PHYSICS FOR INFORMATION SCIENCE - M1

MODULE 01
Classical Free Electron Theory
• Metals contain a large number of free electrons, which are not bound to any specific atom and
move freely within the metal like molecules in a gas.
• Free electrons move randomly in all directions within the metal. In the absence of an electric field,
the average velocity of the electrons is zero.
• The behavior of these electrons follows the principles of classical mechanics (Newton’s laws) and
thermodynamics.
• Electrons collide elastically with fixed positive ions in the metallic lattice. These collisions are
responsible for resistance in the metal.
• When an external electric field is applied, the free electrons acquire a drift velocity superimposed
on their random motion, resulting in an electric current.
• The free electrons gain kinetic energy from heat, and their average kinetic energy is proportional
3
to the absolute temperature of the metal ( KE= k BT ) , where k B is Boltzmann’s constant.
2
• Between two successive collisions, electrons travel a certain distance called the mean free path.
The time between these collisions is the relaxation time.

Electrical conductivity in metals

A conductor of length l and cross-sectional area A has a volume: V = A l

If the number of electrons per unit volume is n, then the total number of electrons is:
Total electrons = Aln

The total charge is: q=n A l e

If t is the time taken by an electron to move from one end to another, then current
charge q n A l e
is: I = = =
time t t
l
We know, =V d
t

Thus, I =n A V d e

I J
Rearranging for drift velocity: V d = =
Ane ne
I
where current density: J =
A

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In metals, the relation between current density and drift velocity is: J =n e V d

Effect of Electric Field

When an electric field E is applied, the force on an electron is: F =e E

From Newton’s second law: F =m a

eE
Thus, acceleration: a=
m
eE
The average velocity (drift velocity) is given by: V d =a t = τ
m

where τ is the relaxation time (time between two successive collisions).

eE n e2
Substituting in the current density equation: J =n e τ= Eτ
m m

From Ohm’s law: J =σ E

n e2 τ
Comparing, σ =
m

where σ is the conductivity of the conductor.

Vd eτ
The mobility μ is defined as: μ= =
E m

Mobility in electrical conductivity is defined as the ratio of the drift velocity of charge carriers to the
applied electric field, indicating how quickly they move through a material. It is mathematically given by
V eτ
μ= d = , where e is the electron charge, τ is the relaxation time, and m is the mass of the charge
E m
carrier.

Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function

Fermi energy is the highest energy level that electrons occupy in a material at absolute zero temperature
(0K).
The Fermi level corresponds to the Fermi energy in a solid and represents the energy level at which the
probability of electron occupancy is 50% at any temperature.
The Fermi-Dirac distribution function f ( E) gives the probability that a quantum state with energy E is
occupied by an electron at absolute temperature T .

1
f ( E)= (E −E F )/(k B T )
1+e

• E F = Fermi energy (constant, ie, the highest energy level occupied by electrons at absolute zero).
• k B = Boltzmann constant. (relates temperature to energy)
• T = Absolute temperature in Kelvin

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Variation of the Fermi Function with Temperature

1. At T =0 and E < E F :
• When the temperature is absolute zero and the energy E is less than the Fermi energy E F
1 1
: f ( E)= (E −E )/(k T )
= =1
1+e F B
1+0
• This implies that all energy levels below E F are fully occupied by electrons.

2. At T =0 and E > E F :
• When E is greater than E F at absolute zero:
1 1
f ( E)= (E −E )/(k T )
= =0
1+e F B
1+∞
• This indicates that all energy levels above E F are
empty.

3. At T >0 and E= E F :
1 1
• When the temperature is greater than zero and E= E F : f ( E)= 0
=
1+e 2
• This means that at non-zero temperatures, there is a 50% probability that the energy level
at E F is occupied.

Drawbacks of Classical Free Electron Theory

1. According to classical theory, the specific heat capacity of metals should be 4.5 R (based on the
Dulong-Petit law), but experiments show it is closer to 3R.
2. The theory predicts a mