‬‭like‬‭"‬‭What‬‭colors‬‭will‬‭a‬‭[‬‭]‬‭shirt‬‭reflect‬‭and‬‭absorb?"‬‭and‬‭it's‬
A
‭the‬‭same‬‭logic‬‭as‬‭colored‬‭filters,‬‭except‬‭instead‬‭of‬‭colors‬‭being‬‭passed‬‭through,‬‭there's‬‭colors‬‭being‬‭reflected‬‭off‬‭the‬
‭shirt.‬‭So‬‭a‬‭blue‬‭shirt‬‭would‬‭reflect‬‭blue‬‭and‬‭absorb‬‭red‬‭and‬‭green,‬‭and‬‭so‬‭on.‬
‭Also‬‭note‬‭that‬‭this‬‭idea‬‭can‬‭be‬‭extended‬‭past‬‭primary‬‭and‬‭secondary‬‭colors:‬
 ‭ hort-Pass‬‭F ilter‬‭:‬‭T ransmits‬‭waves‬‭with‬‭wavelengths‬‭shorter‬‭than‬‭a‬‭specific‬‭range,‬‭Attenuates‬‭waves‬‭with‬
S
‭longer‬‭wavelengths‬
‭ andpass-Filter‬‭:‬‭Combination‬‭of‬‭long-pass‬‭and‬‭short-pass‬‭filters,‬‭transmits‬‭waves‬‭with‬‭a‬‭wavelength‬‭in‬‭a‬
B
‭specific‬‭interval‬
‭Monochromatic‬‭F ilter‬‭:‬‭Only‬‭a‬‭small‬‭range‬‭(usually‬‭one‬‭color)‬‭of‬‭wavelengths‬‭is‬‭allowed‬‭to‬‭pass.‬
I‭ nfrared‬‭F ilter‬‭:‬‭T he‬‭term‬‭can‬‭refer‬‭to‬‭infrared-passing‬‭or‬‭infrared‬‭cut-off‬‭filters,‬‭infrared‬‭photography‬
‭(passing),‬‭projectors‬‭(cut-off),‬
‭ ltraviolet‬‭F ilter‬‭:‬‭Block‬‭ultraviolet‬‭rays‬‭but‬‭transmit‬‭visible‬‭light‬‭rays,‬‭ultraviolet‬‭pass‬‭and‬‭ultraviolet‬
U
‭bandpass‬‭filters‬‭are‬‭much‬‭less‬‭common,‬‭used‬‭in‬‭cameras‬
‭ eutral‬‭Density‬‭F ilter‬‭:‬‭Attenuate‬‭all‬‭wavelengths‬‭of‬‭visible‬‭light,‬‭optical‬‭density‬‭is‬‭the‬‭common‬‭logarithm‬
N
‭of‬‭the‬‭transmission‬‭coefficient,‬‭which‬‭is‬ ‭a mplitude‬‭initial:amplitude‬‭incident‬‭or‬ ‭intensity‬‭initial:intensity‬
‭incident‬‭,‬‭make‬‭photographic‬‭exposures‬‭longer‬
‭ olarizer‬‭F ilter‬‭:‬‭Blocks‬‭light‬‭depending‬‭on‬‭its‬‭polarization,‬‭usually‬‭made‬‭of‬‭Polaroid,‬‭sunglasses‬‭and‬
P
‭photography,‬‭darker‬‭color‬
‭ he‬‭electromagnetic‬‭field‬‭is‬‭a‬‭combination‬‭of‬‭the‬‭electric‬‭and‬‭magnetic‬‭fields.‬‭All‬‭E M‬‭waves‬‭are‬‭transverse‬‭in‬
T
‭nature.‬‭T hey‬‭all‬‭travel‬‭at‬‭the‬‭speed‬‭of‬‭light,‬ ‭c =299792458‬‭m s‬‭.‬‭T hat‬‭means‬ ‭λ∝1f‬‭,‬‭as‬ ‭v =λf‬‭and‬
‭v =3.00×108‬‭m s‬ ‭Spectra‬
‭. ‬‭T he‬‭photon‬‭energy‬‭of‬‭a‬‭wave‬‭is‬‭measured‬‭in‬‭joules‬‭and‬‭electron‬‭volts‬‭and‬‭can‬‭be‬‭calculated‬‭as‬‭follows:‬
‭E=hf=hcλ‬‭where‬ ‭h ‬‭is‬‭Planck's‬‭constant‬‭and‬‭is‬‭equal‬‭to‬ ‭6 .62607×10−34‬‭Js‬‭.‬‭Radio‬‭waves‬‭are‬‭the‬‭waves‬‭with‬ ‭ pectra‬‭are‬‭an‬‭application‬‭of‬‭the‬‭visible‬‭light‬‭spectrum‬‭to‬‭specific‬‭materials.‬‭Since‬‭certain‬‭materials‬‭have‬‭a‬
S
‭the‬‭least‬‭energy,‬‭longest‬‭wavelength,‬‭and‬‭smallest‬‭frequency.‬‭T hese‬‭can‬‭be‬‭split‬‭up‬‭into‬‭AM‬‭waves,‬‭FM‬ ‭unique‬‭absorption‬‭spectrum‬‭and‬‭emission‬‭spectrum‬‭associated‬‭with‬‭them,‬‭spectra‬‭can‬‭be‬‭used‬‭to‬‭identify‬
‭waves,‬‭short‬‭radio‬‭waves,‬‭telemetry/millimeter-waves,‬‭and‬‭terahertz‬‭waves.‬‭Next‬‭are‬‭microwaves‬‭which‬‭are‬ ‭unknown‬‭materials.‬‭T hey‬‭can‬‭also‬‭be‬‭used‬‭to‬‭learn‬‭more‬‭about‬‭materials‬‭at‬‭a‬‭microscopic‬‭level,‬‭including‬
‭used‬‭in‬‭microwaves‬‭to‬‭heat‬‭food‬‭and‬‭infrared‬‭waves‬‭which‬‭humans‬‭emit.‬‭After‬‭that‬‭are‬‭visible‬‭light‬‭waves‬ ‭things‬‭such‬‭as‬‭molecular‬‭structure,‬‭crystal‬‭structure,‬‭and‬‭purity.‬
‭which‬‭things‬‭like‬‭lava‬‭emit.‬‭Our‬‭eyes‬‭can‬‭perceive‬‭light‬‭in‬‭the‬‭visible‬‭portion‬‭of‬‭the‬‭spectrum‬‭spanning‬‭from‬ ‭ bsorption‬‭spectra‬‭represent‬‭the‬‭portions‬‭of‬‭the‬‭spectrum‬‭that‬‭consist‬‭of‬‭wavelengths‬‭of‬‭incident‬
A
‭approximately‬‭400-700‬‭nanometers‬‭(‬‭4 00×10−9‬‭to‬ ‭7 00×10−9‬‭meters).‬‭Ultraviolet‬‭rays‬‭are‬‭next.‬‭T hen‬‭come‬ ‭radiation‬‭absorbed‬‭by‬‭the‬‭material.‬‭T hey‬‭are‬‭helpful‬‭in‬‭chemical‬‭analysis‬‭of‬‭stars‬‭(determining‬‭what‬‭they‬
‭x-rays‬‭and‬‭gamma‬‭rays‬‭which‬‭have‬‭the‬‭highest‬‭energies.‬ ‭are‬‭made‬‭of‬‭and‬‭what‬‭quantity).‬‭Here‬‭is‬‭an‬‭example‬‭absorption‬‭spectrum.‬
‭ mission‬‭spectra‬‭represent‬‭the‬‭portions‬‭of‬‭the‬‭spectrum‬‭that‬‭are‬‭emitted‬‭from‬‭a‬‭material‬‭when‬‭electrons‬
E
‭S pectroscopy‬
‭from‬‭the‬‭atom‬‭are‬‭excited‬‭(e.g.,‬‭from‬‭being‬‭heated).‬‭T hey‬‭are‬‭helpful‬‭in‬‭determining‬‭the‬‭composition‬‭of‬
‭Spectroscopy‬‭is‬‭the‬‭study‬‭of‬‭light‬‭and‬‭how‬‭it‬‭works‬‭in‬‭relation‬‭to‬‭absorption‬‭spectra,‬‭the‬‭E M‬‭Spectrum,‬‭etc.‬
‭stars.‬‭Here‬‭is‬‭an‬‭example‬‭emission‬‭spectrum.‬
‭ bsorption‬‭and‬‭emission‬‭spectra‬‭are‬‭very‬‭closely‬‭related,‬‭and‬‭there‬‭are‬‭theoretical‬‭models‬‭that‬‭exist‬‭where‬‭an‬
A
‭Filters‬ ‭absorption‬‭spectrum‬‭can‬‭be‬‭used‬‭to‬‭calculate‬‭a‬‭theoretical‬‭emission‬‭spectrum,‬‭and‬‭the‬‭other‬‭way‬‭around.‬
‭However,‬‭this‬‭process‬‭is‬‭unlikely‬‭to‬‭be‬‭on‬‭a‬‭test;‬‭However,‬‭tests‬‭may‬‭ask‬‭what‬‭these‬‭spectra‬‭can‬‭be‬‭used‬‭for,‬‭so‬
‭F ilters‬‭:‬‭absorptive‬‭and‬‭dichroic/interference/thin‬‭film/reflective‬ ‭it‬‭is‬‭important‬‭to‬‭know‬‭that‬‭this‬‭technique‬‭exists.‬

‭ bsorptive‬‭filters‬‭are‬‭usually‬‭made‬‭of‬‭glass‬‭with‬‭several‬‭compounds‬‭added‬‭which‬‭absorb‬‭specific‬
A
‭wavelengths‬‭of‬‭light.‬‭T hey‬‭can‬‭also‬‭be‬‭made‬‭of‬‭plastic,‬‭which‬‭the‬‭compounds‬‭are‬‭added‬‭to,‬‭to‬‭produce‬‭gel‬
‭filters.‬
‭ ichroic‬‭filters‬‭have‬‭little‬‭reflective‬‭cavities‬‭which‬‭resonate‬‭with‬‭specific‬‭wavelengths.‬‭Using‬‭destructive‬
D
‭interference,‬‭the‬‭wavelengths‬‭are‬‭canceled‬‭out,‬‭leaving‬‭the‬‭rest‬‭of‬‭the‬‭wavelengths‬‭to‬‭pass‬‭through.‬‭T hey‬‭are‬
‭used‬‭for‬‭precise‬‭scientific‬‭work‬‭since‬‭their‬‭exact‬‭color‬‭range‬‭can‬‭be‬‭controlled.‬‭Interference‬‭filters‬‭are‬‭more‬
‭expensive‬‭and‬‭more‬‭delicate.‬ ‭Forensics‬
‭ ong-Pass‬‭F ilter‬‭:‬‭T ransmits‬‭waves‬‭with‬‭wavelengths‬‭longer‬‭than‬‭a‬‭specific‬‭range,‬‭Attenuates‬‭waves‬‭with‬
L
‭shorter‬‭wavelengths‬
 ‭Qualitative‬‭Analysis‬ ‭F lame‬‭test‬

‭ he‬‭flame‬‭test‬‭uses‬‭a‬‭Bunsen‬‭burner‬‭and‬‭a‬‭nichrome‬‭wire.‬‭If‬‭nichrome‬‭wire‬‭is‬‭not‬‭available,‬‭wooden‬‭splints‬
T
‭ ualitative‬‭a nalysis‬‭is‬‭the‬‭first‬‭section‬‭o f‬‭the‬‭rules,‬‭involving‬‭the‬‭identification‬‭o f‬‭u nknown‬
Q ‭(such‬‭as‬‭coffee‬‭stirrers)‬‭soaked‬‭in‬‭water‬‭work‬‭and‬‭dry‬‭samples‬‭of‬‭the‬‭powder‬‭on‬‭the‬‭tip‬‭of‬‭a‬‭spatula‬‭or‬
‭p owders.‬‭Competitors‬‭m ay‬‭b e‬‭a sked‬‭to‬‭identify‬‭3 -8‬‭samples‬‭a t‬‭the‬‭regional‬‭level,‬‭6 -10‬‭samples‬‭a t‬ ‭scoopula‬‭work‬‭well‬‭too.‬‭To‬‭perform‬‭this‬‭test,‬‭dip‬‭a‬‭clean‬‭nichrome‬‭wire‬‭in‬‭distilled‬‭water,‬‭and‬‭then‬‭dip‬‭the‬
‭the‬‭state‬‭level,‬‭a nd‬‭1 0-14‬‭samples‬‭a t‬‭the‬‭n ational‬‭level.‬‭All‬‭teams‬‭will‬‭h ave‬‭the‬‭same‬‭set‬‭o f‬‭solids‬‭to‬ ‭loop‬‭of‬‭the‬‭wire‬‭into‬‭a‬‭small‬‭sample‬‭of‬‭the‬‭dry‬‭chemical.‬‭Hold‬‭the‬‭loop‬‭of‬‭the‬‭wire‬‭in‬‭the‬‭cone‬‭of‬‭the‬‭flame‬
‭identify,‬‭b ut‬‭some‬‭samples‬‭m ay‬‭o ccur‬‭m ore‬‭than‬‭o nce.‬ ‭and‬‭observe‬‭the‬‭color‬‭of‬‭the‬‭burning‬‭chemical.‬‭If‬‭desired,‬‭a‬‭piece‬‭of‬‭cobalt‬‭blue‬‭glass‬‭may‬‭be‬‭used‬‭for‬
‭ ifteen‬‭d ifferent‬‭substances‬‭a re‬‭included‬‭in‬‭the‬‭rules‬‭m anual.‬‭These‬‭a re‬‭sodium‬‭a cetate,‬‭sodium‬
F ‭viewing.‬‭Chemical‬‭cations‬‭determine‬‭the‬‭color‬‭of‬‭the‬‭flame,‬‭and‬‭their‬‭characteristics‬‭may‬‭indicate‬‭the‬
‭c hloride,‬‭sodium‬‭h ydrogen‬‭c arbonate,‬‭sodium‬‭c arbonate,‬‭lithium‬‭c hloride,‬‭p otassium‬‭c hloride,‬ ‭chemical‬‭identity.‬
‭c alcium‬‭n itrate,‬‭c alcium‬‭sulfate,‬‭c alcium‬‭c arbonate,‬‭c ornstarch,‬‭g lucose,‬‭sucrose,‬‭m agnesium‬ ‭●‬ S ‭ odium‬‭:‬‭golden‬‭yellow‬‭flame,‬‭very‬‭distinct.‬‭E ven‬‭a‬‭small‬‭amount‬‭of‬‭sodium‬‭will‬‭contaminate‬
‭sulfate,‬‭b oric‬‭a cid,‬‭a nd‬‭a mmonium‬‭c hloride.‬‭Many‬‭o f‬‭these‬‭p owders‬‭a re‬‭a ccessible‬‭in‬‭local‬‭stores‬‭o r‬ ‭other‬‭compounds.‬
‭a vailable‬‭o n‬‭Amazon.com.‬ ‭●‬ ‭Lithium‬‭:‬‭carmine‬‭or‬‭red‬‭flame‬
‭●‬ ‭Calcium‬‭:‬‭yellow-red‬‭flame‬
‭●‬ ‭Boric‬‭Acid‬‭:‬‭bright‬‭green‬‭flame,‬‭very‬‭visible‬
‭●‬ ‭Ammonium‬‭Chloride‬‭:‬‭faint‬‭green‬‭flame‬
‭Methods‬‭o f‬‭Identification‬ ‭●‬ ‭P otassium‬‭:‬‭light‬‭purple,‬‭lavender‬‭flame‬

‭ any‬‭competitors‬‭utilize‬‭a‬‭flow‬‭chart‬‭or‬‭table‬‭which‬‭they‬‭use‬‭to‬‭identify‬‭powders.‬‭Developing‬‭a‬‭strategy‬‭for‬
M ‭ ote‬‭that‬‭sodium‬‭can‬‭easily‬‭contaminate‬‭some‬‭substances,‬‭and‬‭its‬‭presence‬‭can‬‭mask‬‭the‬‭other‬‭cation‬‭colors,‬
N
‭how‬‭to‬‭test‬‭the‬‭samples‬‭can‬‭aid‬‭with‬‭time‬‭management‬‭and‬‭ensure‬‭that‬‭all‬‭the‬‭given‬‭powders‬‭can‬‭be‬‭identified‬ ‭giving‬‭off‬‭a‬‭yellow‬‭flame.‬‭T he‬‭purpose‬‭of‬‭the‬‭cobalt‬‭blue‬‭glass‬‭is‬‭to‬‭block‬‭off‬‭the‬‭yellow‬‭color‬‭given‬‭by‬
‭accurately.‬‭Additionally,‬‭utilizing‬‭all‬‭available‬‭means‬‭of‬‭identification‬‭will‬‭give‬‭the‬‭best‬‭results‬‭and‬‭help‬‭draw‬ ‭sodium‬‭in‬‭case‬‭the‬‭sample‬‭may‬‭have‬‭been‬‭contaminated.‬‭In‬‭some‬‭cases,‬‭this‬‭yellow‬‭color‬‭can‬‭appear‬‭a‬‭little‬
‭a‬‭more‬‭accurate‬‭conclusion.‬ ‭golden‬‭or‬‭orangish,‬‭rather‬‭than‬‭a‬‭lemon-like‬‭tint‬‭of‬‭yellow.‬‭Some‬‭powders‬‭have‬‭been‬‭said‬‭to‬‭not‬‭give‬‭off‬‭a‬
‭flame‬‭color,‬‭including,‬‭but‬‭not‬‭limited‬‭to,‬‭calcium‬‭sulfate‬‭and‬‭calcium‬‭carbonate,‬‭which‬‭will‬‭be‬‭evident.‬
‭Cleaning‬‭nichrome‬‭wires‬‭should‬‭help,‬‭though‬‭that‬‭is‬‭not‬‭guaranteed.‬‭To‬‭do‬‭this,‬‭stick‬‭the‬‭wire‬‭into‬‭the‬‭flame‬
‭until‬‭no‬‭color‬‭is‬‭observed‬‭(or‬‭until‬‭the‬‭wire‬‭glows‬‭orange,‬‭whichever‬‭happens‬‭first).‬‭Next,‬‭dip‬‭the‬‭wire‬‭into‬
‭Solubility‬
‭acid‬‭(hydrochloric‬‭acid‬‭should‬‭do‬‭the‬‭trick,‬‭as‬‭it‬‭should‬‭be‬‭readily‬‭available‬‭during‬‭the‬‭competition‬‭for‬
‭All‬‭samples‬‭can‬‭be‬‭divided‬‭into‬‭two‬‭fields--soluble‬‭and‬‭insoluble.‬‭Water‬‭is‬‭used‬‭to‬‭perform‬‭this‬‭test.‬ ‭obvious‬‭reasons).‬‭Finally,‬‭dip‬‭it‬‭into‬‭deionized‬‭water,‬‭and‬‭then‬‭it's‬‭ready‬‭for‬‭use‬‭again.‬‭T his‬‭problem‬‭can‬
‭perhaps‬‭also‬‭be‬‭solved‬‭by‬‭just‬‭bringing‬‭an‬‭abundance‬‭of‬‭utensils‬‭to‬‭decrease‬‭the‬‭chances‬‭of‬‭needing‬‭to‬‭clean‬
‭●‬ S ‭ oluble‬‭Samples‬‭:‬‭sodium‬‭acetate,‬‭sodium‬‭chloride,‬‭sodium‬‭hydrogen‬‭carbonate,‬‭sodium‬
‭any,‬‭but‬‭this‬‭method‬‭of‬‭cleaning‬‭nichrome‬‭wires‬‭should‬‭help‬‭in‬‭the‬‭case‬‭having‬‭more‬‭tools‬‭is‬‭not‬‭a‬‭viable‬
‭carbonate,‬‭lithium‬‭chloride,‬‭potassium‬‭chloride,‬‭calcium‬‭nitrate,‬‭glucose,‬‭sucrose,‬‭magnesium‬
‭option.‬
‭sulfate,‬‭boric‬‭acid,‬‭ammonium‬‭chloride‬
‭●‬ ‭Non-soluble‬‭Samples‬‭:‬‭calcium‬‭sulfate,‬‭calcium‬‭carbonate,‬‭cornstarch‬ ‭ here‬‭are‬‭additional‬‭properties‬‭of‬‭some‬‭of‬‭the‬‭powders‬‭that‬‭can‬‭also‬‭be‬‭observed‬‭in‬‭a‬‭flame‬‭test.‬‭For‬‭example,‬
T
‭heating‬‭a‬‭carbohydrate‬‭such‬‭as‬‭glucose‬‭or‬‭sucrose‬‭will‬‭cause‬‭it‬‭to‬‭melt‬‭and‬‭caramelize.‬‭Heating‬‭dry‬
‭ ‬‭word‬‭of‬‭caution:‬‭every‬‭compound‬‭has‬‭a‬‭unique‬‭solubility‬‭product‬‭constant‬‭(Ksp),‬‭which‬‭indicates‬‭the‬
A
‭ammonium‬‭chloride‬‭for‬‭a‬‭few‬‭seconds‬‭will‬‭cause‬‭it‬‭to‬‭release‬‭white‬‭wisps‬‭of‬‭smoke.‬‭T hese‬‭are‬‭best‬‭observed‬
‭amount‬‭of‬‭compound‬‭that‬‭can‬‭dissolve‬‭in‬‭a‬‭given‬‭volume‬‭of‬‭water‬‭before‬‭it‬‭reaches‬‭a‬‭point‬‭where‬‭no‬‭more‬‭of‬
‭with‬‭the‬‭method‬‭of‬‭putting‬‭dry‬‭powder‬‭on‬‭the‬‭tip‬‭of‬‭a‬‭spatula‬‭or‬‭a‬‭scoopula‬‭and‬‭holding‬‭it‬‭directly‬‭in‬‭the‬
‭that‬‭compound‬‭can‬‭dissolve‬‭in‬‭the‬‭solution.‬‭T his‬‭is‬‭called‬‭saturation.‬‭Because‬‭of‬‭this,‬‭it‬‭may‬‭be‬‭possible‬‭for‬‭a‬
‭flame.‬
‭powder‬‭to‬‭appear‬‭to‬‭not‬‭be‬‭dissolving‬‭in‬‭water‬‭if‬‭there‬‭is‬‭too‬‭much‬‭of‬‭it‬‭and‬‭not‬‭enough‬‭water.‬‭Be‬‭careful‬‭of‬
‭this‬‭when‬‭observing‬‭solubility,‬‭and,‬‭when‬‭in‬‭doubt,‬‭go‬‭for‬‭using‬‭smaller‬‭quantities‬‭of‬‭the‬‭sample.‬ ‭Tests‬‭with‬‭liquid‬‭reagents‬

‭pH‬ ‭ iquids‬‭used‬‭for‬‭identification‬‭are‬‭iodine,‬‭sodium‬‭hydroxide,‬‭and‬‭hydrochloric‬‭acid.‬‭T hese‬‭reagents‬‭will‬‭be‬

L
‭provided‬‭by‬‭the‬‭event‬‭supervisor.‬
‭ he‬‭pH‬‭data‬‭for‬‭chemicals‬‭can‬‭be‬‭useful,‬‭especially‬‭for‬‭determining‬‭between‬‭two‬‭similar‬‭chemicals.‬‭Most‬
T
‭samples‬‭have‬‭a‬‭pH‬‭of‬‭between‬‭5‬‭and‬‭8,‬‭but‬‭there‬‭are‬‭several‬‭chemicals‬‭that‬‭have‬‭distinct‬‭pHs.‬‭For‬‭example,‬ ‭●‬ I‭ odine‬‭:‬‭When‬‭iodine‬‭is‬‭added‬‭to‬‭cornstarch,‬‭the‬‭sample‬‭will‬‭turn‬‭black.‬‭If‬‭cornstarch‬‭is‬‭not‬
‭sodium‬‭carbonate‬‭has‬‭a‬‭pH‬‭of‬‭10,‬‭and‬‭boric‬‭acid‬‭has‬‭a‬‭pH‬‭of‬‭4.‬ ‭present,‬‭the‬‭iodine‬‭will‬‭remain‬‭brown.‬
‭●‬ ‭Sodium‬‭Hydroxide‬‭:‬‭Sodium‬‭hydroxide‬‭is‬‭used‬‭simply‬‭to‬‭categorize‬‭your‬‭samples‬‭into‬‭two‬
‭ here‬‭are‬‭many‬‭different‬‭kinds‬‭of‬‭pH‬‭paper,‬‭sometimes‬‭also‬‭called‬‭litmus‬‭paper,‬‭that‬‭can‬‭be‬‭used‬‭to‬‭perform‬
T
‭fields:‬‭NaOH‬‭reactive-‬‭and‬‭non-reactive.‬‭For‬‭this‬‭reason,‬‭it‬‭is‬‭extremely‬‭useful‬‭when‬‭using‬‭a‬
‭this‬‭test.‬‭Any‬‭kind‬‭should‬‭do.‬‭T he‬‭test‬‭involves‬‭dissolving‬‭some‬‭of‬‭the‬‭dry‬‭powder‬‭in‬‭water,‬‭dipping‬‭the‬‭end‬
‭flowchart.‬‭To‬‭perform‬‭this‬‭test,‬‭a‬‭few‬‭drops‬‭of‬‭NaOH‬‭are‬‭added‬‭to‬‭a‬‭small‬‭sample‬‭of‬‭chemical‬
‭of‬‭the‬‭pH‬‭paper‬‭in‬‭the‬‭solution,‬‭and‬‭comparing‬‭the‬‭resulting‬‭color‬‭to‬‭the‬‭palette‬‭on‬‭the‬‭package‬‭to‬‭see‬‭which‬
‭dissolved‬‭in‬‭water.‬‭If‬‭a‬‭milky-white‬‭precipitate‬‭forms,‬‭the‬‭sample‬‭is‬‭NaOH‬‭reactive.‬‭If‬‭a‬
‭pH‬‭value‬‭corresponds‬‭to‬‭it.‬
‭precipitate‬‭does‬‭not‬‭form,‬‭the‬‭sample‬‭is‬‭NaOH‬‭non-reactive.‬
 ‭●‬ H
‭ ydrochloric‬‭Acid‬‭:‬‭Hydrochloric‬‭acid‬‭will‬‭react‬‭when‬‭added‬‭to‬‭samples‬‭containing‬ ‭ owever,‬‭it‬‭is‬‭important‬‭to‬‭rinse‬‭and‬‭dry‬‭a‬‭sample‬‭before‬‭testing‬‭it‬‭in‬‭another‬‭solution.‬‭If‬‭this‬‭is‬‭not‬‭done,‬‭the‬
H
‭carbonates--therefore,‬‭it‬‭is‬‭useful‬‭in‬‭identifying‬‭calcium‬‭carbonate,‬‭sodium‬‭carbonate,‬‭and‬ ‭density‬‭of‬‭the‬‭solution‬‭may‬‭change‬‭due‬‭to‬‭dilution‬‭and‬‭make‬‭the‬‭test‬‭inaccurate.‬
‭sodium‬‭hydrogen‬‭carbonate.‬ I‭ t‬‭can‬‭be‬‭difficult‬‭to‬‭tell‬‭if‬‭a‬‭plastic‬‭indicates‬‭a‬‭suspect‬‭since‬‭many‬‭of‬‭their‬‭uses‬‭overlap.‬‭Start‬‭by‬‭re-reading‬
‭Benedict's‬‭solution‬ ‭the‬‭suspect's‬‭bio‬‭and‬‭noting‬‭down‬‭anything‬‭associated‬‭with‬‭them‬‭that‬‭is‬‭likely‬‭to‬‭be‬‭made‬‭of‬‭plastic,‬‭like‬‭food‬
‭containers‬‭or‬‭pill‬‭bottles.‬‭T hen,‬‭determine‬‭what‬‭that‬‭item‬‭is‬‭likely‬‭to‬‭be‬‭made‬‭of.‬
‭ enedict's‬‭solution‬‭is‬‭used‬‭to‬‭detect‬‭reducing‬‭sugars‬‭such‬‭as‬‭glucose.‬‭To‬‭perform‬‭this‬‭test,‬‭dissolve‬‭a‬‭small‬
B
‭sample‬‭of‬‭chemical‬‭in‬‭water‬‭in‬‭a‬‭test‬‭tube.‬‭Add‬‭two‬‭to‬‭three‬‭drops‬‭of‬‭Benedict's‬‭solution,‬‭then‬‭place‬‭the‬‭test‬
‭tube‬‭in‬‭a‬‭hot‬‭water‬‭bath.‬‭If‬‭the‬‭glucose‬‭is‬‭present,‬‭the‬‭sample‬‭will‬‭react‬‭and‬‭form‬‭an‬‭orange‬‭precipitate.‬‭T his‬
‭test‬‭may‬‭take‬‭a‬‭few‬‭minutes;‬‭be‬‭patient.‬‭An‬‭important‬‭fact‬‭to‬‭note‬‭is‬‭that‬‭sucrose‬‭will‬‭not‬‭react‬‭with‬
‭Benedict's‬‭solution‬‭but‬‭glucose‬‭will.‬‭Benedict's‬‭solution‬‭can‬‭also‬‭be‬‭used‬‭to‬‭test‬‭for‬‭ammonium‬‭chloride.‬
‭Adding‬‭a‬‭couple‬‭of‬‭drops‬‭will‬‭turn‬‭the‬‭sample‬‭a‬‭dark‬‭blue.‬

‭Conductivity‬

‭ ertain‬‭chemical‬‭samples‬‭will‬‭dissociate‬‭and‬‭become‬‭conductive‬‭when‬‭dissolved‬‭in‬‭water.‬‭To‬‭perform‬‭this‬
C
‭test,‬‭dissolve‬‭a‬‭small‬‭sample‬‭of‬‭dry‬‭chemical‬‭in‬‭water.‬‭Using‬‭a‬‭9-volt‬‭conductivity‬‭tester‬‭will‬‭determine‬
‭whether‬‭a‬‭sample‬‭is‬‭conductive‬‭or‬‭semi-conductive.‬‭T his‬‭data‬‭is‬‭especially‬‭helpful‬‭when‬‭following‬‭a‬
‭flowchart,‬‭and‬‭is‬‭the‬‭most‬‭useful‬‭for‬‭identifying‬‭ionic‬‭compounds.‬

‭Polymers‬

‭Plastics‬
‭ lastics‬‭are‬‭synthetic‬‭materials‬‭typically‬‭made‬‭of‬‭petroleum‬‭derivatives.‬‭T hese‬‭polymers‬‭are‬‭inexpensive‬‭to‬
P
‭produce‬‭and‬‭easy‬‭to‬‭mold‬‭or‬‭reshape,‬‭making‬‭them‬‭very‬‭desirable‬‭for‬‭producing‬‭objects‬‭quickly.‬‭T he‬‭first‬
‭fully‬‭synthetic‬‭plastic‬‭was‬‭Bakelite,‬‭invented‬‭in‬‭1907‬‭by‬‭L eo‬‭Baekeland.‬‭Since‬‭then,‬‭synthetic‬‭plastics‬‭have‬
‭been‬‭produced‬‭in‬‭large‬‭quantities‬‭around‬‭the‬‭world.‬
‭ wo‬‭plastics‬‭on‬‭the‬‭list‬‭(PC‬‭and‬‭PETE)‬‭polymerize‬‭by‬‭condensation‬‭while‬‭the‬‭rest‬‭polymerize‬‭by‬‭addition.‬‭In‬
T
‭polymerization‬‭by‬‭condensation‬‭, ‬‭the‬‭addition‬‭of‬‭two‬‭monomer‬‭units‬‭produces‬‭a‬‭small‬‭by-product‬‭like‬‭water‬
‭or‬‭methane.‬‭In‬‭polymerization‬‭by‬‭addition‬‭, ‬‭no‬‭by-product‬‭is‬‭lost.‬
‭ here‬‭are‬‭two‬‭main‬‭types‬‭of‬‭plastics:‬‭thermoset‬‭and‬‭thermoplastic‬‭. ‬‭T hermoset‬‭polymers‬‭undergo‬‭a‬‭process‬
T
‭known‬‭as‬‭curing‬‭, ‬‭where‬‭a‬‭plastic‬‭is‬‭irreversibly‬‭hardened‬‭from‬‭a‬‭softer‬‭resin‬‭form.‬‭T his‬‭can‬‭be‬‭induced‬‭by‬
‭heat,‬‭UV‬‭radiation,‬‭or‬‭mixing‬‭with‬‭a‬‭catalyst‬‭(like‬‭two-part‬‭resins).‬‭When‬‭a‬‭plastic‬‭is‬‭cured,‬‭the‬‭individual‬
‭polymer‬‭chains‬‭form‬‭cross-links‬‭to‬‭create‬‭a‬‭hardened‬‭plastic.‬‭T his‬‭makes‬‭it‬‭difficult‬‭to‬‭melt‬‭and‬‭reuse‬‭the‬
‭plastic,‬‭which‬‭is‬‭why‬‭they‬‭are‬‭called‬‭thermoset‬‭plastics.‬‭Since‬‭these‬‭plastics‬‭cannot‬‭be‬‭melted,‬‭they‬‭also‬‭cannot‬
‭be‬‭recycled‬‭commercially.‬
‭ onversely,‬‭thermoplastic‬‭polymers‬‭do‬‭not‬‭undergo‬‭a‬‭curing‬‭process.‬‭T hese‬‭plastics‬‭will‬‭become‬‭malleable‬
C
‭when‬‭heated‬‭beyond‬‭a‬‭certain‬‭point,‬‭making‬‭them‬‭suitable‬‭for‬‭use‬‭in‬‭processes‬‭like‬‭injection‬‭molding‬‭or‬
‭extrusion.‬‭T his‬‭also‬‭makes‬‭them‬‭suitable‬‭for‬‭commercial‬‭recycling.‬‭E very‬‭plastic‬‭on‬‭the‬‭Forensics‬‭list‬‭occurs‬
‭in‬‭a‬‭thermoplastic‬‭form,‬‭but‬‭some‬‭polymers‬‭can‬‭occur‬‭in‬‭either‬‭thermoset‬‭or‬‭thermoplastic‬‭forms.‬
‭ ommon‬‭liquids‬‭used‬‭to‬‭test‬‭plastic‬‭densities‬‭include‬‭water,‬‭vegetable‬‭oil,‬‭isopropyl‬‭alcohol,‬‭and‬‭NaCl‬
C
‭solution‬‭(10%,‬‭25%,‬‭and‬‭saturated).‬‭If‬‭a‬‭plastic‬‭sample‬‭sinks‬‭in‬‭a‬‭liquid,‬‭it‬‭is‬‭more‬‭dense‬‭than‬‭that‬‭liquid.‬
‭Using‬‭this‬‭information,‬‭it‬‭is‬‭possible‬‭to‬‭develop‬‭a‬‭flowchart‬‭to‬‭identify‬‭plastics‬‭based‬‭on‬‭density‬‭solutions.‬
‭Fibers‬
 ‭See‬‭also:‬‭Crime‬‭B usters#Fibers‬‭. ‬
‭ here‬‭are‬‭seven‬‭fibers‬‭that‬‭competitors‬‭are‬‭responsible‬‭for:‬‭cotton,‬‭wool,‬‭silk,‬‭linen,‬‭nylon,‬‭spandex,‬‭and‬
T
‭polyester.‬‭T he‬‭main‬‭way‬‭to‬‭identify‬‭fibers‬‭is‬‭to‬‭burn‬‭them‬‭over‬‭a‬‭candle‬‭(Bunsen‬‭burners‬‭are‬‭too‬‭hot)‬‭and‬
‭examine‬‭how‬‭they‬‭behave‬‭when‬‭exposed‬‭to‬‭flame.‬‭However,‬‭some‬‭tests‬‭will‬‭also‬‭provide‬‭images‬‭of‬‭the‬‭fibers‬
‭for‬‭identification.‬‭Based‬‭on‬‭how‬‭they're‬‭made,‬‭the‬‭listed‬‭fibers‬‭can‬‭be‬‭divided‬‭into‬‭three‬‭broad‬‭categories:‬
‭●‬ W ‭ ool‬‭and‬‭silk‬‭are‬‭animal‬‭fibers.‬‭T hese‬‭fibers‬‭are‬‭produced‬‭by‬‭animals,‬‭with‬‭wool‬‭being‬‭sourced‬
‭from‬‭sheep‬‭and‬‭silk‬‭being‬‭sourced‬‭from‬‭insects‬‭(mostly‬‭caterpillars).‬‭When‬‭burned,‬‭animal‬‭fibers‬
‭tend‬‭to‬‭shrivel‬‭but‬‭not‬‭melt.‬‭T hese‬‭fibers‬‭will‬‭also‬‭dissolve‬‭in‬‭bleach,‬‭unlike‬‭other‬‭fibers.‬
‭●‬ ‭Cotton‬‭and‬‭linen‬‭are‬‭vegetable‬‭fibers.‬‭T hese‬‭fibers‬‭are‬‭produced‬‭by‬‭plants,‬‭with‬‭cotton‬‭being‬
‭made‬‭from‬‭cotton‬‭plants‬‭and‬‭linen‬‭being‬‭derived‬‭from‬‭flax.‬‭Vegetable‬‭fibers‬‭tend‬‭not‬‭to‬‭melt‬‭or‬
‭shrivel,‬‭but‬‭they‬‭ignite‬‭easily‬‭and‬‭usually‬‭appear‬‭charred‬‭after‬‭being‬‭burned.‬
‭●‬ ‭Nylon,‬‭spandex,‬‭and‬‭polyester‬‭are‬‭synthetic‬‭fibers.‬‭T hese‬‭are‬‭man-made‬‭fibers,‬‭usually‬‭derived‬
‭from‬‭petroleum‬‭or‬‭constructed‬‭from‬‭synthetic‬‭polymers.‬‭Synthetic‬‭fibers‬‭will‬‭melt‬‭and‬‭shrivel,‬
‭fusing‬‭together‬‭when‬‭burned.‬‭Synthetic‬‭fibers‬‭tend‬‭to‬‭be‬‭very‬‭smooth‬‭and‬‭uniform,‬‭while‬‭natural‬
‭fibers‬‭are‬‭more‬‭varied.‬
‭ ome‬‭additional‬‭information‬‭about‬‭each‬‭fiber‬‭is‬‭included‬‭in‬‭the‬‭table‬‭below.‬‭While‬‭there‬‭are‬‭descriptions‬‭of‬
S
‭the‬‭burn‬‭test‬‭results‬‭provided,‬‭it‬‭is‬‭highly‬‭recommended‬‭to‬‭practice‬‭performing‬‭these‬‭tests‬‭and‬‭create‬‭your‬
‭own‬‭descriptions‬‭for‬‭the‬‭behavior‬‭of‬‭each‬‭one.‬‭Fabric‬‭samples‬‭can‬‭often‬‭be‬‭obtained‬‭for‬‭free‬‭from‬‭fabric‬
‭stores‬‭or‬‭purchased‬‭cheaply‬‭from‬‭online‬‭retailers‬‭such‬‭as‬‭Amazon.‬‭E xperience‬‭identifying‬‭each‬‭fiber‬‭is‬
‭important‬‭when‬‭it‬‭comes‬‭to‬‭doing‬‭well‬‭in‬‭the‬‭event.‬
‭. ‬
 ‭ air‬‭is‬‭typically‬‭divided‬‭into‬‭two‬‭main‬‭parts:‬‭the‬‭hair‬‭shaft‬‭(the‬‭fiber‬‭that‬‭emerges‬‭from‬‭the‬‭skin)‬‭and‬‭the‬‭hair‬
H
‭follicle‬‭(which‬‭is‬‭embedded‬‭in‬‭the‬‭skin).‬‭T he‬‭hair‬‭follicle‬‭is‬‭also‬‭known‬‭as‬‭the‬‭bulb‬‭or‬‭root‬‭when‬‭it‬‭is‬
‭removed‬‭from‬‭the‬‭skin,‬‭and‬‭is‬‭responsible‬‭for‬‭the‬‭growth‬‭of‬‭hair.‬‭T he‬‭hair‬‭follicle‬‭is‬‭the‬‭only‬‭part‬‭of‬‭hair‬
‭considered‬‭to‬‭be‬‭alive,‬‭since‬‭it‬‭is‬‭the‬‭site‬‭of‬‭all‬‭the‬‭biochemical‬‭activity‬‭in‬‭the‬‭hair.‬‭T here‬‭are‬‭also‬‭other‬
‭structures‬‭associated‬‭with‬‭the‬‭follicle‬‭such‬‭as‬‭sebaceous‬‭(oil-producing)‬‭glands‬‭and‬‭muscles‬‭which‬‭make‬‭the‬
‭hair‬‭stand‬‭on‬‭end.‬‭T he‬‭shaft‬‭can‬‭be‬‭further‬‭divided‬‭into‬‭three‬‭layers‬‭called‬‭the‬‭cuticle,‬‭cortex,‬‭and‬‭medulla.‬
‭ he‬‭medulla‬‭is‬‭the‬‭innermost‬‭layer‬‭of‬‭the‬‭hair,‬‭and‬‭may‬‭or‬‭may‬‭not‬‭be‬‭present‬‭in‬‭some‬‭hairs.‬‭T his‬‭region‬‭of‬
T
‭the‬‭hair‬‭lacks‬‭the‬‭same‬‭structure‬‭that‬‭is‬‭present‬‭in‬‭the‬‭outer‬‭layers,‬‭and‬‭it‬‭is‬‭one‬‭of‬‭the‬‭most‬‭fragile‬‭layers‬‭of‬
‭hair.‬‭T he‬‭role‬‭the‬‭medulla‬‭plays‬‭in‬‭the‬‭hair‬‭is‬‭unclear,‬‭but‬‭recognizing‬‭certain‬‭characteristics‬‭of‬‭the‬‭medulla‬‭is‬
‭essential‬‭to‬‭identifying‬‭hairs.‬‭Human‬‭hairs‬‭can‬‭have‬‭three‬‭different‬‭medulla‬‭types:‬‭fragmented,‬‭interrupted,‬‭or‬
‭continuous.‬‭Fragmented‬‭medullas‬‭are‬‭the‬‭most‬‭broken‬‭pattern,‬‭and‬‭appear‬‭more‬‭like‬‭a‬‭dashed‬‭line‬‭with‬‭many‬
‭gaps‬‭and‬‭fragments.‬‭Interrupted‬‭medullas‬‭will‬‭have‬‭breaks,‬‭but‬‭will‬‭be‬‭much‬‭less‬‭broken‬‭than‬‭fragmented‬
‭medullas.‬‭A‬‭majority‬‭of‬‭the‬‭medulla‬‭is‬‭connected,‬‭and‬‭the‬‭gaps‬‭are‬‭small.‬‭Continuous‬‭medullas‬‭have‬‭no‬
‭breaks.‬‭Human‬‭hair‬‭may‬‭also‬‭lack‬‭a‬‭medulla‬‭entirely.‬‭Animal‬‭hairs‬‭typically‬‭have‬‭thicker‬‭medullas,‬‭and‬‭can‬
‭have‬‭two‬‭additional‬‭patterns‬‭called‬‭ladder‬‭or‬‭lattice.‬‭Squirrel‬‭hair‬‭is‬‭a‬‭good‬‭example‬‭of‬‭a‬‭latticed‬‭medulla.‬
‭Hairs‬‭can‬‭also‬‭be‬‭characterized‬‭by‬‭the‬‭medullary‬‭index.‬‭T his‬‭is‬‭measured‬‭by‬‭taking‬‭the‬‭diameter‬‭of‬‭the‬
‭medulla‬‭and‬‭dividing‬‭it‬‭by‬‭the‬‭diameter‬‭of‬‭the‬‭hair‬‭as‬‭a‬‭whole.‬‭Humans‬‭typically‬‭have‬‭a‬‭medullary‬‭index‬‭of‬
‭less‬‭than‬‭0.3,‬‭while‬‭animals‬‭typically‬‭have‬‭a‬‭medullary‬‭index‬‭of‬‭greater‬‭than‬‭0.5.‬
‭ he‬‭cortex‬‭is‬‭the‬‭second‬‭layer‬‭of‬‭hair,‬‭and‬‭it‬‭is‬‭the‬‭most‬‭structurally‬‭complex‬‭of‬‭the‬‭three.‬‭T he‬‭cortex‬‭gives‬
T
‭hair‬‭its‬‭color‬‭and‬‭shape,‬‭and‬‭is‬‭also‬‭responsible‬‭for‬‭water‬‭uptake‬‭and‬‭nourishing‬‭the‬‭hair.‬‭T he‬‭pigment‬‭that‬
‭gives‬‭hair‬‭its‬‭color‬‭is‬‭melanin,‬‭which‬‭is‬‭the‬‭same‬‭pigment‬‭responsible‬‭for‬‭coloring‬‭skin.‬‭Melanin‬‭is‬‭found‬‭in‬
‭pigment‬‭granules,‬‭which‬‭in‬‭humans‬‭tend‬‭to‬‭be‬‭distributed‬‭towards‬‭the‬‭cortex.‬‭In‬‭animals,‬‭most‬‭of‬‭the‬‭pigment‬
‭is‬‭found‬‭closer‬‭to‬‭the‬‭medulla.‬‭T he‬‭cortex‬‭also‬‭contains‬‭ovoid‬‭bodies,‬‭which‬‭are‬‭oval‬‭shaped‬‭structures‬
‭commonly‬‭found‬‭in‬‭cattle‬‭and‬‭dog‬‭hairs‬‭(though‬‭they‬‭may‬‭also‬‭be‬‭found‬‭in‬‭human‬‭hairs).‬‭Cortical‬‭fusi‬‭are‬
‭irregular‬‭air-filled‬‭pockets‬‭found‬‭near‬‭the‬‭root‬‭of‬‭human‬‭hair,‬‭though‬‭they‬‭may‬‭be‬‭present‬‭elsewhere‬‭in‬‭the‬
‭shaft.‬
‭The‬‭structure‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭c ortex‬‭u nder‬‭a ‬‭microscope‬

‭ he‬‭cuticle‬‭is‬‭the‬‭outermost‬‭layer‬‭of‬‭the‬‭hair,‬‭and‬‭is‬‭responsible‬‭for‬‭the‬‭scale-like‬‭pattern‬‭on‬‭the‬‭outside‬‭of‬‭a‬
T
‭strand‬‭of‬‭hair.‬‭T he‬‭cuticle‬‭of‬‭the‬‭hair‬‭is‬‭responsible‬‭for‬‭protecting‬‭the‬‭inner‬‭layers‬‭and‬‭repelling‬‭water.‬‭T he‬
‭cuticle‬‭can‬‭have‬‭a‬‭variety‬‭of‬‭patterns‬‭that‬‭are‬‭useful‬‭for‬‭identifying‬‭hairs.‬‭Coronal‬‭scales‬‭are‬‭present‬‭on‬‭the‬
‭hair‬‭of‬‭bats‬‭and‬‭rats,‬‭and‬‭they‬‭look‬‭like‬‭stacked‬‭cups‬‭or‬‭"strawberries‬‭on‬‭a‬‭stick".‬‭Spinous‬‭scales‬‭are‬‭present‬
‭on‬‭cat‬‭hairs,‬‭and‬‭have‬‭points‬‭that‬‭are‬‭rounded‬‭at‬‭the‬‭ends.‬‭Imbricate‬‭scales‬‭are‬‭found‬‭on‬‭human‬‭hairs,‬‭where‬
‭the‬‭scales‬‭are‬‭more‬‭rectangular‬‭and‬‭flat‬‭in‬‭shape.‬‭Many‬‭mammals‬‭also‬‭have‬‭hairs‬‭with‬‭imbricate‬‭cuticles.‬
‭ air‬‭grows‬‭in‬‭three‬‭stages:‬‭the‬‭anagen,‬‭catagen,‬‭and‬‭telogen‬‭phase.‬‭Occasionally‬‭a‬‭fourth‬‭phase‬‭is‬‭included‬
H
‭known‬‭as‬‭the‬‭exogen‬‭phase,‬‭but‬‭this‬‭is‬‭largely‬‭just‬‭an‬‭extension‬‭of‬‭the‬‭telogen‬‭phase.‬‭T he‬‭anagen‬‭phase‬‭is‬‭the‬
‭first‬‭phase,‬‭and‬‭is‬‭also‬‭known‬‭as‬‭the‬‭growth‬‭phase.‬‭In‬‭this‬‭phase‬‭the‬‭hair‬‭grows‬‭around‬‭1‬‭cm‬‭per‬‭month‬‭for‬
‭around‬‭three‬‭to‬‭five‬‭years.‬‭A‬‭majority‬‭of‬‭hairs‬‭(around‬‭85-90%)‬‭on‬‭the‬‭head‬‭are‬‭in‬‭the‬‭anagen‬‭phase.‬‭T he‬
‭next‬‭phase‬‭is‬‭the‬‭catagen‬‭phase‬‭, ‬‭also‬‭known‬‭as‬‭the‬‭transitional‬‭phase.‬‭T his‬‭phase‬‭lasts‬‭around‬‭two‬‭weeks,‬
‭during‬‭which‬‭the‬‭follicle‬‭shrinks‬‭and‬‭the‬‭hair‬‭is‬‭cut‬‭off‬‭from‬‭its‬‭blood‬‭supply.‬‭T his‬‭forms‬‭a‬‭club‬‭hair,‬‭and‬
‭causes‬‭the‬‭hair‬‭to‬‭enter‬‭the‬‭telogen‬‭phase‬‭. ‬‭In‬‭this‬‭phase‬‭(also‬‭known‬‭as‬‭the‬‭resting‬‭phase),‬‭the‬‭hair‬‭is‬‭dormant‬
‭and‬‭anchored‬‭in‬‭by‬‭epidermal‬‭cells‬‭lining‬‭the‬‭follicle.‬‭T he‬‭follicle‬‭will‬‭eventually‬‭begin‬‭to‬‭grow‬‭again,‬
‭Hair‬ ‭causing‬‭the‬‭anchor‬‭point‬‭of‬‭the‬‭shaft‬‭to‬‭soften‬‭and‬‭the‬‭hair‬‭to‬‭be‬‭shed.‬‭T he‬‭exogen‬‭phase‬‭is‬‭the‬‭process‬‭of‬
‭shedding‬‭the‬‭hair,‬‭while‬‭the‬‭telogen‬‭phase‬‭is‬‭the‬‭hair‬‭laying‬‭dormant.‬
‭A‬‭d iagram‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭h air‬‭shaft‬‭a nd‬‭follicle‬
‭ here‬‭are‬‭five‬‭types‬‭of‬‭hair‬‭to‬‭know‬‭for‬‭competition:‬‭human,‬‭squirrel,‬‭cow,‬‭horse,‬‭and‬‭bat‬‭hair.‬‭While‬‭burn‬
T
‭tests‬‭may‬‭be‬‭performed,‬‭the‬‭hairs‬‭behave‬‭relatively‬‭similarly‬‭when‬‭burned.‬‭As‬‭a‬‭result,‬‭the‬‭best‬‭way‬‭to‬
‭distinguish‬‭hairs‬‭is‬‭to‬‭examine‬‭them‬‭under‬‭a‬‭microscope.‬

‭Chromatography‬
‭See‬‭also:‬‭Crime‬‭B usters#Chromatography‬
‭ hromatography‬‭refers‬‭to‬‭any‬‭technique‬‭used‬‭in‬‭the‬‭lab‬‭to‬‭separate‬‭a‬‭mixture‬‭of‬‭components.‬‭T he‬‭substance‬
C
‭being‬‭analyzed‬‭(the‬‭analyte‬‭)‬‭is‬‭dissolved‬‭in‬‭a‬‭solvent‬‭called‬‭the‬‭mobile‬‭phase‬‭. ‬‭T he‬‭stationary‬‭phase‬‭is‬‭a‬
‭solid‬‭material‬‭which‬‭the‬‭mobile‬‭phase‬‭travels‬‭through.‬‭T he‬‭stationary‬‭phase‬‭is‬‭used‬‭to‬‭separate‬‭the‬‭mixture‬‭but‬
‭does‬‭not‬‭move‬‭with‬‭the‬‭components,‬‭while‬‭the‬‭mobile‬‭phase‬‭is‬‭used‬‭to‬‭separate‬‭the‬‭mixture‬‭and‬‭moves‬‭with‬
‭the‬‭components.‬‭Different‬‭parts‬‭of‬‭the‬‭mixture‬‭will‬‭have‬‭more‬‭or‬‭less‬‭affinity‬‭for‬‭the‬‭stationary‬‭phase.‬‭If‬‭a‬
‭part‬‭of‬‭the‬‭mixture‬‭interacts‬‭strongly‬‭with‬‭the‬‭stationary‬‭phase,‬‭it‬‭will‬‭separate‬‭out‬‭of‬‭the‬‭mixture‬‭more‬
‭quickly.‬‭If‬‭a‬‭part‬‭of‬‭the‬‭mixture‬‭interacts‬‭weakly‬‭with‬‭the‬‭stationary‬‭phase,‬‭it‬‭will‬‭travel‬‭further‬‭from‬‭the‬
‭point‬‭of‬‭origin.‬‭As‬‭a‬‭result,‬‭the‬‭mixture‬‭is‬‭separated‬‭based‬‭on‬‭a‬‭particular‬‭property.‬
I‭ n‬‭normal-phase‬‭chromatography,‬‭the‬‭stationary‬‭phase‬‭will‬‭be‬‭polar‬‭while‬‭the‬‭mobile‬‭phase‬‭will‬‭be‬
‭non-polar.‬‭In‬‭reverse-phase‬‭chromatography,‬‭the‬‭stationary‬‭phase‬‭is‬‭nonpolar‬‭while‬‭the‬‭mobile‬‭phase‬‭is‬‭polar.‬
‭Paper‬‭chromatography‬‭is‬‭often‬‭normal-phase‬‭chromatography.‬‭T he‬‭stationary‬‭phase‬‭is‬‭the‬‭cellulose‬‭in‬‭the‬
‭paper,‬‭which‬‭is‬‭very‬‭polar.‬‭T he‬‭mobile‬‭phase‬‭is‬‭usually‬‭a‬‭non-polar‬‭solvent‬‭like‬‭rubbing‬‭alcohol.‬‭Non-polar‬
‭substances‬‭will‬‭interact‬‭strongly‬‭with‬‭the‬‭mobile‬‭phase‬‭and‬‭travel‬‭far‬‭up‬‭the‬‭paper,‬‭while‬‭polar‬‭substances‬‭will‬
‭react‬‭with‬‭the‬‭mobile‬‭phase‬‭and‬‭stay‬‭close‬‭to‬‭the‬‭point‬‭of‬‭origin.‬
‭ ost‬‭competitions‬‭will‬‭ask‬‭for‬‭R‬‭f‬ ‭(‬‭retention/retardation‬‭factor‬‭)‬‭calculations.‬‭In‬‭some‬‭cases‬‭this‬‭can‬‭also‬‭be‬
M
‭referred‬‭to‬‭as‬‭rate‬‭of‬‭flow.‬‭R‬‭f‬ ‭will‬‭always‬‭be‬‭a‬‭value‬‭between‬‭0‬‭and‬‭1.‬‭A‬‭value‬‭close‬‭to‬‭1‬‭means‬‭that‬‭the‬
‭substance‬‭has‬‭a‬‭high‬‭affinity‬‭for‬‭the‬‭mobile‬‭phase,‬‭and‬‭a‬‭R‭f‬‬ ‭value‬‭close‬‭to‬‭0‬‭means‬‭that‬‭the‬‭substance‬‭has‬‭a‬
‭high‬‭affinity‬‭for‬‭the‬‭stationary‬‭phase.‬‭To‬‭calculate‬‭R‭f‬‬‭, ‬‭measure‬‭the‬‭distance‬‭that‬‭the‬‭analyte‬‭traveled‬‭from‬‭the‬
‭point‬‭of‬‭origin‬‭as‬‭well‬‭as‬‭how‬‭far‬‭the‬‭solvent‬‭traveled.‬‭Divide‬‭the‬‭distance‬‭the‬‭analyte‬‭traveled‬‭by‬‭the‬‭distance‬
‭the‬‭solvent‬‭traveled‬‭to‬‭find‬‭the‬‭R‬‭f‭.‬ ‬‭For‬‭example,‬‭if‬‭the‬‭analyte‬‭traveled‬‭4.3‬‭cm‬‭while‬‭the‬‭solvent‬‭traveled‬‭6.1‬
‭cm,‬‭the‬‭R‭f‬‬ ‭for‬‭that‬‭substance‬‭would‬‭be‬‭0.70.‬‭Always‬‭measure‬‭distance‬‭to‬‭the‬‭center‬‭of‬‭the‬‭band.‬
‭ LC‬‭and‬‭paper‬‭chromatography‬‭are‬‭both‬‭types‬‭of‬‭planar‬‭chromatography‬‭, ‬‭where‬‭the‬‭mobile‬‭phase‬‭travels‬
T ‭ o‬‭prepare‬‭the‬‭filter‬‭paper‬‭for‬‭chromatography,‬‭draw‬‭a‬‭line‬‭in‬‭pencil‬‭around‬‭1‬‭cm‬‭from‬‭the‬‭bottom‬‭of‬‭the‬
T
‭up‬‭a‬‭flat‬‭(planar)‬‭stationary‬‭phase.‬‭Another‬‭type‬‭of‬‭chromatography‬‭is‬‭column‬‭chromatography‬‭, ‬‭where‬‭a‬ ‭paper‬‭strip.‬‭Drawing‬‭the‬‭line‬‭in‬‭pencil‬‭is‬‭important,‬‭as‬‭the‬‭pencil‬‭will‬‭not‬‭be‬‭moved‬‭by‬‭the‬‭solvent.‬‭If‬‭the‬‭line‬
‭bed‬‭of‬‭material‬‭is‬‭placed‬‭in‬‭a‬‭tube‬‭that‬‭the‬‭stationary‬‭phase‬‭drips‬‭through.‬‭T his‬‭technique‬‭is‬‭commonly‬‭used‬‭to‬ ‭is‬‭drawn‬‭in‬‭pen,‬‭it‬‭will‬‭be‬‭difficult‬‭to‬‭read‬‭the‬‭results.‬‭Place‬‭a‬‭dot‬‭of‬‭ink‬‭on‬‭the‬‭pencil‬‭line.‬‭Next,‬‭fill‬‭the‬
‭separate‬‭mixtures‬‭of‬‭proteins‬‭in‬‭a‬‭lab‬‭setting‬‭based‬‭on‬‭properties‬‭like‬‭size,‬‭charge,‬‭or‬‭polarity.‬ ‭beaker‬‭with‬‭the‬‭desired‬‭solvent‬‭so‬‭that‬‭the‬‭solvent‬‭stops‬‭just‬‭before‬‭the‬‭pencil‬‭line‬‭on‬‭the‬‭paper.‬‭It‬‭is‬
‭ ther‬‭types‬‭of‬‭chromatography‬‭include‬‭gas‬‭chromatography‬‭(where‬‭gasses‬‭like‬‭helium‬‭or‬‭nitrogen‬‭are‬‭used‬
O ‭important‬‭to‬‭not‬‭submerge‬‭the‬‭dot‬‭in‬‭the‬‭solvent,‬‭as‬‭the‬‭chromatography‬‭will‬‭not‬‭work‬‭if‬‭this‬‭happens.‬‭Attach‬
‭to‬‭move‬‭the‬‭gaseous‬‭mixture‬‭through‬‭absorbent‬‭material‬‭and‬‭is‬‭used‬‭to‬‭analyze‬‭volatile‬‭gasses)‬‭and‬‭liquid‬ ‭the‬‭top‬‭of‬‭the‬‭strip‬‭of‬‭filter‬‭paper‬‭to‬‭a‬‭dowel‬‭or‬‭rod‬‭using‬‭a‬‭binder‬‭clip‬‭and‬‭place‬‭the‬‭bottom‬‭of‬‭the‬‭filter‬
‭chromatography‬‭(where‬‭liquids‬‭dissolve‬‭ions‬‭and‬‭molecules‬‭and‬‭which‬‭is‬‭used‬‭to‬‭analyze‬‭metal‬‭ions‬‭or‬ ‭paper‬‭into‬‭the‬‭beaker.‬‭T he‬‭dowel‬‭or‬‭rod‬‭will‬‭suspend‬‭the‬‭paper‬‭in‬‭the‬‭solvent‬‭so‬‭it‬‭travels‬‭up‬‭the‬‭filter‬‭paper‬
‭organic‬‭compounds‬‭in‬‭solutions).‬‭Gas‬‭chromatography‬‭is‬‭often‬‭used‬‭in‬‭forensic‬‭analysis‬‭in‬‭combination‬‭with‬ ‭and‬‭separates‬‭the‬‭pigments‬‭in‬‭the‬‭ink.‬‭Once‬‭the‬‭pigments‬‭have‬‭stopped‬‭moving‬‭(or‬‭reached‬‭the‬‭top‬‭of‬‭the‬
‭mass‬‭spectroscopy,‬‭where‬‭it‬‭is‬‭known‬‭as‬‭GC-MS‬‭. ‬‭T his‬‭technique‬‭is‬‭used‬‭to‬‭identify‬‭unknown‬‭substances‬‭in‬ ‭paper),‬‭remove‬‭the‬‭paper‬‭from‬‭the‬‭beaker‬‭and‬‭mark‬‭where‬‭the‬‭solvent‬‭stopped.‬
‭labs‬‭like‬‭debris‬‭or‬‭drug‬‭remnants.‬ ‭ erforming‬‭thin‬‭layer‬‭chromatography‬‭is‬‭similar‬‭to‬‭paper‬‭chromatography.‬‭A‬‭T LC‬‭plate‬‭has‬‭two‬‭sides:‬‭a‬
P
‭ he‬‭only‬‭chromatography‬‭techniques‬‭that‬‭competitors‬‭will‬‭be‬‭asked‬‭to‬‭perform‬‭are‬‭paper‬‭chromatography‬‭and‬
T ‭smooth,‬‭shiny‬‭side‬‭and‬‭a‬‭matte‬‭side‬‭with‬‭the‬‭silica‬‭deposited‬‭on‬‭it.‬‭Draw‬‭a‬‭line‬‭in‬‭pencil‬‭on‬‭the‬‭matte‬‭side‬‭of‬
‭thin‬‭layer‬‭chromatography‬‭(TLC).‬‭Paper‬‭chromatography‬‭utilizes‬‭a‬‭filter‬‭paper‬‭as‬‭a‬‭stationary‬‭phase‬‭and‬‭a‬ ‭the‬‭plate‬‭around‬‭1‬‭cm‬‭from‬‭the‬‭bottom.‬‭T his‬‭may‬‭disturb‬‭the‬‭silica‬‭layer,‬‭but‬‭that‬‭won't‬‭affect‬‭the‬‭results‬‭of‬
‭solvent‬‭like‬‭water‬‭or‬‭rubbing‬‭alcohol‬‭as‬‭the‬‭mobile‬‭phase.‬‭T LC‬‭utilizes‬‭a‬‭thin‬‭plate‬‭made‬‭of‬‭a‬‭nonreactive‬ ‭the‬‭chromatography.‬‭Be‬‭careful‬‭when‬‭handling‬‭the‬‭plate‬‭so‬‭as‬‭to‬‭not‬‭snap‬‭it.‬‭T hen,‬‭place‬‭a‬‭dot‬‭of‬‭ink‬‭on‬‭the‬
‭substance‬‭like‬‭glass‬‭covered‬‭in‬‭an‬‭adsorbent‬‭material‬‭like‬‭silica‬‭(SiO‬‭2‬‭)‬‭or‬‭alumina‬‭(Al‬‭2‬‭O‭3‬ ‬‭).‬‭T he‬‭silica‬‭serves‬‭as‬ ‭pencil‬‭line.‬‭If‬‭the‬‭substance‬‭being‬‭analyzed‬‭is‬‭a‬‭liquid,‬‭it‬‭may‬‭be‬‭necessary‬‭to‬‭use‬‭a‬‭thin‬‭tube‬‭called‬‭a‬‭capillary‬
‭the‬‭stationary‬‭phase,‬‭adhering‬‭to‬‭the‬‭material‬‭being‬‭separated‬‭by‬‭the‬‭solvent.‬‭More‬‭information‬‭about‬ ‭or‬‭a‬‭toothpick‬‭to‬‭place‬‭the‬‭analyte‬‭on‬‭the‬‭plate.‬‭Touch‬‭the‬‭capillary/dropper‬‭into‬‭the‬‭substance,‬‭then‬‭touch‬‭it‬
‭performing‬‭these‬‭techniques‬‭is‬‭included‬‭in‬‭the‬‭section‬‭below.‬ ‭to‬‭the‬‭plate‬‭briefly.‬‭T hen,‬‭treat‬‭the‬‭plate‬‭like‬‭it‬‭was‬‭a‬‭piece‬‭of‬‭paper‬‭in‬‭paper‬‭chromatography.‬‭Pour‬‭solvent‬
‭into‬‭the‬‭beaker‬‭and‬‭place‬‭the‬‭T LC‬‭plate‬‭in‬‭it,‬‭leaning‬‭the‬‭plate‬‭up‬‭against‬‭the‬‭edge‬‭of‬‭the‬‭beaker.‬‭Since‬‭the‬
‭plate‬‭is‬‭rigid,‬‭a‬‭dowel‬‭or‬‭rod‬‭isn't‬‭necessary‬‭to‬‭suspend‬‭it.‬
‭ hromatography‬‭can‬‭be‬‭time‬‭consuming.‬‭A‬‭common‬‭strategy‬‭is‬‭to‬‭prioritize‬‭setting‬‭it‬‭up‬‭at‬‭the‬‭beginning‬‭of‬
C
‭Performing‬‭Chromatography‬ ‭the‬‭time‬‭to‬‭ensure‬‭that‬‭it‬‭is‬‭finished‬‭developing‬‭before‬‭the‬‭end‬‭of‬‭the‬‭testing‬‭period.‬‭T his‬‭ensures‬‭that‬‭enough‬
‭time‬‭is‬‭left‬‭for‬‭the‬‭produced‬‭chromatograms‬‭to‬‭dry‬‭and‬‭for‬‭competitors‬‭to‬‭answer‬‭any‬‭additional‬
‭chromatography‬‭questions.‬

‭Fingerprints‬
‭ ingerprints‬‭are‬‭the‬‭arrangement‬‭of‬‭friction‬‭ridges‬‭/‬‭epidermal‬‭ridges‬‭on‬‭the‬‭tips‬‭of‬‭fingers.‬‭T hey‬‭are‬
F
‭formed‬‭during‬‭fetal‬‭development‬‭when‬‭the‬‭middle‬‭(basal)‬‭layer‬‭of‬‭skin‬‭cells‬‭starts‬‭to‬‭grow‬‭faster‬‭than‬‭the‬
‭layers‬‭above‬‭it,‬‭forming‬‭ridges.‬‭T here‬‭are‬‭three‬‭points‬‭on‬‭the‬‭finger‬‭where‬‭these‬‭ridges‬‭can‬‭originate:‬‭the‬
‭center‬‭of‬‭the‬‭fingertip,‬‭the‬‭end‬‭of‬‭the‬‭fingertip,‬‭and‬‭the‬‭crease‬‭between‬‭the‬‭fingertip‬‭and‬‭the‬‭final‬‭joint‬‭of‬‭the‬
‭A‬‭d iagram‬‭d epicting‬‭a ‬‭p aper‬‭c hromatography‬‭setup.‬‭This‬‭setup‬‭u ses‬‭p ropanone‬‭(acetone)‬‭a s‬‭t he‬‭solvent‬‭a nd‬‭a ‬ ‭finger.‬‭Depending‬‭on‬‭when‬‭and‬‭how‬‭each‬‭location‬‭forms‬‭ridges,‬‭this‬‭will‬‭determine‬‭the‬‭pattern‬‭an‬‭individual's‬
‭p encil‬‭t o‬‭suspend‬‭t he‬‭c hromatography‬‭p aper.‬ ‭fingerprint‬‭has.‬‭An‬‭individual's‬‭fingerprint‬‭is‬‭also‬‭influenced‬‭by‬‭external‬‭factors‬‭like‬‭genetics‬‭and‬‭density‬‭of‬
‭amniotic‬‭fluid‬‭in‬‭the‬‭womb,‬‭making‬‭every‬‭set‬‭of‬‭fingerprints‬‭unique.‬
‭ erforming‬‭paper‬‭chromatography‬‭is‬‭relatively‬‭simple‬‭and‬‭requires‬‭a‬‭short‬‭list‬‭of‬‭materials.‬‭To‬‭practice‬
P ‭ ingerprints‬‭are‬‭stable‬‭over‬‭an‬‭individual's‬‭lifetime‬‭and‬‭can‬‭even‬‭regrow‬‭if‬‭damaged.‬‭Individuals‬‭have‬
F
‭performing‬‭paper‬‭chromatography‬‭at‬‭home‬‭or‬‭school,‬‭students‬‭should‬‭have:‬ ‭succeeded‬‭in‬‭removing‬‭fingerprints‬‭using‬‭harsh‬‭methods‬‭like‬‭surgical‬‭removal‬‭or‬‭burning‬‭them‬‭with‬‭acid,‬‭but‬
‭●‬ S ‭ trips‬‭of‬‭filter‬‭paper‬‭(some‬‭stores‬‭like‬‭Flinn‬‭Scientific‬‭sell‬‭paper‬‭specifically‬‭for‬ ‭small‬‭injuries‬‭typically‬‭result‬‭in‬‭reformation‬‭of‬‭the‬‭print.‬‭Since‬‭fingerprints‬‭are‬‭unique‬‭and‬‭relatively‬
‭chromatography,‬‭but‬‭coffee‬‭filters‬‭or‬‭paper‬‭towels‬‭work‬‭just‬‭as‬‭well)‬ ‭permanent,‬‭they‬‭are‬‭one‬‭of‬‭the‬‭most‬‭commonly‬‭utilized‬‭biometric‬‭identifiers.‬
‭●‬ ‭A‬‭beaker‬‭(200‬‭mL‬‭should‬‭be‬‭fine)‬ ‭ ingerprint‬‭examiners‬‭will‬‭use‬‭a‬‭system‬‭known‬‭as‬‭ACE-V‬‭to‬‭identify‬‭fingerprints.‬‭T his‬‭stands‬‭for‬‭Analysis,‬
F
‭●‬ ‭A‬‭glass‬‭stir‬‭rod‬‭or‬‭dowel‬‭to‬‭suspend‬‭the‬‭filter‬‭paper‬‭above‬‭the‬‭water‬ ‭Comparison,‬‭E valuation,‬‭and‬‭Verification.‬‭First,‬‭an‬‭examiner‬‭will‬‭analyze‬‭the‬‭fingerprint‬‭to‬‭determine‬‭if‬‭it‬‭is‬
‭●‬ ‭A‬‭binder‬‭clip‬ ‭suitable‬‭for‬‭use‬‭in‬‭a‬‭comparison.‬‭After‬‭it‬‭is‬‭cleared‬‭for‬‭use,‬‭a‬‭known‬‭print‬‭will‬‭be‬‭compared‬‭with‬‭the‬‭suspect‬
‭●‬ ‭A‬‭pencil‬ ‭print.‬‭Known‬‭prints‬‭may‬‭be‬‭collected‬‭from‬‭suspects,‬‭or‬‭pulled‬‭directly‬‭from‬‭databases‬‭like‬‭IAFIS‬‭. ‬‭IAFIS‬
‭●‬ ‭Pens‬‭or‬‭markers‬‭to‬‭perform‬‭chromatography‬‭on‬‭(water-soluble‬‭markers‬‭or‬‭pens‬‭like‬‭E xpo‬ ‭(Integrated‬‭Automated‬‭Fingerprint‬‭Identification‬‭System)‬‭is‬‭a‬‭database‬‭used‬‭by‬‭the‬‭FBI‬‭starting‬‭in‬‭1999‬‭to‬
‭markers‬‭get‬‭the‬‭best‬‭results)‬ ‭store‬‭and‬‭organize‬‭fingerprints‬‭collected‬‭in‬‭the‬‭United‬‭States.‬‭Since‬‭2011,‬‭the‬‭FBI‬‭has‬‭made‬‭use‬‭of‬‭NGI‬‭(Next‬
‭●‬ ‭Around‬‭50‬‭mL‬‭of‬‭solvent‬‭(typically‬‭water,‬‭but‬‭can‬‭be‬‭done‬‭with‬‭other‬‭solvents‬‭such‬‭as‬‭alcohol)‬ ‭Generation‬‭Identification)‬‭instead‬‭of‬‭IAFIS.‬‭Once‬‭the‬‭two‬‭prints‬‭have‬‭been‬‭compared,‬‭the‬‭examiner‬‭will‬
e‭ valuate‬‭whether‬‭or‬‭not‬‭they‬‭are‬‭from‬‭the‬‭same‬‭source.‬‭Verification‬‭occurs‬‭when‬‭another‬‭examiner‬
‭independently‬‭analyzes‬‭the‬‭prints‬‭and‬‭either‬‭supports‬‭or‬‭refutes‬‭the‬‭claims‬‭of‬‭the‬‭original‬‭examiner.‬

‭Skin‬
‭The‬‭l ayers‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭e pidermis.‬

‭See‬‭also:‬‭A natomy/Integumentary‬‭System‬‭. ‬
‭ kin‬‭has‬‭three‬‭major‬‭layers:‬‭the‬‭epidermis‬‭, ‬‭the‬‭dermis‬‭, ‬‭and‬‭the‬‭hypodermis‬‭. ‬‭T he‬‭epidermis‬‭is‬‭the‬‭outermost‬
S
‭layer‬‭of‬‭skin,‬‭while‬‭the‬‭hypodermis‬‭is‬‭the‬‭deepest‬‭layer‬‭of‬‭skin.‬‭T here‬‭are‬‭two‬‭types‬‭of‬‭skin,‬‭thick‬‭and‬‭thin‬
‭skin.‬‭T hick‬‭skin‬‭is‬‭found‬‭on‬‭the‬‭fingertips‬‭and‬‭palms‬‭of‬‭the‬‭hands‬‭and‬‭soles‬‭of‬‭the‬‭feet.‬‭T his‬‭is‬‭the‬‭skin‬‭that‬
‭fingerprints‬‭are‬‭made‬‭of.‬
‭ he‬‭most‬‭important‬‭layer‬‭of‬‭the‬‭skin‬‭in‬‭the‬‭context‬‭of‬‭fingerprints‬‭is‬‭the‬‭epidermis,‬‭which‬‭is‬‭the‬‭outer‬‭layer‬
T ‭T here‬‭are‬‭eight‬‭fingerprint‬‭patterns‬‭to‬‭know.‬‭T hey‬‭are:‬
‭of‬‭skin.‬‭Cells‬‭begin‬‭their‬‭life‬‭in‬‭the‬‭basal‬‭layer‬‭and‬‭are‬‭constantly‬‭pushed‬‭upwards,‬‭moving‬‭through‬‭the‬‭layers‬
‭of‬‭skin.‬‭T his‬‭ensures‬‭that‬‭dead‬‭skin‬‭cells‬‭can‬‭be‬‭shed‬‭and‬‭replaced.‬‭T he‬‭epidermis‬‭can‬‭be‬‭further‬‭divided‬‭into‬ ‭‬
● ‭ lain‬‭arch‬
P
‭five‬‭layers‬‭in‬‭thick‬‭skin:‬ ‭●‬ ‭Tented‬‭arch‬
‭●‬ ‭Radial‬‭loop‬
‭●‬ S ‭ tratum‬‭corneum‬‭(cornified‬‭layer)‬‭is‬‭the‬‭outermost‬‭layer‬‭of‬‭the‬‭epidermis.‬‭It‬‭is‬‭formed‬‭from‬ ‭●‬ ‭Ulnar‬‭loop‬
‭dead‬‭cells‬‭almost‬‭entirely‬‭filled‬‭with‬‭keratin.‬‭T hese‬‭cells‬‭are‬‭continuously‬‭shed‬‭and‬‭replaced.‬ ‭●‬ ‭Plain‬‭whorl‬
‭●‬ ‭Stratum‬‭lucidum‬‭(clear‬‭layer)‬‭is‬‭an‬‭additional‬‭layer‬‭only‬‭present‬‭in‬‭thick‬‭skin.‬ ‭●‬ ‭Central‬‭pocket‬‭whorl‬
‭●‬ ‭Stratum‬‭granulosum‬‭(granular‬‭layer)‬‭is‬‭where‬‭keratin‬‭filaments‬‭that‬‭were‬‭formed‬‭in‬‭the‬ ‭●‬ ‭Accidental‬‭whorl‬
‭stratum‬‭spinosum‬‭are‬‭bound‬‭together.‬‭Cells‬‭begin‬‭to‬‭die‬‭once‬‭they‬‭reach‬‭this‬‭layer‬‭of‬‭the‬‭skin,‬‭as‬ ‭●‬ ‭Double‬‭loop‬‭whorl‬
‭they‬‭no‬‭longer‬‭receive‬‭nutrients‬‭from‬‭the‬‭capillaries‬‭in‬‭deeper‬‭layers.‬
‭●‬ ‭Stratum‬‭spinosum‬‭(spiny‬‭layer)‬‭is‬‭a‬‭layer‬‭featuring‬‭cells‬‭bound‬‭together‬‭in‬‭structures‬‭called‬ ‭ rches‬‭have‬‭no‬‭deltas.‬‭T he‬‭ridges‬‭rise‬‭in‬‭the‬‭center‬‭of‬‭the‬‭fingertip,‬‭forming‬‭an‬‭arch.‬‭Tented‬‭arches‬‭are‬‭easily‬
A
‭desmosomes.‬‭Keratin‬‭production‬‭begins‬‭when‬‭cells‬‭are‬‭in‬‭this‬‭layer.‬ ‭distinguishable‬‭by‬‭the‬‭triangular‬‭core‬‭(though‬‭this‬‭is‬‭different‬‭from‬‭a‬‭delta).‬‭T hey‬‭are‬‭the‬‭rarest‬‭fingerprint,‬
‭●‬ ‭Stratum‬‭basale‬‭(basal‬‭layer)‬‭is‬‭the‬‭innermost‬‭layer‬‭of‬‭the‬‭epidermis.‬‭T his‬‭is‬‭the‬‭layer‬ ‭with‬‭only‬‭around‬‭5%‬‭of‬‭fingerprints‬‭being‬‭arches.‬
‭responsible‬‭for‬‭fingerprint‬‭formation‬‭in‬‭the‬‭womb.‬‭When‬‭the‬‭basal‬‭cells‬‭present‬‭in‬‭this‬‭layer‬ ‭ oops‬‭have‬‭only‬‭one‬‭delta.‬‭T he‬‭difference‬‭between‬‭an‬‭ulnar‬‭loop‬‭and‬‭a‬‭radial‬‭loop‬‭is‬‭that‬‭ulnar‬‭loops‬‭"enter‬
L
‭form‬‭ridges,‬‭small‬‭projections‬‭called‬‭epidermal‬‭ridges‬‭form.‬‭T his‬‭also‬‭helps‬‭the‬‭epidermis‬‭obtain‬ ‭and‬‭exit"‬‭on‬‭the‬‭side‬‭facing‬‭the‬‭pinky‬‭(the‬‭side‬‭of‬‭the‬‭wrist‬‭containing‬‭the‬‭ulna)‬‭while‬‭radial‬‭loops‬‭do‬‭so‬‭on‬
‭nutrients‬‭from‬‭the‬‭dermis.‬ ‭the‬‭side‬‭facing‬‭the‬‭thumb‬‭(the‬‭side‬‭of‬‭the‬‭wrist‬‭containing‬‭the‬‭radius).‬‭T his‬‭is‬‭the‬‭most‬‭common‬‭fingerprint‬
‭pattern,‬‭with‬‭around‬‭65%‬‭of‬‭fingerprints‬‭being‬‭loops.‬
‭Patterns‬‭a nd‬‭Minutiae‬ ‭ horls‬‭have‬‭two‬‭or‬‭more‬‭deltas.‬‭T he‬‭presence‬‭of‬‭more‬‭than‬‭two‬‭deltas‬‭indicates‬‭an‬‭accidental‬‭whorl.‬‭To‬
W
‭distinguish‬‭between‬‭plain‬‭whorls‬‭and‬‭central‬‭pocket‬‭whorls,‬‭draw‬‭a‬‭line‬‭between‬‭the‬‭two‬‭deltas‬‭on‬‭the‬
‭fingerprint.‬‭If‬‭the‬‭line‬‭intersects‬‭with‬‭the‬‭central‬‭pattern‬‭(the‬‭swirling‬‭part‬‭of‬‭the‬‭whorl),‬‭it‬‭is‬‭a‬‭plain‬‭whorl.‬‭If‬
‭it‬‭does‬‭not,‬‭it‬‭is‬‭a‬‭central‬‭pocket‬‭whorl.‬‭Double‬‭loop‬‭whorls‬‭are‬‭easy‬‭to‬‭identify,‬‭since‬‭they‬‭have‬‭two‬‭loop‬
‭patterns‬‭in‬‭the‬‭core‬‭area‬‭of‬‭the‬‭whorl.‬‭Whorls‬‭make‬‭up‬‭around‬‭30%‬‭of‬‭fingerprints.‬

‭ inutiae‬‭are‬‭small‬‭features‬‭of‬‭fingerprint‬‭ridges,‬‭separate‬‭from‬‭the‬‭main‬‭fingerprint‬‭pattern.‬‭E xamples‬‭can‬
M
‭be‬‭seen‬‭to‬‭the‬‭right.‬
‭‬
● ‭ idge‬‭Ending‬‭:‬‭A‬‭ridge‬‭that‬‭ends‬‭abruptly‬
R
‭●‬ ‭Bifurcation‬‭:‬‭A‬‭single‬‭ridge‬‭that‬‭divides‬‭in‬‭two‬
‭●‬ ‭Dot‬‭:‬‭A‬‭ridge‬‭with‬‭approximately‬‭equal‬‭length‬‭and‬‭width‬
‭●‬ ‭Island‬‭or‬‭short/independent‬‭ridge‬‭:‬‭A‬‭single‬‭small‬‭ridge‬‭that‬‭is‬‭not‬‭connected‬‭to‬‭other‬‭ridges‬
‭●‬ ‭Lake/ridge‬‭enclosure‬‭:‬‭A‬‭ridge‬‭that‬‭bifurcates‬‭and‬‭then‬‭reforms‬‭to‬‭continue‬‭as‬‭one‬‭ridge‬
 ‭‬
● ‭ pur‬‭:‬‭A‬‭bifurcation‬‭where‬‭a‬‭short‬‭ridge‬‭branches‬‭off‬‭of‬‭a‬‭larger‬‭ridge‬
S ‭Cyanoacrylate‬‭(Superglue)‬‭F uming‬
‭●‬ ‭Bridge/crossover‬‭:‬‭A‬‭short‬‭ridge‬‭that‬‭runs‬‭between‬‭two‬‭parallel‬‭ridges‬
‭●‬ ‭Delta‬‭:‬‭A‬‭Y-shaped‬‭formation‬‭where‬‭two‬‭ridges‬‭meet‬ ‭ his‬‭form‬‭of‬‭development‬‭utilizes‬‭cyanoacrylate‬‭(CA),‬‭also‬‭known‬‭as‬‭superglue.‬‭A‬‭special‬‭chamber‬‭is‬‭used,‬
T
‭●‬ ‭Core‬‭:‬‭A‬‭circle‬‭in‬‭the‬‭ridge‬‭pattern‬‭(seen‬‭in‬‭whorls)‬ ‭and‬‭the‬‭CA‬‭is‬‭heated‬‭in‬‭order‬‭to‬‭form‬‭a‬‭vapor.‬‭T his‬‭vapor‬‭will‬‭react‬‭with‬‭moisture‬‭and‬‭organic‬‭molecules‬‭in‬
‭the‬‭fingerprint,‬‭forming‬‭a‬‭white‬‭fingerprint.‬‭T his‬‭works‬‭best‬‭on‬‭nonporous‬‭surfaces‬‭like‬‭glass,‬‭plastic,‬‭and‬
‭Types‬‭a nd‬‭Development‬ ‭metal.‬

‭ he‬‭word‬‭"fingerprint"‬‭mostly‬‭refers‬‭to‬‭the‬‭impression‬‭left‬‭behind‬‭when‬‭a‬‭finger‬‭interacts‬‭with‬‭a‬‭surface.‬
T ‭Other‬‭Methods‬
‭Fingerprints‬‭are‬‭made‬‭mostly‬‭of‬‭sweat‬‭and‬‭water,‬‭but‬‭can‬‭also‬‭contain‬‭various‬‭organic‬‭and‬‭inorganic‬
‭ he‬‭methods‬‭above‬‭are‬‭specifically‬‭mentioned‬‭in‬‭the‬‭rules‬‭manual,‬‭but‬‭they‬‭are‬‭not‬‭the‬‭only‬‭methods‬‭utilized‬
T
‭compounds‬‭like‬‭amino‬‭acids‬‭or‬‭ions.‬‭T hese‬‭trace‬‭compounds‬‭are‬‭essential‬‭when‬‭it‬‭comes‬‭to‬‭fingerprint‬
‭to‬‭detect‬‭fingerprints.‬‭Some‬‭additional‬‭methods‬‭are‬‭outlined‬‭below.‬
‭development‬‭, ‬‭or‬‭the‬‭process‬‭of‬‭making‬‭invisible‬‭fingerprints‬‭visible.‬‭Some‬‭fingerprints‬‭can‬‭be‬‭seen‬‭with‬‭the‬
‭naked‬‭eye,‬‭but‬‭others‬‭can't.‬‭T here‬‭are‬‭three‬‭types‬‭of‬‭fingerprints:‬ ‭●‬ S ‭ ilver‬‭Nitrate‬‭:‬‭T he‬‭object‬‭with‬‭the‬‭fingerprint‬‭is‬‭dipped‬‭in‬‭or‬‭sprayed‬‭with‬‭silver‬‭nitrate,‬‭which‬
‭reacts‬‭with‬‭chlorides‬‭in‬‭the‬‭fingerprint‬‭and‬‭turns‬‭gray‬‭when‬‭exposed‬‭to‬‭light.‬‭T his‬‭technique‬‭is‬
‭●‬ V ‭ isible/Patent‬‭:‬‭As‬‭the‬‭name‬‭suggests,‬‭these‬‭ones‬‭can‬‭easily‬‭be‬‭seen‬‭because‬‭they‬‭were‬‭made‬‭with‬
‭commonly‬‭used‬‭for‬‭surfaces‬‭like‬‭wood‬‭or‬‭styrofoam.‬
‭a‬‭substance‬‭like‬‭ink‬‭or‬‭blood.‬‭T hey‬‭can‬‭also‬‭easily‬‭be‬‭photographed‬‭without‬‭development.‬
‭●‬ ‭Small‬‭P article‬‭Reagent‬‭(SPR)‬‭:‬‭Not‬‭as‬‭common‬‭as‬‭the‬‭other‬‭methods‬‭used,‬‭but‬‭still‬‭important.‬
‭●‬ ‭P lastic‬‭:‬‭Made‬‭in‬‭soft‬‭material‬‭such‬‭as‬‭clay.‬‭L ess‬‭easy‬‭to‬‭detect‬‭than‬‭visible‬‭fingerprints,‬‭but‬‭can‬
‭SPR‬‭is‬‭used‬‭for‬‭wet‬‭surfaces‬‭and‬‭reacts‬‭with‬‭the‬‭lipids‬‭present‬‭in‬‭fingerprints.‬
‭still‬‭be‬‭photographed‬‭without‬‭development.‬
‭●‬ ‭Wetwop‬‭:‬‭a‬‭special‬‭pre-mixed‬‭liquid‬‭formula‬‭that‬‭is‬‭designed‬‭to‬‭lift‬‭latent‬‭prints‬‭on‬‭the‬‭sticky‬
‭●‬ ‭Latent‬‭:‬‭Invisible‬‭fingerprints.‬‭T hese‬‭must‬‭be‬‭developed‬‭before‬‭being‬‭photographed.‬
‭sides‬‭of‬‭adhesive‬‭surfaces‬‭(i.e.‬‭most‬‭kinds‬‭of‬‭tape)‬
‭ here‬‭are‬‭various‬‭methods‬‭that‬‭can‬‭be‬‭used‬‭for‬‭latent‬‭print‬‭development.‬‭Many‬‭of‬‭them‬‭involve‬‭chemicals‬
T ‭●‬ ‭Alternate‬‭Light‬‭Sources‬‭:‬‭L asers‬‭and‬‭L EDs‬‭in‬‭combination‬‭with‬‭certain‬‭filters‬‭or‬‭dyes‬‭are‬‭used‬
‭that‬‭will‬‭react‬‭with‬‭trace‬‭compounds‬‭left‬‭behind‬‭in‬‭prints‬‭like‬‭amino‬‭acids‬‭or‬‭lipids.‬ ‭to‬‭reveal‬‭the‬‭location‬‭and‬‭pattern‬‭of‬‭fingerprints.‬
‭●‬ ‭Columnar‬‭Thin‬‭F ilm‬‭(CTF)‬‭:‬‭Deposits‬‭a‬‭thin-film‬‭coating‬‭on‬‭the‬‭fingerprint‬‭in‬‭a‬‭specific‬
‭Dusting‬ ‭chamber,‬‭allowing‬‭for‬‭preservation‬‭of‬‭the‬‭ridges‬‭and‬‭topography‬‭of‬‭the‬‭fingerprint.‬

‭ owder‬‭applied‬‭to‬‭prints‬‭sticks‬‭to‬‭fatty‬‭acids‬‭and‬‭lipids.‬‭Generally,‬‭this‬‭method‬‭involves‬‭using‬‭a‬‭special‬‭brush,‬
P
‭usually‬‭made‬‭of‬‭camel‬‭hair,‬‭to‬‭lightly‬‭spread‬‭the‬‭powder‬‭over‬‭the‬‭area‬‭where‬‭prints‬‭may‬‭be‬‭found,‬‭usually‬
‭smooth‬‭or‬‭nonporous‬‭surfaces.‬ ‭DNA‬
‭ here‬‭are‬‭numerous‬‭different‬‭fingerprinting‬‭powders‬‭used‬‭in‬‭dusting,‬‭and‬‭their‬‭usages‬‭vary‬‭depending‬‭on‬‭the‬
T ‭See‬‭also:‬‭Heredity#DNA‬
‭surface‬‭and‬‭the‬‭scene‬‭environment.‬‭For‬‭example,‬‭it‬‭would‬‭make‬‭more‬‭sense‬‭to‬‭use‬‭a‬‭dark-colored‬‭powder‬‭on‬
‭a‬‭light-colored‬‭surface‬‭or‬‭a‬‭fluorescent‬‭powder‬‭on‬‭a‬‭dark-colored‬‭surface.‬‭T he‬‭exact‬‭compositions‬‭of‬‭such‬ ‭ lthough‬‭many‬‭competitions‬‭simply‬‭require‬‭competitors‬‭to‬‭match‬‭DNA‬‭fingerprints,‬‭basic‬‭questions‬‭about‬
A
‭powders‬‭vary,‬‭as‬‭most‬‭formulas‬‭are‬‭kept‬‭proprietary‬‭by‬‭their‬‭manufacturers.‬ ‭the‬‭structure‬‭of‬‭DNA‬‭may‬‭appear‬‭on‬‭tests.‬‭DNA‬‭stands‬‭for‬‭deoxyribonucleic‬‭acid‬‭, ‬‭and‬‭is‬‭composed‬‭of‬‭four‬
‭nitrogenous‬‭bases:‬‭adenine,‬‭cytosine,‬‭thymine,‬‭and‬‭guanine.‬‭T he‬‭base‬‭unit‬‭of‬‭DNA‬‭is‬‭known‬‭as‬‭a‬‭nucleotide‬‭, ‬
‭Iodine‬‭F uming‬ ‭and‬‭is‬‭composed‬‭of‬‭a‬‭deoxyribose‬‭sugar,‬‭a‬‭phosphate‬‭group,‬‭and‬‭one‬‭of‬‭these‬‭four‬‭bases.‬‭T hese‬‭nucleotides‬
‭link‬‭up,‬‭forming‬‭long‬‭strands‬‭of‬‭DNA.‬‭DNA‬‭is‬‭a‬‭double‬‭helix,‬‭made‬‭up‬‭of‬‭two‬‭strands‬‭that‬‭twist‬‭together.‬
‭ ne‬‭of‬‭the‬‭earliest‬‭methods‬‭of‬‭fingerprint‬‭development,‬‭this‬‭method‬‭uses‬‭iodine‬‭to‬‭visualize‬‭latent‬
O ‭Because‬‭each‬‭DNA‬‭molecule‬‭is‬‭made‬‭up‬‭of‬‭two‬‭strands,‬‭the‬‭nitrogenous‬‭bases‬‭must‬‭pair‬‭together--adenine‬
‭fingerprints.‬‭It‬‭is‬‭fast‬‭and‬‭inexpensive,‬‭reacting‬‭with‬‭body‬‭fats‬‭and‬‭oils‬‭in‬‭prints.‬‭Iodine‬‭is‬‭a‬‭solid‬‭but‬‭it‬‭easily‬ ‭pairs‬‭with‬‭thymine,‬‭and‬‭guanine‬‭pairs‬‭with‬‭cytosine.‬
‭sublimes,‬‭forming‬‭a‬‭dark‬‭purple‬‭vapor.‬‭By‬‭placing‬‭the‬‭fingerprint‬‭in‬‭a‬‭chamber‬‭with‬‭some‬‭iodine,‬‭the‬‭iodine‬
‭vapor‬‭will‬‭adhere‬‭to‬‭the‬‭oils‬‭in‬‭the‬‭fingerprint.‬‭T his‬‭produces‬‭a‬‭temporary‬‭fingerprint‬‭that‬‭will‬‭fade‬‭in‬‭a‬‭few‬
‭days.‬‭To‬‭"fix"‬‭the‬‭fingerprint‬‭and‬‭keep‬‭it‬‭permanently,‬‭the‬‭fingerprint‬‭is‬‭then‬‭treated‬‭with‬‭a‬‭starch‬‭solution‬
‭Gel‬‭e lectrophoresis‬‭a pparatus‬
‭which‬‭reacts‬‭with‬‭the‬‭iodine‬‭and‬‭turns‬‭black.‬‭T his‬‭method‬‭of‬‭development‬‭works‬‭well‬‭on‬‭surfaces‬‭like‬‭paper‬
‭or‬‭cardboard.‬
‭ NA‬‭fingerprints‬‭are‬‭created‬‭through‬‭a‬‭process‬‭known‬‭as‬‭gel‬‭electrophoresis‬‭. ‬‭DNA‬‭molecules‬‭are‬‭placed‬‭into‬
D
‭Ninhydrin‬ ‭a‬‭box‬‭containing‬‭a‬‭buffer‬‭solution‬‭and‬‭a‬‭gel‬‭(typically‬‭agarose),‬‭as‬‭well‬‭as‬‭positive‬‭and‬‭negative‬‭electrodes.‬
‭DNA‬‭is‬‭placed‬‭into‬‭wells‬‭in‬‭the‬‭gel,‬‭and‬‭the‬‭current‬‭is‬‭turned‬‭on.‬‭Because‬‭the‬‭DNA‬‭is‬‭negatively‬‭charged,‬‭it‬
‭ ‬‭chemical‬‭method‬‭that‬‭is‬‭useful‬‭for‬‭lifting‬‭latent‬‭prints‬‭on‬‭paper.‬‭T he‬‭object‬‭with‬‭the‬‭print‬‭is‬‭dipped‬‭in‬‭or‬
A ‭will‬‭migrate‬‭through‬‭the‬‭gel‬‭towards‬‭the‬‭positive‬‭electrode.‬‭Shorter‬‭DNA‬‭fragments‬‭travel‬‭further‬‭away‬‭from‬
‭sprayed‬‭with‬‭ninhydrin,‬‭then‬‭left‬‭to‬‭develop‬‭for‬‭24‬‭hours.‬‭It‬‭reacts‬‭with‬‭amino‬‭acids‬‭left‬‭behind‬‭in‬‭prints‬‭and‬ ‭the‬‭wells‬‭through‬‭a‬‭process‬‭known‬‭as‬‭sieving‬‭. ‬‭T he‬‭agarose‬‭gel‬‭is‬‭a‬‭matrix,‬‭and‬‭it‬‭is‬‭much‬‭easier‬‭for‬‭the‬‭short‬
‭results‬‭in‬‭purple‬‭fingerprints.‬ ‭fragments‬‭to‬‭move‬‭through‬‭the‬‭pores‬‭in‬‭the‬‭gel.‬‭L ong‬‭DNA‬‭fragments‬‭will‬‭get‬‭caught‬‭and‬‭tangled,‬‭and‬‭stop‬
‭moving‬‭as‬‭a‬‭result.‬‭T his‬‭separates‬‭the‬‭fragments,‬‭producing‬‭the‬‭complete‬‭fingerprint.‬‭To‬‭determine‬‭if‬‭an‬
i‭ ndividual's‬‭DNA‬‭matches‬‭the‬‭DNA‬‭at‬‭the‬‭crime‬‭scene,‬‭simply‬‭match‬‭the‬‭bands‬‭on‬‭the‬‭fingerprints.‬‭If‬‭the‬ ‭ ith‬‭modern‬‭alternatives‬‭for‬‭these‬‭purposes.‬‭Modern‬‭crystal‬‭glass‬‭is‬‭used‬‭to‬‭make‬‭wine‬‭glasses‬
w
‭bands‬‭don't‬‭match,‬‭the‬‭DNA‬‭isn't‬‭the‬‭same‬‭and‬‭the‬‭suspect‬‭was‬‭not‬‭the‬‭one‬‭whose‬‭DNA‬‭was‬‭found‬‭at‬‭the‬ ‭and‬‭other‬‭stemware‬‭and‬‭typically‬‭consists‬‭of‬‭barium‬‭oxide‬‭or‬‭zinc‬‭oxide‬‭instead‬‭of‬‭lead.‬
‭crime‬‭scene.‬ ‭However,‬‭since‬‭lead‬‭glass‬‭is‬‭softer‬‭and‬‭easier‬‭to‬‭work‬‭with‬‭it‬‭is‬‭commonly‬‭used‬‭in‬‭artisan‬‭glass‬
‭projects.‬
‭Glass‬‭type‬ ‭ ensity‬
D
‭A‬‭d iagram‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭p rocess‬‭o f‬‭PCR‬ ‭(g/cm‬‭3‬‭)‬

‭Fused‬‭silica‬ ‭2.18‬
‭ owever,‬‭the‬‭DNA‬‭used‬‭in‬‭gel‬‭electrophoresis‬‭has‬‭to‬‭come‬‭from‬‭somewhere.‬‭P olymerase‬‭Chain‬‭Reaction‬
H
‭(PCR)‬‭is‬‭a‬‭method‬‭of‬‭synthetic‬‭DNA‬‭replication‬‭used‬‭to‬‭amplify‬‭fragments‬‭of‬‭DNA‬‭for‬‭use‬‭in‬‭fingerprinting.‬ ‭ orosilicate‬
B ‭2.2-2.5‬
‭It‬‭has‬‭three‬‭steps:‬‭denaturing‬‭, ‬‭annealing‬‭, ‬‭and‬‭synthesis/elongation‬‭. ‬‭In‬‭denaturing,‬‭the‬‭DNA‬‭is‬‭heated‬‭to‬ ‭glass‬
‭approximately‬‭95‬‭C‬‭in‬‭order‬‭to‬‭break‬‭apart‬‭the‬‭two‬‭strands‬‭so‬‭that‬‭new‬‭DNA‬‭can‬‭be‬‭created.‬‭In‬‭the‬‭annealing‬
‭stage,‬‭the‬‭DNA‬‭is‬‭cooled‬‭to‬‭anywhere‬‭between‬‭50‬‭and‬‭56‬‭C‬‭so‬‭that‬‭a‬‭primer‬‭can‬‭be‬‭attached‬‭to‬‭the‬‭DNA‬ ‭Soda-lime‬‭glass‬ ‭2.4-2.8‬
‭strands.‬‭T his‬‭primer‬‭is‬‭essential‬‭for‬‭the‬‭replication‬‭of‬‭DNA,‬‭which‬‭occurs‬‭in‬‭the‬‭final‬‭stage.‬‭During‬
‭synthesis/elongation,‬‭new‬‭DNA‬‭is‬‭created‬‭using‬‭the‬‭primer‬‭as‬‭a‬‭starting‬‭point.‬‭An‬‭enzyme‬‭known‬‭as‬‭Taq‬ ‭L ead‬‭crystal‬ ‭3.1‬
‭polymerase‬‭creates‬‭a‬‭new‬‭DNA‬‭strand,‬‭using‬‭the‬‭starting‬‭strand‬‭as‬‭a‬‭template.‬‭Knowing‬‭that‬‭adenine‬‭pairs‬
‭with‬‭thymine‬‭and‬‭guanine‬‭pairs‬‭with‬‭cytosine,‬‭it‬‭can‬‭put‬‭the‬‭nucleotides‬‭in‬‭the‬‭correct‬‭order‬‭and‬‭create‬‭a‬ ‭ ince‬‭each‬‭type‬‭of‬‭glass‬‭incorporates‬‭different‬‭additives‬‭and‬‭has‬‭different‬‭compositions,‬‭that‬‭makes‬‭them‬
S
‭complete‬‭strand‬‭of‬‭DNA.‬‭PCR‬‭can‬‭be‬‭repeated‬‭for‬‭dozens‬‭of‬‭cycles,‬‭creating‬‭plenty‬‭of‬‭new‬‭DNA‬‭strands‬ ‭relatively‬‭unique.‬‭T here‬‭are‬‭entire‬‭databases‬‭dedicated‬‭to‬‭the‬‭properties‬‭of‬‭different‬‭compositions‬‭of‬‭glass,‬‭so‬
‭which‬‭can‬‭be‬‭used‬‭in‬‭forensic‬‭analysis.‬ ‭chemical‬‭analysis‬‭is‬‭typically‬‭used‬‭to‬‭get‬‭a‬‭more‬‭conclusive‬‭result.‬‭However,‬‭tests‬‭like‬‭density‬‭and‬‭index‬‭of‬
‭refraction‬‭can‬‭still‬‭give‬‭an‬‭idea‬‭of‬‭what‬‭type‬‭of‬‭glass‬‭was‬‭found‬‭at‬‭a‬‭crime‬‭scene.‬
‭ ach‬‭type‬‭of‬‭glass‬‭has‬‭a‬‭different‬‭density‬‭due‬‭to‬‭differences‬‭in‬‭composition.‬‭See‬‭the‬‭table‬‭to‬‭the‬‭right‬‭for‬
E
‭Glass‬ ‭common‬‭densities‬‭of‬‭a‬‭few‬‭types‬‭of‬‭glass.‬‭Since‬‭the‬‭densities‬‭are‬‭so‬‭similar‬‭in‬‭some‬‭cases,‬‭measurements‬‭have‬
‭to‬‭be‬‭relatively‬‭precise‬‭to‬‭distinguish‬‭types‬‭of‬‭glass.‬‭As‬‭a‬‭result,‬‭density‬‭isn't‬‭commonly‬‭the‬‭first‬‭test‬
‭ lass‬‭is‬‭an‬‭amorphous‬‭solid‬‭made‬‭primarily‬‭of‬‭silicon‬‭dioxide‬‭(SiO‬‭2‬‭),‬‭also‬‭known‬‭as‬‭silica.‬‭Forensic‬‭analysis‬
G
‭performed‬‭in‬‭analysis.‬‭One‬‭of‬‭the‬‭main‬‭distinguishing‬‭tests‬‭is‬‭the‬‭refractive‬‭index‬‭of‬‭a‬‭piece‬‭of‬‭glass,‬‭which‬
‭of‬‭glass‬‭typically‬‭involves‬‭testing‬‭glass‬‭fragments‬‭to‬‭determine‬‭if‬‭they‬‭have‬‭the‬‭same‬‭origin‬‭or‬‭not.‬‭Since‬
‭will‬‭determine‬‭if‬‭two‬‭pieces‬‭of‬‭glass‬‭originate‬‭from‬‭the‬‭same‬‭source.‬
‭stress‬‭patterns‬‭and‬‭breakages‬‭are‬‭unique‬‭to‬‭a‬‭common‬‭origin,‬‭they‬‭can‬‭be‬‭viewed‬‭and‬‭analyzed‬‭to‬‭tie‬‭a‬‭suspect‬
‭to‬‭the‬‭crime.‬‭Glass‬‭evidence‬‭can‬‭also‬‭help‬‭relay‬‭the‬‭order‬‭of‬‭events‬‭of‬‭a‬‭crime‬‭as‬‭fractures‬‭form‬‭in‬‭particular‬
‭ways‬‭depending‬‭on‬‭the‬‭direction‬‭of‬‭force,‬‭order‬‭of‬‭impact,‬‭or‬‭type‬‭of‬‭glass‬‭impacted.‬ ‭A‬‭Brief‬‭Lesson‬‭in‬‭Optics‬
‭ lass‬‭can‬‭be‬‭made‬‭with‬‭a‬‭variety‬‭of‬‭different‬‭additives‬‭and‬‭impurities‬‭which‬‭make‬‭it‬‭better‬‭suited‬‭for‬
G
‭different‬‭tasks.‬‭Some‬‭of‬‭these‬‭include:‬
‭●‬ S ‭ ilicate‬‭glass‬‭(also‬‭known‬‭as‬‭fused‬‭silica‬‭glass‬‭or‬‭fused‬‭quartz‬‭glass‬‭)‬‭is‬‭made‬‭of‬‭100%‬‭pure‬ ‭ ptics‬‭is‬‭the‬‭field‬‭of‬‭science‬‭dedicated‬‭to‬‭studying‬‭the‬‭behavior‬‭and‬‭properties‬‭of‬‭light.‬‭L ight‬‭can‬‭interact‬
O
‭silicon‬‭dioxide.‬‭T his‬‭makes‬‭it‬‭very‬‭difficult‬‭to‬‭work‬‭with,‬‭and‬‭as‬‭a‬‭result‬‭it‬‭is‬‭relatively‬ ‭with‬‭surfaces‬‭in‬‭two‬‭main‬‭ways:‬‭reflection‬‭or‬‭refraction‬‭. ‬‭T he‬‭main‬‭concern‬‭for‬‭this‬‭event‬‭is‬‭refraction,‬‭the‬
‭uncommon.‬ ‭way‬‭that‬‭light‬‭bends‬‭when‬‭it‬‭travels‬‭through‬‭different‬‭mediums.‬
‭●‬ ‭Soda-lime‬‭glass‬‭is‬‭the‬‭most‬‭common‬‭type‬‭of‬‭glass,‬‭made‬‭using‬‭primarily‬‭sodium‬‭carbonate‬ ‭ ‬‭common‬‭example‬‭of‬‭refraction‬‭is‬‭what‬‭happens‬‭when‬‭a‬‭straw‬‭or‬‭other‬‭object‬‭is‬‭submerged‬‭in‬‭a‬‭glass‬‭of‬
A
‭(Na‬‭2‬‭CO‬‭3‬‭)‬‭as‬‭an‬‭additive.‬‭However,‬‭if‬‭only‬‭sodium‬‭carbonate‬‭was‬‭added‬‭the‬‭resulting‬‭compound‬ ‭water.‬‭T he‬‭submerged‬‭portion‬‭of‬‭the‬‭straw‬‭will‬‭appear‬‭displaced‬‭or‬‭broken,‬‭while‬‭the‬‭portion‬‭that‬‭isn't‬
‭would‬‭be‬‭water-soluble‬‭and‬‭not‬‭particularly‬‭durable.‬‭As‬‭a‬‭result‬‭multiple‬‭other‬‭compounds‬‭such‬ ‭submerged‬‭remains‬‭unchanged.‬‭While‬‭the‬‭speed‬‭of‬‭light‬‭in‬‭a‬‭vacuum‬‭is‬‭constant,‬‭light‬‭can‬‭change‬‭speed‬‭when‬
‭as‬‭lime‬‭(CaO),‬‭magnesium‬‭oxide‬‭(MgO),‬‭and‬‭aluminum‬‭oxide‬‭(Al‬‭2‭O ‬ ‬‭3‭)
‬ ‬‭are‬‭added.‬‭Typically,‬ ‭traveling‬‭through‬‭different‬‭materials.‬‭L ight‬‭travels‬‭faster‬‭in‬‭air‬‭than‬‭it‬‭does‬‭in‬‭glass‬‭or‬‭water,‬‭so‬‭the‬‭light‬‭is‬
‭soda-lime‬‭glass‬‭is‬‭60-75%‬‭silica,‬‭12-18%‬‭sodium‬‭carbonate,‬‭and‬‭5-12%‬‭lime.‬‭Another‬‭5%‬‭will‬ ‭bent‬‭or‬‭refracted.‬
‭typically‬‭come‬‭from‬‭other‬‭oxides‬‭added‬‭for‬‭durability.‬ ‭ he‬‭angle‬‭at‬‭which‬‭light‬‭is‬‭refracted‬‭depends‬‭on‬‭how‬‭quickly‬‭it‬‭travels‬‭through‬‭the‬‭different‬‭materials.‬‭T his‬
T
‭●‬ ‭Borosilicate‬‭glass‬‭is‬‭typically‬‭sold‬‭for‬‭cooking‬‭and‬‭baking‬‭under‬‭brand‬‭names‬‭like‬‭Pyrex.‬‭It‬ ‭can‬‭be‬‭characterized‬‭by‬‭a‬‭material's‬‭index‬‭of‬‭refraction‬‭. ‬‭Index‬‭of‬‭refraction‬‭is‬‭typically‬‭defined‬‭as‬‭the‬‭ratio‬
‭incorporates‬‭5-13%‬‭boron‬‭trioxide‬‭(B‬‭2‭O ‬ ‬‭3‭)
‬ ‬‭which‬‭gives‬‭it‬‭r esistance‬‭to‬‭temperature‬‭change.‬ ‭of‬‭the‬‭speed‬‭of‬‭light‬‭in‬‭a‬‭vacuum‬‭to‬‭the‬‭speed‬‭of‬‭light‬‭in‬‭the‬‭medium‬‭(written‬‭as‬‭n‬‭=‬‭c/v).‬‭T he‬‭refractive‬
‭T hough‬‭it‬‭is‬‭more‬‭difficult‬‭to‬‭manufacture‬‭than‬‭soda-lime‬‭glass,‬‭its‬‭durability‬‭makes‬‭it‬‭common‬ ‭index‬‭of‬‭a‬‭vacuum‬‭will‬‭always‬‭be‬‭1,‬‭as‬‭the‬‭speed‬‭that‬‭light‬‭travels‬‭does‬‭not‬‭change‬‭between‬‭two‬‭mediums.‬‭Air‬
‭in‬‭the‬‭kitchen‬‭and‬‭in‬‭laboratories‬‭where‬‭it‬‭is‬‭used‬‭for‬‭beakers‬‭and‬‭flasks.‬ ‭has‬‭a‬‭very‬‭low‬‭refractive‬‭index‬‭of‬‭1.0003,‬‭hardly‬‭bending‬‭light‬‭at‬‭all.‬‭However,‬‭water‬‭has‬‭a‬‭much‬‭higher‬
‭●‬ ‭Lead‬‭glass‬‭(also‬‭known‬‭as‬‭crystal‬‭or‬‭flint‬‭glass‬‭)‬‭is‬‭glass‬‭which‬‭incorporates‬‭a‬‭high‬‭percentage‬‭of‬ ‭refractive‬‭index‬‭of‬‭1.33.‬
‭lead‬‭oxide‬‭(around‬‭18-40%).‬‭T his‬‭glass‬‭is‬‭softer‬‭and‬‭denser‬‭than‬‭other‬‭types‬‭of‬‭glass,‬‭but‬‭it‬‭has‬‭a‬
‭high‬‭refractive‬‭index‬‭which‬‭makes‬‭it‬‭more‬‭reflective‬‭and‬‭brilliant.‬‭T his‬‭desirable‬‭appearance‬‭led‬ ‭ owever,‬‭the‬‭speed‬‭of‬‭light‬‭in‬‭a‬‭medium‬‭isn't‬‭always‬‭known.‬‭To‬‭calculate‬‭the‬‭refractive‬‭index‬‭of‬‭a‬‭piece‬‭of‬
H
‭to‬‭its‬‭use‬‭in‬‭decorative‬‭serving‬‭glasses‬‭and‬‭bowls.‬‭However,‬‭lead‬‭glass‬‭has‬‭largely‬‭been‬‭replaced‬ ‭glass,‬‭an‬‭equation‬‭named‬‭Snell's‬‭law‬‭is‬‭used.‬‭Snell's‬‭law‬‭is‬
‭n 1sin⁡θ1=n2sin⁡θ2‬
‭Fractures‬
‭where‬
‭θ1‬
‭is‬‭the‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭incidence‬‭(the‬‭angle‬‭the‬‭light‬‭is‬‭traveling‬‭at‬‭in‬‭the‬‭first‬‭medium)‬‭and‬
‭θ2‬
‭is‬‭the‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭refraction‬‭(the‬‭angle‬‭the‬‭light‬‭is‬‭traveling‬‭at‬‭in‬‭the‬‭second‬‭medium).‬‭In‬‭turn,‬
‭n 1‬
‭corresponds‬‭to‬‭the‬‭index‬‭of‬‭refraction‬‭of‬‭the‬‭first‬‭medium‬‭and‬
‭n 2‬
‭is‬‭the‬‭index‬‭of‬‭refraction‬‭of‬‭the‬‭second‬‭medium.‬

‭Material‬ ‭Index‬‭of‬
‭refraction‬

‭Vacuum‬ ‭1.00‬
‭ nother‬‭way‬‭pieces‬‭of‬‭glass‬‭evidence‬‭can‬‭be‬‭evaluated‬‭is‬‭by‬‭examining‬‭any‬‭fractures‬‭that‬‭are‬‭present.‬‭Glass‬
A
‭Air‬ ‭1.0003‬ ‭forms‬‭two‬‭main‬‭types‬‭of‬‭fracture‬‭lines:‬‭radial‬‭lines‬‭and‬‭concentric‬‭lines‬‭. ‬‭Radial‬‭lines‬‭are‬‭the‬‭first‬‭to‬‭form,‬
‭and‬‭occur‬‭first‬‭on‬‭the‬‭opposite‬‭side‬‭to‬‭the‬‭impact‬‭(e.g.‬‭if‬‭the‬‭impact‬‭came‬‭from‬‭the‬‭inside,‬‭the‬‭outside‬‭would‬
‭Water‬ ‭1.33‬ ‭have‬‭failed).‬‭T hese‬‭fractures‬‭"radiate"‬‭out‬‭from‬‭the‬‭site‬‭of‬‭the‬‭impact‬‭like‬‭spokes‬‭on‬‭a‬‭bike‬‭wheel.‬‭Concentric‬
‭fracture‬‭lines‬‭appear‬‭first‬‭on‬‭the‬‭same‬‭side‬‭as‬‭the‬‭impact,‬‭forming‬‭a‬‭circle‬‭around‬‭the‬‭breaking‬‭point.‬
‭Vegetable‬‭oil‬ ‭1.47‬
‭ racks‬‭will‬‭always‬‭end‬‭at‬‭existing‬‭cracks.‬‭T his‬‭information‬‭can‬‭be‬‭used‬‭to‬‭determine‬‭the‬‭order‬‭in‬‭which‬
C
‭ orosilicate‬
B ‭1.47‬ ‭fractures‬‭occurred.‬‭In‬‭the‬‭image‬‭to‬‭the‬‭left‬‭two‬‭fractures‬‭are‬‭present:‬‭fracture‬‭A‬‭and‬‭fracture‬‭B.‬‭T he‬‭radial‬
‭glass‬ ‭fracture‬‭lines‬‭from‬‭fracture‬‭B‬‭are‬‭stopped‬‭by‬‭fracture‬‭lines‬‭from‬‭fracture‬‭A.‬‭T his‬‭means‬‭that‬‭fracture‬‭A‬‭was‬
‭present‬‭before‬‭fracture‬‭B‬‭was‬‭formed.‬
‭Soda-lime‬‭glass‬ ‭1.51‬
‭ tress‬‭lines‬‭on‬‭the‬‭edge‬‭of‬‭a‬‭piece‬‭of‬‭glass‬‭will‬‭also‬‭provide‬‭information‬‭as‬‭to‬‭what‬‭direction‬‭the‬‭force‬‭came‬
S
‭L ead‬‭crystal‬ ‭1.57-1.67‬ ‭from.‬‭Remember‬‭the‬‭3R‬‭rule:‬‭radial‬‭fractures‬‭make‬‭right‬‭angles‬‭to‬‭the‬‭reverse‬‭side‬‭of‬‭impact.‬

‭ or‬‭example,‬‭light‬‭enters‬‭a‬‭piece‬‭of‬‭glass‬‭at‬‭an‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭47°‬‭and‬‭exits‬‭at‬‭an‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭28.77°.‬‭Recalling‬‭that‬‭the‬
F
‭refractive‬‭index‬‭of‬‭air‬‭is‬‭1.0003,‬‭using‬‭Snell's‬‭law‬‭the‬‭equation‬‭is‬
‭1 .0003sin⁡(47∘)=n2sin⁡(28.77∘)‬ ‭Entomology‬
.‭ ‬‭Putting‬‭it‬‭into‬‭a‬‭calculator‬‭reveals‬‭that‬‭the‬‭refractive‬‭index‬‭of‬‭the‬‭glass‬‭is‬‭1.52.‬‭If‬‭two‬‭pieces‬‭of‬‭glass‬‭have‬ ‭ tages‬‭of‬‭insects‬‭found‬‭on‬‭a‬‭dead‬‭body‬‭can‬‭tell‬‭how‬‭long‬‭the‬‭victim‬‭has‬‭been‬‭dead.‬‭T he‬‭most‬‭common‬‭are‬‭the‬
S
‭the‬‭same‬‭index‬‭of‬‭refraction,‬‭they‬‭likely‬‭originate‬‭from‬‭similar‬‭sources.‬ ‭blowfly‬‭and‬‭the‬‭beetle.‬‭Blowflies‬‭appear‬‭first,‬‭within‬‭minutes‬‭or‬‭hours‬‭of‬‭the‬‭death.‬‭Flesh‬‭flies‬‭can‬‭arrive‬‭at‬
I‭ ndex‬‭of‬‭refraction‬‭can‬‭also‬‭be‬‭determined‬‭qualitatively.‬‭If‬‭the‬‭glass's‬‭refractive‬‭index‬‭is‬‭the‬‭same‬‭or‬‭close‬‭to‬ ‭the‬‭same‬‭time‬‭as‬‭blowflies‬‭but‬‭generally‬‭arrive‬‭slightly‬‭later.‬‭Certain‬‭amounts‬‭of‬‭time‬‭lapse‬‭between‬‭each‬‭life‬
‭that‬‭of‬‭a‬‭liquid,‬‭then‬‭the‬‭piece‬‭of‬‭glass‬‭will‬‭seem‬‭to‬‭disappear‬‭in‬‭that‬‭liquid.‬‭T his‬‭is‬‭commonly‬‭done‬‭as‬‭a‬ ‭stage,‬‭which‬‭can‬‭tell‬‭this‬‭time.‬‭For‬‭example,‬‭if‬‭only‬‭maggots‬‭were‬‭found‬‭on‬‭the‬‭dead‬‭body,‬‭that‬‭means‬‭the‬
‭demonstration‬‭with‬‭beakers‬‭and‬‭cooking‬‭oil,‬‭as‬‭borosilicate‬‭glass‬‭and‬‭vegetable‬‭oil‬‭both‬‭have‬‭indices‬‭of‬ ‭victim‬‭probably‬‭died‬‭less‬‭than‬‭twenty-four‬‭hours‬‭ago.‬‭Beetles‬‭usually‬‭arrive‬‭well‬‭after‬‭the‬‭blow‬‭and‬‭flesh‬‭flies‬
‭refraction‬‭around‬‭1.47.‬‭If‬‭two‬‭unknown‬‭pieces‬‭of‬‭glass‬‭seem‬‭to‬‭disappear‬‭in‬‭the‬‭same‬‭liquid,‬‭they‬‭likely‬‭have‬ ‭and‬‭are‬‭generally‬‭the‬‭last‬‭insect‬‭left‬‭on‬‭the‬‭body‬‭after‬‭months‬‭of‬‭decomposition.‬‭Mites‬‭are‬‭also‬‭generally‬
‭similar‬‭indices‬‭of‬‭refraction‬‭and‬‭are‬‭likely‬‭the‬‭same‬‭type‬‭of‬‭glass.‬‭T he‬‭refractive‬‭indices‬‭of‬‭a‬‭few‬‭common‬ ‭present‬‭with‬‭these‬‭beetles‬‭initially‬‭because‬‭they‬‭help‬‭suppress‬‭maggots,‬‭and‬‭as‬‭such‬‭allow‬‭certain‬‭types‬‭of‬
‭materials‬‭are‬‭present‬‭in‬‭the‬‭table‬‭to‬‭the‬‭left.‬‭T hese‬‭values‬‭can‬‭be‬‭used‬‭to‬‭estimate‬‭the‬‭type‬‭of‬‭glass‬‭present‬ ‭beetles.‬
‭based‬‭on‬‭its‬‭index‬‭of‬‭refraction.‬
‭Life‬‭C ycle‬‭o f‬‭B lowflies‬

‭Fly‬‭Life‬‭c ycle‬

‭Insects‬‭Involved‬‭i n‬‭Forensic‬‭Entomology‬
‭Blood‬ ‭Characteristics‬ ‭●‬ ‭RBCs‬‭lack‬‭nuclei‬ ‭●‬ ‭Ovoid‬‭shape‬ ‭●‬ ‭RBCs‬‭lack‬‭nuclei‬
‭Blood‬‭is‬‭a‬‭body‬‭fluid‬‭which‬‭allows‬‭for‬‭the‬‭transport‬‭of‬‭substances‬‭like‬‭oxygen,‬‭nutrients,‬‭and‬‭waste‬‭products‬ ‭●‬ ‭Appears‬‭identical‬‭to‬ ‭●‬ ‭L arger‬‭platelets‬ ‭●‬ ‭Appears‬‭identical‬‭to‬
‭throughout‬‭the‬‭body.‬‭Blood‬‭is‬‭made‬‭up‬‭of‬‭two‬‭parts:‬‭blood‬‭cells‬‭and‬‭blood‬‭plasma.‬‭Blood‬‭cells‬‭include‬‭red‬ ‭mammalian‬‭blood‬ ‭than‬‭human‬‭blood‬ ‭human‬‭blood‬
‭and‬‭white‬‭blood‬‭cells‬‭as‬‭well‬‭as‬‭platelets,‬‭and‬‭they‬‭make‬‭up‬‭approximately‬‭45%‬‭of‬‭blood‬‭fluid.‬‭T he‬‭other‬
‭55%‬‭is‬‭plasma,‬‭an‬‭amber‬‭liquid‬‭which‬‭contains‬‭things‬‭like‬‭proteins,‬‭sugars,‬‭and‬‭electrolytes.‬‭T he‬‭most‬
‭common‬‭type‬‭of‬‭blood‬‭cell‬‭is‬‭red‬‭blood‬‭cells‬‭, ‬‭which‬‭are‬‭full‬‭of‬‭iron-rich‬‭hemoglobin‬‭that‬‭helps‬‭transport‬
‭oxygen.‬

‭Blood‬‭can‬‭be‬‭identified‬‭at‬‭crime‬‭scenes‬‭using‬‭indicators‬‭such‬‭as‬‭luminol‬‭or‬‭phenolphthalein.‬‭T hese‬‭tests‬‭are‬
‭Blood‬‭Typing‬
‭not‬‭specific‬‭to‬‭blood,‬‭however,‬‭and‬‭a‬‭confirmatory‬‭test‬‭specific‬‭to‬‭blood‬‭will‬‭need‬‭to‬‭be‬‭performed‬‭if‬‭it‬‭is‬
‭suspected‬‭to‬‭be‬‭present.‬‭Some‬‭exams‬‭may‬‭ask‬‭about‬‭the‬‭differences‬‭between‬‭human,‬‭avian,‬‭mammalian,‬‭and‬
‭reptilian/amphibian‬‭blood.‬‭Human‬‭and‬‭mammalian‬‭blood‬‭are‬‭impossible‬‭to‬‭distinguish‬‭under‬‭a‬‭microscope,‬
‭and‬‭even‬‭more‬‭sophisticated‬‭tests‬‭often‬‭give‬‭false‬‭positives.‬‭New‬‭techniques‬‭have‬‭been‬‭developed‬‭which‬‭use‬
‭infrared‬‭spectroscopy‬‭to‬‭distinguish‬‭between‬‭human‬‭and‬‭mammalian‬‭blood,‬‭but‬‭they‬‭are‬‭too‬‭new‬‭to‬‭be‬‭used‬‭in‬
‭the‬‭field.‬‭Human/mammal‬‭red‬‭blood‬‭cells‬‭are‬‭small‬‭and‬‭round,‬‭lacking‬‭a‬‭nucleus.‬‭Avian/reptilian‬‭blood‬‭is‬
‭easy‬‭to‬‭distinguish‬‭from‬‭human/mammalian‬‭blood,‬‭as‬‭birds‬‭and‬‭other‬‭vertebrates‬‭have‬‭oval-shaped‬‭blood‬‭cells‬
‭with‬‭nuclei.‬‭However,‬‭it‬‭can‬‭also‬‭be‬‭difficult‬‭to‬‭distinguish‬‭between‬‭avian‬‭and‬‭reptilian‬‭blood.‬‭Reptilian‬‭and‬
‭amphibian‬‭red‬‭blood‬‭cells‬‭tend‬‭to‬‭have‬‭proportionally‬‭smaller‬‭nuclei‬‭compared‬‭to‬‭avian‬‭red‬‭blood‬‭cells,‬‭but‬
‭this‬‭is‬‭not‬‭always‬‭the‬‭case.‬‭Some‬‭images‬‭are‬‭included‬‭below‬‭to‬‭display‬‭the‬‭difference‬‭between‬‭the‬‭types‬‭of‬
‭blood.‬

‭Type‬‭of‬‭Hair‬ ‭Human‬ ‭Avian‬ ‭Mammalian‬

‭Image(s)‬

‭Blood‬‭typing‬‭is‬‭a‬‭system‬‭of‬‭categorizing‬‭blood‬‭based‬‭on‬‭proteins‬‭called‬‭antigens‬‭which‬‭are‬‭present‬‭on‬‭the‬
‭surface‬‭of‬‭red‬‭blood‬‭cells.‬‭T here‬‭are‬‭44‬‭different‬‭human‬‭blood‬‭group‬‭systems‬‭recognized‬‭internationally,‬‭but‬
‭the‬‭two‬‭most‬‭important‬‭ones‬‭are‬‭ABO‬‭and‬‭Rh.‬‭T he‬‭ABO‬‭blood‬‭group‬‭system‬‭deals‬‭with‬‭the‬‭presence‬‭or‬
‭absence‬‭of‬‭A‬‭and‬‭B‬‭antigens‬‭, ‬‭while‬‭the‬‭Rh‬‭blood‬‭group‬‭system‬‭mostly‬‭deals‬‭with‬‭the‬‭presence‬‭or‬‭absence‬‭of‬
‭a‬‭Rh(D)‬‭antigen‬‭. ‬

‭T here‬‭are‬‭four‬‭blood‬‭types‬‭seen‬‭in‬‭humans‬‭using‬‭the‬‭ABO‬‭system:‬‭A,‬‭B,‬‭AB,‬‭and‬‭O.‬‭T hese‬‭are‬‭named‬‭for‬‭the‬
‭antigens‬‭they‬‭possess:‬‭A‬‭has‬‭A‬‭antigen,‬‭B‬‭has‬‭B‬‭antigen,‬‭AB‬‭has‬‭both‬‭A‬‭and‬‭B‬‭antigens,‬‭and‬‭O‬‭has‬‭neither‬
‭antigen.‬‭E ach‬‭of‬‭these‬‭blood‬‭types‬‭can‬‭also‬‭be‬‭positive‬‭or‬‭negative‬‭for‬‭the‬‭Rh(D)‬‭antigen‬‭(also‬‭known‬‭as‬‭the‬
‭rhesus‬‭or‬‭Rh‬‭factor).‬‭Combining‬‭the‬‭two‬‭systems‬‭means‬‭that‬‭there‬‭are‬‭eight‬‭total‬‭blood‬‭types‬‭:‬‭A+,‬‭A-,‬‭B+,‬
‭B-,‬‭AB+,‬‭AB-,‬‭O+,‬‭and‬‭O-.‬‭T he‬‭rarest‬‭blood‬‭type‬‭is‬‭AB-,‬‭while‬‭the‬‭most‬‭common‬‭blood‬‭type‬‭is‬‭O+.‬
‭Since‬‭antigens‬‭are‬‭what‬‭determine‬‭someone's‬‭blood‬‭type,‬‭you‬‭can‬‭determine‬‭the‬‭type‬‭of‬‭blood‬‭that‬‭someone‬ ‭representing‬‭the‬‭A‬‭antigen‬‭and‬‭I‬‭B‬ ‭representing‬‭the‬‭B‬‭antigen.‬‭T his‬‭is‬‭because‬‭blood‬‭type‬‭is‬‭a‬‭codominant‬
‭has‬‭using‬‭antibodies‬‭. ‬‭Antibodies‬‭are‬‭proteins‬‭made‬‭by‬‭the‬‭immune‬‭system‬‭designed‬‭to‬‭keep‬‭foreign‬‭entities‬ ‭trait,‬‭which‬‭means‬‭there‬‭can‬‭be‬‭two‬‭dominant‬‭alleles‬‭expressed‬‭at‬‭once.‬‭T his‬‭is‬‭how‬‭the‬‭AB‬‭blood‬‭type‬‭is‬
‭out‬‭of‬‭the‬‭body.‬‭T here‬‭are‬‭antibodies‬‭which‬‭will‬‭react‬‭to‬‭certain‬‭antigens‬‭present‬‭on‬‭the‬‭surface‬‭of‬‭the‬‭red‬ ‭possible:‬‭if‬‭an‬‭individual‬‭has‬‭the‬‭I‭A‬ ‬‭I‭B‬ ‬ ‭genotype,‬‭they‬‭will‬‭have‬‭the‬‭AB‬‭phenotype.‬‭T he‬‭i‬‭allele‬‭is‬‭recessive‬‭, ‬
‭blood‬‭cell,‬‭causing‬‭blood‬‭to‬‭agglutinate‬‭. ‬‭Agglutination‬‭might‬‭occur‬‭naturally‬‭if‬‭someone‬‭was‬‭given‬‭the‬ ‭and‬‭represents‬‭a‬‭lack‬‭of‬‭an‬‭antigen.‬‭Since‬‭the‬‭i‬‭allele‬‭is‬‭recessive,‬‭it‬‭is‬‭possible‬‭for‬‭individuals‬‭with‬‭A‬‭and‬‭B‬
‭wrong‬‭blood‬‭type‬‭in‬‭a‬‭blood‬‭transfusion.‬‭T he‬‭antibody‬‭detects‬‭the‬‭antigen,‬‭causing‬‭the‬‭blood‬‭cells‬‭to‬‭clump‬ ‭blood‬‭types‬‭to‬‭carry‬‭that‬‭allele‬‭and‬‭pass‬‭it‬‭down‬‭to‬‭their‬‭children.‬‭T his‬‭also‬‭means‬‭that‬‭only‬‭individuals‬‭with‬
‭together.‬‭In‬‭this‬‭case,‬‭seeing‬‭clumps‬‭of‬‭blood‬‭will‬‭confirm‬‭that‬‭the‬‭antigen‬‭you're‬‭testing‬‭for‬‭is‬‭present‬‭on‬‭the‬ ‭the‬‭ii‬‭genotype‬‭will‬‭have‬‭type‬‭O‬‭blood.‬‭Two‬‭individuals‬‭with‬‭AB‬‭blood‬‭will‬‭also‬‭never‬‭be‬‭able‬‭to‬‭have‬‭type‬‭O‬
‭blood‬‭cell.‬ ‭children‬‭as‬‭they‬‭cannot‬‭carry‬‭the‬‭i‬‭allele.‬‭A‬‭list‬‭of‬‭possible‬‭genotypes‬‭and‬‭their‬‭corresponding‬‭phenotypes‬‭is‬

‭E xamine‬‭the‬‭chart‬‭to‬‭the‬‭right.‬‭Since‬‭Anti-A‬‭antibodies‬‭are‬‭designed‬‭to‬‭interact‬‭with‬‭the‬‭A‬‭antigen,‬‭type‬‭A‬ ‭included‬‭to‬‭the‬‭right.‬

‭and‬‭AB‬‭blood‬‭will‬‭agglutinate‬‭when‬‭exposed‬‭to‬‭Anti-A‬‭serum.‬‭Similarly,‬‭since‬‭Anti-B‬‭antibodies‬‭will‬‭interact‬ ‭For‬‭example:‬‭what‬‭are‬‭the‬‭odds‬‭that‬‭an‬‭individual‬‭with‬‭the‬‭I‭A‬ ‬‭I‭A‬ ‬ ‭genotype‬‭and‬‭an‬‭individual‬‭with‬‭the‬‭I‭B‬ ‬‭i‬

‭with‬‭the‬‭B‬‭antigen,‬‭both‬‭B‬‭and‬‭AB‬‭will‬‭agglutinate‬‭when‬‭exposed‬‭to‬‭Anti-B‬‭serum.‬‭Since‬‭type‬‭O‬‭blood‬‭lacks‬ ‭genotype‬‭will‬‭have‬‭a‬‭child‬‭with‬‭the‬‭AB‬‭phenotype?‬
‭both‬‭the‬‭A‬‭and‬‭B‬‭antigens,‬‭it‬‭will‬‭not‬‭agglutinate‬‭when‬‭exposed‬‭to‬‭either‬‭serum.‬‭If‬‭a‬‭lab‬‭scenario‬‭uses‬‭a‬
‭simulated‬‭blood‬‭kit,‬‭there‬‭may‬‭be‬‭plates‬‭or‬‭similar‬‭pieces‬‭of‬‭equipment‬‭to‬‭perform‬‭the‬‭tests.‬‭If‬‭not,‬‭use‬‭a‬‭well‬
‭plate.‬‭Place‬‭a‬‭small‬‭amount‬‭of‬‭the‬‭blood‬‭sample‬‭in‬‭a‬‭well,‬‭and‬‭then‬‭place‬‭a‬‭small‬‭amount‬‭of‬‭the‬‭serum.‬‭Wait‬‭a‬
‭moment‬‭for‬‭the‬‭"blood"‬‭to‬‭react,‬‭and‬‭then‬‭record‬‭the‬‭results.‬‭Be‬‭sure‬‭to‬‭keep‬‭track‬‭of‬‭which‬‭serums‬‭are‬‭placed‬
‭in‬‭each‬‭well.‬

‭Some‬‭simulated‬‭blood‬‭typing‬‭kits‬‭will‬‭only‬‭have‬‭Anti-A‬‭and‬‭Anti-B‬‭serums,‬‭but‬‭some‬‭will‬‭also‬‭include‬‭an‬
‭Anti-Rh‬‭or‬‭Anti-D‬‭serum.‬‭T his‬‭behaves‬‭similarly‬‭to‬‭the‬‭Anti-A‬‭and‬‭Anti-B‬‭serums‬‭in‬‭that‬‭it‬‭will‬‭cause‬‭cells‬
‭that‬‭have‬‭the‬‭Rh(D)‬‭antigen‬‭to‬‭agglutinate.‬‭If‬‭a‬‭blood‬‭sample‬‭clumps‬‭up‬‭when‬‭exposed‬‭to‬‭this‬‭serum,‬‭the‬
‭blood‬‭type‬‭is‬‭positive.‬‭If‬‭it‬‭does‬‭not,‬‭the‬‭blood‬‭type‬‭is‬‭negative.‬

‭Inheritance‬
‭Some‬‭tests‬‭may‬‭ask‬‭questions‬‭about‬‭how‬‭blood‬‭types‬‭are‬‭inherited,‬‭or‬‭what‬‭blood‬‭type‬‭an‬‭individual‬‭would‬
‭Spatters‬
‭have‬‭given‬‭their‬‭parents‬‭blood‬‭types.‬‭To‬‭solve‬‭these‬‭types‬‭of‬‭questions,‬‭it's‬‭important‬‭to‬‭have‬‭an‬
‭understanding‬‭of‬‭P unnett‬‭squares‬‭. ‬‭For‬‭a‬‭more‬‭in-depth‬‭explanation‬‭on‬‭Punnett‬‭squares,‬‭see‬ ‭Spatters‬‭and‬‭blood‬‭are‬‭separate‬‭topics‬‭in‬‭the‬‭Forensics‬‭rules,‬‭but‬‭they‬‭are‬‭typically‬‭associated‬‭with‬‭one‬
‭Heredity#Inheritance‬‭. ‬ ‭another.‬‭Bloodstain‬‭pattern‬‭analysis‬‭(BPA)‬‭is‬‭a‬‭subject‬‭of‬‭forensic‬‭science‬‭in‬‭which‬‭practitioners‬‭will‬
‭analyze‬‭bloodstains‬‭found‬‭at‬‭a‬‭crime‬‭scene‬‭in‬‭the‬‭hopes‬‭of‬‭putting‬‭together‬‭a‬‭sequence‬‭of‬‭events.‬‭Spatter‬
‭Genotyp‬ ‭P henotyp‬
‭patterns‬‭are‬‭distinct‬‭from‬‭drip‬‭stains‬‭in‬‭that‬‭drip‬‭stains‬‭are‬‭only‬‭acted‬‭on‬‭by‬‭gravity‬‭and‬‭not‬‭any‬‭other‬‭external‬
‭e‬ ‭e‬
‭force.‬‭Spatters‬‭are‬‭typically‬‭caused‬‭by‬‭blunt‬‭force‬‭impacts‬‭or‬‭by‬‭someone‬‭shaking‬‭blood‬‭off‬‭a‬‭weapon.‬
‭I‬‭A‬‭I‬‭B‬ ‭AB‬ ‭Competitors‬‭are‬‭responsible‬‭for‬‭being‬‭able‬‭to‬‭determine‬‭the‬‭angle,‬‭velocity,‬‭and‬‭origin‬‭direction‬‭of‬‭a‬‭spatter‬
‭based‬‭on‬‭images‬‭or‬‭real‬‭spatters.‬
‭A‬ ‭A‬ ‭A‬
‭I‬ ‭I‬ ‭, ‬‭I‬ ‭i‬ ‭A‬
‭Blood‬‭spatters‬‭are‬‭generally‬‭classified‬‭by‬‭the‬‭velocity‬‭at‬‭which‬‭they‬‭form,‬‭or‬‭the‬‭intensity‬‭of‬‭the‬‭impact‬‭which‬
‭I‬‭B‬‭I‬‭B‬‭, ‬‭I‬‭B‬‭i‬ ‭B‬ ‭created‬‭them.‬‭T he‬‭table‬‭below‬‭has‬‭some‬‭example‬‭images‬‭of‬‭blood‬‭spatters‬‭and‬‭their‬‭classifications.‬

‭ii‬ ‭O‬
‭Image‬ ‭Velocity‬ ‭Description‬
‭Blood‬‭types‬‭are‬‭inherited‬‭from‬‭both‬‭parents.‬‭Doing‬‭a‬‭Punnett‬‭square‬‭for‬‭blood‬‭types‬‭can‬‭be‬‭tricky‬‭at‬‭first‬
‭since‬‭there‬‭are‬‭three‬‭possible‬‭alleles:‬‭I‬‭A‬‭, ‬‭I‬‭B‬‭, ‬‭and‬‭i.‬‭T he‬‭first‬‭two‬‭alleles‬‭are‬‭both‬‭dominant‬‭, ‬‭with‬‭I‬‭A‬
 ‭possible‬‭to‬‭use‬‭the‬‭width‬‭and‬‭length‬‭of‬‭a‬‭spatter‬‭to‬‭determine‬‭its‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭origin.‬‭Use‬‭the‬‭formula‬
‭L ow‬‭velocity‬ ‭Typically‬‭large‬‭and‬‭drop-like.‬‭Droplets‬‭are‬‭often‬‭several‬‭mm‬‭in‬‭diameter.‬‭T hes ‭θ=arcsin⁡WL‬‭where‬‭theta‬‭(θ)‬‭is‬‭the‬‭angle,‬‭W‬‭is‬‭the‬‭width‬‭of‬‭the‬‭spatter,‬‭and‬‭L ‬‭is‬‭the‬‭length.‬‭Arcsin‬‭(or‬
‭(formed‬‭at‬‭<5‬‭f/s)‬ ‭self-inflicted‬‭or‬‭accidental‬‭wound.‬ ‭sin−1‬‭)‬‭is‬‭also‬‭known‬‭as‬‭inverse‬‭sine,‬‭and‬‭solves‬‭for‬‭the‬‭angle‬‭that‬‭gives‬‭a‬‭certain‬‭value‬‭of‬‭sin.‬‭T he‬‭more‬
‭acute‬‭the‬‭angle,‬‭the‬‭more‬‭elongated‬‭the‬‭spatter‬‭will‬‭be--that‬‭is‬‭to‬‭say,‬‭smaller‬‭angles‬‭will‬‭produce‬‭more‬
‭elliptical‬‭spatters.‬‭To‬‭determine‬‭where‬‭an‬‭impact‬‭came‬‭from,‬‭analysts‬‭will‬‭typically‬‭measure‬‭the‬‭angle‬‭of‬
‭impact‬‭of‬‭several‬‭different‬‭spatters‬‭and‬‭find‬‭the‬‭point‬‭of‬‭convergence‬‭where‬‭they‬‭all‬‭likely‬‭originated.‬‭T his‬
‭may‬‭be‬‭done‬‭using‬‭a‬‭process‬‭called‬‭stringing‬‭, ‬‭where‬‭strings‬‭are‬‭run‬‭from‬‭the‬‭measured‬‭blood‬‭spatters‬‭at‬‭the‬
‭calculated‬‭angles‬‭to‬‭determine‬‭the‬‭point‬‭of‬‭convergence.‬

‭T he‬‭"tail"‬‭or‬‭pointed‬‭end‬‭of‬‭a‬‭blood‬‭spatter‬‭is‬‭going‬‭to‬‭indicate‬‭its‬‭direction‬‭of‬‭travel‬‭. ‬‭Calling‬‭it‬‭a‬‭tail‬‭is‬‭a‬
‭bit‬‭misleading,‬‭as‬‭the‬‭pointed‬‭part‬‭of‬‭a‬‭blood‬‭spatter‬‭is‬‭always‬‭pointing‬‭towards‬‭the‬‭direction‬‭of‬‭travel.‬‭T hat‬
‭Medium‬‭velocity‬ ‭Often‬‭appear‬‭as‬‭a‬‭linear‬‭sequence‬‭of‬‭drops.‬‭Typically‬‭result‬‭from‬‭blunt‬‭force‬‭in ‭means‬‭the‬‭"tail"‬‭is‬‭located‬‭at‬‭the‬‭front!‬‭T hat‬‭means‬‭that‬‭the‬‭droplet‬‭to‬‭the‬‭right‬‭was‬‭traveling‬‭from‬‭top‬‭to‬
‭(formed‬‭at‬‭5-25‬‭f/s)‬ ‭blunt‬‭instrument‬‭covered‬‭in‬‭blood‬‭is‬‭swung‬‭(known‬‭as‬‭cast-off).‬ ‭bottom‬‭when‬‭it‬‭formed‬‭this‬‭spatter.‬‭Additionally,‬‭when‬‭measuring‬‭the‬‭width‬‭and‬‭length‬‭of‬‭a‬‭spatter,‬‭don't‬
‭include‬‭the‬‭tail‬‭in‬‭the‬‭measurement.‬‭Just‬‭include‬‭the‬‭main‬‭droplet.‬‭Going‬‭back‬‭to‬‭the‬‭image‬‭to‬‭the‬‭right:‬‭since‬
‭the‬‭width‬‭is‬‭9mm‬‭and‬‭the‬‭length‬‭is‬‭18mm,‬‭that‬‭means‬‭to‬‭find‬‭the‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭impact‬‭for‬‭this‬‭blood‬‭spatter‬‭one‬
‭would‬‭need‬‭to‬‭calculate‬‭the‬‭value‬‭of‬

‭θ=arcsin⁡9 18‬‭.‬‭Putting‬‭this‬‭into‬‭a‬‭calculator,‬‭it‬‭resolves‬‭to‬‭a‬‭30°‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭impact.‬

‭High‬‭velocity‬ ‭Usually‬‭a‬‭large‬‭collection‬‭of‬‭very‬‭small‬‭droplets‬‭in‬‭an‬‭almost‬‭random‬‭pattern.‬‭T ‭Seeds‬‭and‬‭Pollen‬

‭(formed‬‭at‬‭~ 100‬‭f/s)‬ ‭gunshot‬‭wounds,‬‭though‬‭they‬‭can‬‭also‬‭be‬‭caused‬‭by‬‭blunt‬‭instruments‬‭if‬‭hit‬‭wit
‭than‬‭1‬‭mm‬‭in‬‭diameter.‬

‭An‬‭i mage‬‭o f‬‭a ‬‭l ily‬‭flower.‬‭The‬‭p ollen-producing‬‭a nthers‬‭a re‬‭t he‬‭y ellow‬‭formations‬‭i n‬‭t he‬‭c enter‬‭o f‬‭t he‬‭flower,‬
‭while‬‭t he‬‭stigma‬‭i s‬‭t he‬‭white‬‭stalk‬‭i n‬‭t he‬‭c enter.‬

‭P ollen‬‭and‬‭seeds‬‭are‬‭formations‬‭on‬‭plants‬‭designed‬‭to‬‭help‬‭them‬‭reproduce.‬‭Only‬‭"seed‬‭plants"‬
‭(spermatophytes)‬‭produce‬‭pollen‬‭and‬‭seeds,‬‭which‬‭include‬‭all‬‭flowering‬‭plants‬‭as‬‭well‬‭as‬‭conifers‬‭like‬‭pine‬
‭T he‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭impact‬‭is‬‭the‬‭angle‬‭at‬‭which‬‭a‬‭spatter‬‭hits‬‭a‬‭surface.‬‭Blood‬‭droplets‬‭are‬‭spherical,‬‭and‬‭will‬ ‭trees.‬‭In‬‭flowering‬‭plants,‬‭the‬‭flowers‬‭contain‬‭the‬‭plant's‬‭reproductive‬‭organs.‬‭T hese‬‭include‬‭formations‬‭like‬
‭remain‬‭spherical‬‭until‬‭it‬‭collides‬‭with‬‭a‬‭surface‬‭or‬‭is‬‭acted‬‭upon‬‭by‬‭some‬‭force.‬‭Using‬‭this‬‭knowledge,‬‭it‬‭is‬
‭the‬‭stigma,‬‭stamen,‬‭and‬‭ovary.‬‭Pollen‬‭is‬‭produced‬‭by‬‭flowers‬‭in‬‭the‬‭anther‬‭, ‬‭which‬‭is‬‭located‬‭at‬‭the‬‭tip‬‭of‬‭the‬ ‭only‬‭grow‬‭in‬‭specific‬‭climates.‬‭Seeds‬‭and‬‭pollen‬‭rarely‬‭appear‬‭on‬‭exams,‬‭but‬‭it‬‭is‬‭still‬‭important‬‭to‬‭be‬
‭stamen‬‭. ‬‭It‬‭is‬‭then‬‭transferred‬‭to‬‭the‬‭stigma‬‭, ‬‭either‬‭of‬‭the‬‭same‬‭flower‬‭(self-pollination)‬‭or‬‭a‬‭different‬‭flower‬ ‭prepared‬‭for‬‭questions‬‭that‬‭may‬‭be‬‭asked‬‭about‬‭them.‬
‭(cross-pollination).‬‭When‬‭the‬‭pollen‬‭interacts‬‭with‬‭the‬‭stigma,‬‭the‬‭pollen‬‭grain‬‭germinates‬‭and‬‭forms‬‭a‬ ‭T racks‬‭and‬‭Soil‬
‭structure‬‭called‬‭a‬‭pollen‬‭tube.‬‭T his‬‭pollen‬‭tube‬‭travels‬‭towards‬‭the‬‭plant's‬‭ovules,‬‭fertilizing‬‭the‬‭reproductive‬
‭T racks‬
‭cells‬‭inside‬‭and‬‭allowing‬‭for‬‭production‬‭of‬‭a‬‭seed.‬‭Seeds‬‭are‬‭just‬‭undeveloped‬‭plant‬‭embryos.‬‭T hey're‬‭formed‬
‭from‬‭the‬‭fertilized‬‭ovules‬‭of‬‭a‬‭plant‬‭while‬‭the‬‭surrounding‬‭ovary‬‭continues‬‭to‬‭develop‬‭into‬‭a‬‭fruit.‬ ‭In‬‭this‬‭section,‬‭most‬‭observations‬‭will‬‭be‬‭qualitative.‬‭Often,‬‭the‬‭only‬‭necessary‬‭action‬‭is‬‭to‬‭compare‬‭the‬‭given‬
‭photographs‬‭to‬‭the‬‭track‬‭provided‬‭at‬‭the‬‭"scene."‬‭T hese‬‭tracks‬‭can‬‭be‬‭footprints‬‭or‬‭tire‬‭tracks,‬‭both‬‭of‬‭which‬
‭can‬‭be‬‭identified‬‭by‬‭the‬‭tread‬‭that‬‭is‬‭left‬‭on‬‭the‬‭ground.‬‭Checking‬‭the‬‭pattern,‬‭shape,‬‭and‬‭size‬‭of‬‭each‬‭distinct‬
‭part‬‭of‬‭the‬‭sole‬‭on‬‭a‬‭shoe‬‭is‬‭generally‬‭necessary‬‭to‬‭make‬‭a‬‭100%‬‭accurate‬‭match.‬

‭Soil‬

‭See‬‭also:‬‭Crime‬‭Busters#Soil‬

‭SoilTriangle.jpeg‬

‭Soil‬‭can‬‭be‬‭used‬‭to‬‭tie‬‭suspects‬‭to‬‭the‬‭scene‬‭or‬‭area‬‭of‬‭a‬‭crime‬‭based‬‭on‬‭the‬‭type‬‭of‬‭soil‬‭found.‬‭T here‬‭are‬‭three‬
‭main‬‭types‬‭of‬‭soil‬‭which‬‭are‬‭categorized‬‭based‬‭on‬‭their‬‭texture:‬‭sand,‬‭silt,‬‭and‬‭clay.‬‭Sand‬‭is‬‭the‬‭most‬‭coarse‬‭of‬
‭Pollen‬‭from‬‭a ‬‭v ariety‬‭o f‬‭p lants,‬‭t aken‬‭with‬‭a n‬‭e lectron‬‭microscope.‬
‭the‬‭three‬‭textures,‬‭with‬‭its‬‭particles‬‭having‬‭the‬‭greatest‬‭diameter‬‭and‬‭having‬‭a‬‭pH‬‭of‬‭4.5-5.5.‬‭Sand‬‭is‬
‭Pollen‬‭grains‬‭are‬‭incredibly‬‭small‬‭and‬‭must‬‭be‬‭examined‬‭under‬‭microscopes.‬‭T hey‬‭have‬‭three‬‭main‬‭parts:‬‭an‬ ‭primarily‬‭made‬‭of‬‭pieces‬‭of‬‭eroded‬‭rock,‬‭and‬‭is‬‭typically‬‭found‬‭on‬‭beaches‬‭or‬‭in‬‭arid‬‭climates‬‭like‬‭deserts.‬
‭inner‬‭cytoplasmic‬‭portion‬‭which‬‭contains‬‭the‬‭nuclei,‬‭an‬‭inner‬‭wall‬‭called‬‭an‬‭intine‬‭or‬‭endospore‬‭, ‬‭and‬‭an‬ ‭Silt‬‭is‬‭also‬‭a‬‭sediment‬‭but‬‭its‬‭grains‬‭are‬‭finer‬‭than‬‭that‬‭of‬‭sand.‬‭Silt‬‭is‬‭typically‬‭found‬‭around‬‭riverbanks‬‭and‬
‭outer‬‭wall‬‭called‬‭an‬‭exine‬‭or‬‭exospore‬‭. ‬‭T he‬‭intine‬‭is‬‭made‬‭up‬‭of‬‭cellulose,‬‭similar‬‭to‬‭the‬‭cell‬‭wall‬‭in‬‭plants.‬ ‭other‬‭waterways‬‭as‬‭the‬‭water‬‭erodes‬‭rock‬‭and‬‭deposits‬‭it‬‭onto‬‭land.‬‭It‬‭can‬‭also‬‭be‬‭carried‬‭into‬‭valleys‬‭by‬
‭T he‬‭extine,‬‭however,‬‭is‬‭made‬‭up‬‭of‬‭an‬‭incredibly‬‭tough‬‭compound‬‭called‬‭sporopollenin.‬‭T his‬‭compound‬‭is‬‭a‬ ‭floodwaters.‬‭Silty‬‭soil‬‭tends‬‭to‬‭have‬‭a‬‭pH‬‭of‬‭around‬‭4.5-5.5,‬‭similar‬‭to‬‭sand.‬‭Clay‬‭is‬‭the‬‭third‬‭major‬‭category‬
‭biopolymer‬‭which‬‭is‬‭incredibly‬‭resistant‬‭to‬‭degradation,‬‭which‬‭makes‬‭its‬‭structure‬‭very‬‭difficult‬‭to‬‭study.‬ ‭of‬‭soil‬‭and‬‭has‬‭the‬‭finest‬‭grains‬‭of‬‭the‬‭three.‬‭Clay‬‭soil‬‭can‬‭be‬‭found‬‭in‬‭most‬‭places‬‭in‬‭the‬‭U.S.,‬‭though‬‭it‬‭can‬
‭Since‬‭it‬‭is‬‭so‬‭hardy,‬‭this‬‭makes‬‭pollen‬‭evidence‬‭very‬‭difficult‬‭to‬‭wash‬‭off‬‭or‬‭get‬‭rid‬‭of.‬‭Pollen‬‭grains‬‭are‬‭very‬ ‭be‬‭common‬‭around‬‭lakes‬‭and‬‭other‬‭large‬‭bodies‬‭of‬‭water.‬‭Clay‬‭soil‬‭tends‬‭to‬‭have‬‭a‬‭pH‬‭of‬‭around‬‭5.5-7.0.‬
‭good‬‭at‬‭attaching‬‭to‬‭surfaces‬‭and‬‭can‬‭even‬‭embed‬‭into‬‭clothing,‬‭making‬‭them‬‭very‬‭difficult‬‭to‬‭remove.‬‭T his‬‭is‬
‭also‬‭due‬‭in‬‭part‬‭to‬‭the‬‭unique‬‭structure‬‭of‬‭the‬‭exine,‬‭which‬‭is‬‭visible‬‭in‬‭microscope‬‭images.‬‭E xine‬‭structures‬
‭T hese‬‭three‬‭types‬‭of‬‭particulates‬‭can‬‭appear‬‭in‬‭different‬‭proportions‬‭in‬‭a‬‭given‬‭sample‬‭of‬‭soil,‬‭determining‬‭the‬
‭differ‬‭wildly‬‭between‬‭different‬‭plant‬‭species,‬‭and‬‭by‬‭studying‬‭the‬‭structure‬‭of‬‭the‬‭pollen‬‭grain‬‭it‬‭is‬‭possible‬‭to‬
‭type‬‭of‬‭soil‬‭it‬‭is.‬‭For‬‭example,‬‭a‬‭soil‬‭sample‬‭that‬‭is‬‭mostly‬‭sand‬‭with‬‭a‬‭small‬‭percentage‬‭of‬‭silt‬‭or‬‭clay‬‭may‬‭be‬
‭determine‬‭what‬‭type‬‭of‬‭plant‬‭it‬‭came‬‭from.‬
‭sandy‬‭loam‬‭while‬‭a‬‭sample‬‭that‬‭is‬‭mostly‬‭silt‬‭with‬‭a‬‭little‬‭sand‬‭may‬‭be‬‭silt‬‭loam.‬‭L oamy‬‭soil‬‭is‬‭a‬‭mixture‬‭of‬
‭T he‬‭forensic‬‭use‬‭of‬‭pollen‬‭grains‬‭is‬‭known‬‭as‬‭forensic‬‭palynology‬‭. ‬‭Since‬‭pollen‬‭is‬‭too‬‭small‬‭to‬‭be‬‭seen‬‭with‬ ‭all‬‭three‬‭types‬‭of‬‭particulate‬‭as‬‭well‬‭as‬‭organic‬‭matter,‬‭making‬‭it‬‭optimal‬‭for‬‭most‬‭garden‬‭plants.‬‭L oamy‬‭soil‬
‭the‬‭naked‬‭eye,‬‭it‬‭is‬‭easy‬‭for‬‭suspects‬‭to‬‭pick‬‭up‬‭and‬‭transfer‬‭pollen‬‭grains‬‭without‬‭realizing‬‭it.‬‭T his‬‭can‬‭be‬ ‭tends‬‭to‬‭have‬‭a‬‭pH‬‭of‬‭5.5-6.5,‬‭but‬‭certain‬‭additives‬‭and‬‭fertilizers‬‭may‬‭alter‬‭it‬‭based‬‭on‬‭the‬‭plants‬‭growing‬‭in‬
‭used‬‭to‬‭tie‬‭a‬‭suspect‬‭to‬‭a‬‭given‬‭location‬‭or‬‭even‬‭determine‬‭a‬‭possible‬‭location‬‭for‬‭a‬‭crime‬‭if‬‭it‬‭is‬‭not‬‭known.‬ ‭it.‬‭Another‬‭type‬‭of‬‭soil‬‭is‬‭peat,‬‭composed‬‭largely‬‭of‬‭organic‬‭material‬‭on‬‭the‬‭top‬‭layer‬‭of‬‭soil.‬‭Peaty‬‭soil‬‭is‬
‭T hough‬‭forensic‬‭palynology‬‭is‬‭an‬‭unpopular‬‭practice‬‭in‬‭the‬‭U.S.,‬‭it‬‭has‬‭seen‬‭some‬‭success‬‭in‬‭countries‬‭like‬ ‭acidic‬‭and‬‭high‬‭in‬‭nutrients,‬‭but‬‭harvesting‬‭it‬‭is‬‭problematic‬‭for‬‭the‬‭wetlands‬‭it's‬‭found‬‭in.‬‭As‬‭a‬‭result,‬
‭New‬‭Z ealand‬‭where‬‭pollen‬‭evidence‬‭has‬‭been‬‭used‬‭in‬‭courts‬‭since‬‭the‬‭1970s.‬ ‭alternatives‬‭are‬‭used‬‭to‬‭promote‬‭soil‬‭drainage‬‭and‬‭nutrient‬‭absorption.‬
‭Most‬‭questions‬‭asked‬‭about‬‭this‬‭subject‬‭will‬‭require‬‭participants‬‭to‬‭compare‬‭the‬‭evidence‬‭from‬‭the‬‭crime‬‭scene‬
‭to‬‭that‬‭which‬‭is‬‭found‬‭on‬‭the‬‭suspects.‬‭T hey‬‭may‬‭also‬‭be‬‭required‬‭to‬‭match‬‭certain‬‭types‬‭of‬‭seeds‬‭or‬‭pollen‬‭to‬
‭To‬‭categorize‬‭a‬‭soil‬‭sample,‬‭a‬‭chart‬‭called‬‭a‬‭soil‬‭triangle‬‭is‬‭used.‬‭For‬‭example,‬‭a‬‭given‬‭soil‬‭sample‬‭may‬‭have‬‭a‬
‭a‬‭region‬‭of‬‭the‬‭nation‬‭or‬‭world.‬‭It‬‭is,‬‭however,‬‭helpful‬‭to‬‭have‬‭a‬‭general‬‭knowledge‬‭about‬‭various‬‭kinds‬‭of‬
‭composition‬‭of‬‭20%‬‭clay,‬‭60%‬‭silt‬‭and‬‭20%‬‭sand.‬‭By‬‭examining‬‭each‬‭side‬‭of‬‭the‬‭triangle‬‭and‬‭following‬‭the‬
‭pollen‬‭and‬‭common‬‭regionally‬‭identifiable‬‭plants.‬‭T his‬‭may‬‭include‬‭plants‬‭such‬‭as‬‭cotton‬‭or‬‭rice,‬‭which‬‭can‬
‭diagonal‬‭line‬‭from‬‭each‬‭number‬‭to‬‭where‬‭they‬‭intersect,‬‭it‬‭can‬‭be‬‭determined‬‭that‬‭this‬‭sample‬‭is‬‭silt‬‭loam.‬
‭Reading‬‭these‬‭charts‬‭can‬‭take‬‭some‬‭practice,‬‭but‬‭it's‬‭important‬‭to‬‭know‬‭how‬‭to‬‭read‬‭one.‬
 ‭can‬‭be‬‭identified‬‭by‬‭the‬‭tread‬‭that‬‭is‬‭left‬‭on‬‭the‬‭ground.‬‭Checking‬‭the‬‭pattern,‬‭shape,‬‭and‬‭size‬‭of‬‭each‬‭distinct‬

‭Some‬‭exams‬‭may‬‭also‬‭expect‬‭competitors‬‭to‬‭do‬‭lab‬‭tests‬‭on‬‭soil,‬‭like‬‭testing‬‭the‬‭soil's‬‭pH‬‭to‬‭determine‬‭its‬ ‭part‬‭of‬‭the‬‭sole‬‭on‬‭a‬‭shoe‬‭is‬‭generally‬‭necessary‬‭to‬‭make‬‭a‬‭100%‬‭accurate‬‭match.‬

‭composition.‬‭Typically‬‭this‬‭will‬‭either‬‭involve‬‭a‬‭test‬‭strip,‬‭meter,‬‭powder,‬‭or‬‭liquid.‬‭T he‬‭event‬‭supervisor‬‭will‬
‭likely‬‭provide‬‭instructions‬‭based‬‭on‬‭the‬‭specific‬‭test‬‭to‬‭be‬‭performed,‬‭but‬‭it‬‭usually‬‭involves‬‭adding‬‭water‬‭or‬
‭Soil‬
‭the‬‭test‬‭reagent‬‭and‬‭shaking‬‭the‬‭soil‬‭sample‬‭to‬‭ensure‬‭even‬‭distribution.‬‭T hen,‬‭either‬‭test‬‭the‬‭soil‬‭with‬‭the‬ ‭See‬‭also:‬‭Crime‬‭B usters#Soil‬
‭strip/meter‬‭or‬‭wait‬‭for‬‭the‬‭sample‬‭to‬‭change‬‭color.‬‭By‬‭comparing‬‭with‬‭a‬‭given‬‭color‬‭legend‬‭it's‬‭possible‬‭to‬
‭determine‬‭the‬‭soil's‬‭pH‬‭and‬‭make‬‭an‬‭educated‬‭guess‬‭at‬‭its‬‭composition.‬

‭Bullet‬‭Striations‬

‭T his‬‭image‬‭compares‬‭two‬‭bullets:‬‭one‬‭recovered‬‭from‬‭the‬‭crime‬‭scene‬‭(left)‬‭and‬‭one‬‭test‬‭bullet‬‭fired‬‭from‬‭the‬
‭same‬‭gun‬‭(right).‬‭Notice‬‭how‬‭the‬‭grooves‬‭match‬‭up‬‭between‬‭the‬‭two‬‭bullets.‬

‭Bullet‬‭striations‬‭are‬‭microscopic‬‭ridges‬‭on‬‭the‬‭surface‬‭of‬‭a‬‭bullet.‬‭T hey‬‭are‬‭created‬‭when‬‭the‬‭bullet‬‭exits‬‭the‬
‭barrel‬‭of‬‭a‬‭gun.‬‭E ach‬‭gun‬‭barrel‬‭has‬‭unique‬‭grooves‬‭known‬‭as‬‭rifling.‬‭T he‬‭purpose‬‭of‬‭this‬‭rifling‬‭is‬‭to‬‭give‬
‭the‬‭bullet‬‭a‬‭spin‬‭as‬‭it‬‭travels,‬‭which‬‭improves‬‭the‬‭spin‬‭on‬‭the‬‭weapon.‬‭Since‬‭the‬‭barrel‬‭is‬‭harder‬‭than‬‭the‬
‭bullet,‬‭these‬‭ridges‬‭will‬‭imprint‬‭on‬‭the‬‭surface‬‭of‬‭the‬‭bullet‬‭when‬‭the‬‭gun‬‭is‬‭fired.‬‭Since‬‭the‬‭rifling‬‭of‬‭every‬
‭gun‬‭barrel‬‭is‬‭unique,‬‭it‬‭is‬‭possible‬‭to‬‭match‬‭the‬‭grooves‬‭between‬‭a‬‭bullet‬‭and‬‭a‬‭gun‬‭to‬‭see‬‭which‬‭gun‬‭the‬‭bullet‬
‭was‬‭fired‬‭from.‬‭However,‬‭not‬‭all‬‭guns‬‭can‬‭be‬‭analyzed‬‭in‬‭this‬‭way.‬‭Some‬‭manufacturers‬‭employ‬‭polygonal‬
‭rifling‬‭instead‬‭of‬‭traditional‬‭rifling,‬‭making‬‭the‬‭rifling‬‭more‬‭smooth‬‭(and‬‭thus‬‭impossible‬‭to‬‭analyze).‬
‭Soil‬‭can‬‭be‬‭used‬‭to‬‭tie‬‭suspects‬‭to‬‭the‬‭scene‬‭or‬‭area‬‭of‬‭a‬‭crime‬‭based‬‭on‬‭the‬‭type‬‭of‬‭soil‬‭found.‬‭T here‬‭are‬‭three‬
‭main‬‭types‬‭of‬‭soil‬‭which‬‭are‬‭categorized‬‭based‬‭on‬‭their‬‭texture:‬‭sand,‬‭silt,‬‭and‬‭clay.‬‭Sand‬‭is‬‭the‬‭most‬‭coarse‬

‭Guns‬‭can‬‭be‬‭distinguished‬‭based‬‭on‬‭a‬‭variety‬‭of‬‭characteristics:‬‭the‬‭gauge‬‭of‬‭the‬‭weapon‬‭(the‬‭size‬‭of‬‭the‬‭inner‬ ‭of‬‭the‬‭three‬‭textures,‬‭with‬‭its‬‭particles‬‭having‬‭the‬‭greatest‬‭diameter‬‭and‬‭having‬‭a‬‭pH‬‭of‬‭4.5-5.5.‬‭Sand‬‭is‬

‭diameter‬‭of‬‭the‬‭barrel,‬‭typically‬‭used‬‭with‬‭reference‬‭to‬‭shotguns),‬‭the‬‭caliber‬‭(diameter)‬‭of‬‭the‬‭bullet‬‭that‬‭was‬ ‭primarily‬‭made‬‭of‬‭pieces‬‭of‬‭eroded‬‭rock,‬‭and‬‭is‬‭typically‬‭found‬‭on‬‭beaches‬‭or‬‭in‬‭arid‬‭climates‬‭like‬‭deserts.‬

‭fired,‬‭how‬‭many‬‭grooves‬‭are‬‭present‬‭inside‬‭the‬‭gun‬‭barrel,‬‭and‬‭whether‬‭these‬‭grooves‬‭run‬‭clockwise‬‭or‬ ‭Silt‬‭is‬‭also‬‭a‬‭sediment‬‭but‬‭its‬‭grains‬‭are‬‭finer‬‭than‬‭that‬‭of‬‭sand.‬‭Silt‬‭is‬‭typically‬‭found‬‭around‬‭riverbanks‬‭and‬

‭counter-clockwise.‬‭E ven‬‭if‬‭the‬‭gun‬‭used‬‭at‬‭the‬‭scene‬‭was‬‭not‬‭recovered,‬‭it‬‭may‬‭still‬‭be‬‭possible‬‭to‬‭determine‬ ‭other‬‭waterways‬‭as‬‭the‬‭water‬‭erodes‬‭rock‬‭and‬‭deposits‬‭it‬‭onto‬‭land.‬‭It‬‭can‬‭also‬‭be‬‭carried‬‭into‬‭valleys‬‭by‬

‭the‬‭type‬‭of‬‭weapon‬‭used‬‭from‬‭any‬‭casings‬‭or‬‭ammunition‬‭left‬‭behind.‬‭A‬‭majority‬‭of‬‭the‬‭questions‬‭related‬‭to‬ ‭floodwaters.‬‭Silty‬‭soil‬‭tends‬‭to‬‭have‬‭a‬‭pH‬‭of‬‭around‬‭4.5-5.5,‬‭similar‬‭to‬‭sand.‬‭Clay‬‭is‬‭the‬‭third‬‭major‬‭category‬

‭this‬‭topic‬‭will‬‭ask‬‭competitors‬‭to‬‭match‬‭striations‬‭on‬‭bullets,‬‭determining‬‭if‬‭a‬‭given‬‭gun‬‭was‬‭used‬‭to‬‭commit‬ ‭of‬‭soil‬‭and‬‭has‬‭the‬‭finest‬‭grains‬‭of‬‭the‬‭three.‬‭Clay‬‭soil‬‭can‬‭be‬‭found‬‭in‬‭most‬‭places‬‭in‬‭the‬‭U.S.,‬‭though‬‭it‬‭can‬

‭the‬‭crime.‬ ‭be‬‭common‬‭around‬‭lakes‬‭and‬‭other‬‭large‬‭bodies‬‭of‬‭water.‬‭Clay‬‭soil‬‭tends‬‭to‬‭have‬‭a‬‭pH‬‭of‬‭around‬‭5.5-7.0.‬

‭T hese‬‭three‬‭types‬‭of‬‭particulates‬‭can‬‭appear‬‭in‬‭different‬‭proportions‬‭in‬‭a‬‭given‬‭sample‬‭of‬‭soil,‬‭determining‬‭the‬
‭type‬‭of‬‭soil‬‭it‬‭is.‬‭For‬‭example,‬‭a‬‭soil‬‭sample‬‭that‬‭is‬‭mostly‬‭sand‬‭with‬‭a‬‭small‬‭percentage‬‭of‬‭silt‬‭or‬‭clay‬‭may‬‭be‬
‭sandy‬‭loam‬‭while‬‭a‬‭sample‬‭that‬‭is‬‭mostly‬‭silt‬‭with‬‭a‬‭little‬‭sand‬‭may‬‭be‬‭silt‬‭loam.‬‭L oamy‬‭soil‬‭is‬‭a‬‭mixture‬‭of‬
‭Tracks‬‭and‬‭Soil‬ ‭all‬‭three‬‭types‬‭of‬‭particulate‬‭as‬‭well‬‭as‬‭organic‬‭matter,‬‭making‬‭it‬‭optimal‬‭for‬‭most‬‭garden‬‭plants.‬‭L oamy‬‭soil‬
‭tends‬‭to‬‭have‬‭a‬‭pH‬‭of‬‭5.5-6.5,‬‭but‬‭certain‬‭additives‬‭and‬‭fertilizers‬‭may‬‭alter‬‭it‬‭based‬‭on‬‭the‬‭plants‬‭growing‬‭in‬
‭Tracks‬ ‭it.‬‭Another‬‭type‬‭of‬‭soil‬‭is‬‭peat,‬‭composed‬‭largely‬‭of‬‭organic‬‭material‬‭on‬‭the‬‭top‬‭layer‬‭of‬‭soil.‬‭Peaty‬‭soil‬‭is‬
‭acidic‬‭and‬‭high‬‭in‬‭nutrients,‬‭but‬‭harvesting‬‭it‬‭is‬‭problematic‬‭for‬‭the‬‭wetlands‬‭it's‬‭found‬‭in.‬‭As‬‭a‬‭result,‬
‭In‬‭this‬‭section,‬‭most‬‭observations‬‭will‬‭be‬‭qualitative.‬‭Often,‬‭the‬‭only‬‭necessary‬‭action‬‭is‬‭to‬‭compare‬‭the‬‭given‬
‭alternatives‬‭are‬‭used‬‭to‬‭promote‬‭soil‬‭drainage‬‭and‬‭nutrient‬‭absorption.‬
‭photographs‬‭to‬‭the‬‭track‬‭provided‬‭at‬‭the‬‭"scene."‬‭T hese‬‭tracks‬‭can‬‭be‬‭footprints‬‭or‬‭tire‬‭tracks,‬‭both‬‭of‬‭which‬
‭To‬‭categorize‬‭a‬‭soil‬‭sample,‬‭a‬‭chart‬‭called‬‭a‬‭soil‬‭triangle‬‭is‬‭used.‬‭For‬‭example,‬‭a‬‭given‬‭soil‬‭sample‬‭may‬‭have‬ ‭this‬‭topic‬‭will‬‭ask‬‭competitors‬‭to‬‭match‬‭striations‬‭on‬‭bullets,‬‭determining‬‭if‬‭a‬‭given‬‭gun‬‭was‬‭used‬‭to‬‭commit‬
‭a‬‭composition‬‭of‬‭20%‬‭clay,‬‭60%‬‭silt‬‭and‬‭20%‬‭sand.‬‭By‬‭examining‬‭each‬‭side‬‭of‬‭the‬‭triangle‬‭and‬‭following‬‭the‬ ‭the‬‭crime.‬
‭diagonal‬‭line‬‭from‬‭each‬‭number‬‭to‬‭where‬‭they‬‭intersect,‬‭it‬‭can‬‭be‬‭determined‬‭that‬‭this‬‭sample‬‭is‬‭silt‬‭loam.‬
‭Reading‬‭these‬‭charts‬‭can‬‭take‬‭some‬‭practice,‬‭but‬‭it's‬‭important‬‭to‬‭know‬‭how‬‭to‬‭read‬‭one.‬

‭Some‬‭exams‬‭may‬‭also‬‭expect‬‭competitors‬‭to‬‭do‬‭lab‬‭tests‬‭on‬‭soil,‬‭like‬‭testing‬‭the‬‭soil's‬‭pH‬‭to‬‭determine‬‭its‬
‭composition.‬‭Typically‬‭this‬‭will‬‭either‬‭involve‬‭a‬‭test‬‭strip,‬‭meter,‬‭powder,‬‭or‬‭liquid.‬‭T he‬‭event‬‭supervisor‬‭will‬
‭likely‬‭provide‬‭instructions‬‭based‬‭on‬‭the‬‭specific‬‭test‬‭to‬‭be‬‭performed,‬‭but‬‭it‬‭usually‬‭involves‬‭adding‬‭water‬‭or‬
‭the‬‭test‬‭reagent‬‭and‬‭shaking‬‭the‬‭soil‬‭sample‬‭to‬‭ensure‬‭even‬‭distribution.‬‭T hen,‬‭either‬‭test‬‭the‬‭soil‬‭with‬‭the‬
‭strip/meter‬‭or‬‭wait‬‭for‬‭the‬‭sample‬‭to‬‭change‬‭color.‬‭By‬‭comparing‬‭with‬‭a‬‭given‬‭color‬‭legend‬‭it's‬‭possible‬‭to‬
‭determine‬‭the‬‭soil's‬‭pH‬‭and‬‭make‬‭an‬‭educated‬‭guess‬‭at‬‭its‬‭composition.‬

‭Bullet‬‭Striations‬

‭This‬‭i mage‬‭c ompares‬‭t wo‬‭b ullets:‬‭o ne‬‭recovered‬‭from‬‭t he‬‭c rime‬‭scene‬‭(left)‬‭a nd‬‭o ne‬‭t est‬‭b ullet‬‭fired‬‭from‬‭t he‬
‭same‬‭g un‬‭(right).‬‭Notice‬‭h ow‬‭t he‬‭g rooves‬‭match‬‭u p‬‭b etween‬‭t he‬‭t wo‬‭b ullets.‬

‭Bullet‬‭striations‬‭are‬‭microscopic‬‭ridges‬‭on‬‭the‬‭surface‬‭of‬‭a‬‭bullet.‬‭T hey‬‭are‬‭created‬‭when‬‭the‬‭bullet‬‭exits‬‭the‬
‭barrel‬‭of‬‭a‬‭gun.‬‭E ach‬‭gun‬‭barrel‬‭has‬‭unique‬‭grooves‬‭known‬‭as‬‭rifling‬‭. ‬‭T he‬‭purpose‬‭of‬‭this‬‭rifling‬‭is‬‭to‬‭give‬
‭the‬‭bullet‬‭a‬‭spin‬‭as‬‭it‬‭travels,‬‭which‬‭improves‬‭the‬‭spin‬‭on‬‭the‬‭weapon.‬‭Since‬‭the‬‭barrel‬‭is‬‭harder‬‭than‬‭the‬
‭bullet,‬‭these‬‭ridges‬‭will‬‭imprint‬‭on‬‭the‬‭surface‬‭of‬‭the‬‭bullet‬‭when‬‭the‬‭gun‬‭is‬‭fired.‬‭Since‬‭the‬‭rifling‬‭of‬‭every‬
‭gun‬‭barrel‬‭is‬‭unique,‬‭it‬‭is‬‭possible‬‭to‬‭match‬‭the‬‭grooves‬‭between‬‭a‬‭bullet‬‭and‬‭a‬‭gun‬‭to‬‭see‬‭which‬‭gun‬‭the‬‭bullet‬
‭was‬‭fired‬‭from.‬‭However,‬‭not‬‭all‬‭guns‬‭can‬‭be‬‭analyzed‬‭in‬‭this‬‭way.‬‭Some‬‭manufacturers‬‭employ‬‭polygonal‬
‭rifling‬‭instead‬‭of‬‭traditional‬‭rifling,‬‭making‬‭the‬‭rifling‬‭more‬‭smooth‬‭(and‬‭thus‬‭impossible‬‭to‬‭analyze).‬

‭Guns‬‭can‬‭be‬‭distinguished‬‭based‬‭on‬‭a‬‭variety‬‭of‬‭characteristics:‬‭the‬‭gauge‬‭of‬‭the‬‭weapon‬‭(the‬‭size‬‭of‬‭the‬‭inner‬
‭diameter‬‭of‬‭the‬‭barrel,‬‭typically‬‭used‬‭with‬‭reference‬‭to‬‭shotguns),‬‭the‬‭caliber‬‭(diameter)‬‭of‬‭the‬‭bullet‬‭that‬‭was‬
‭fired,‬‭how‬‭many‬‭grooves‬‭are‬‭present‬‭inside‬‭the‬‭gun‬‭barrel,‬‭and‬‭whether‬‭these‬‭grooves‬‭run‬‭clockwise‬‭or‬
‭counter-clockwise.‬‭E ven‬‭if‬‭the‬‭gun‬‭used‬‭at‬‭the‬‭scene‬‭was‬‭not‬‭recovered,‬‭it‬‭may‬‭still‬‭be‬‭possible‬‭to‬‭determine‬
‭the‬‭type‬‭of‬‭weapon‬‭used‬‭from‬‭any‬‭casings‬‭or‬‭ammunition‬‭left‬‭behind.‬‭A‬‭majority‬‭of‬‭the‬‭questions‬‭related‬‭to‬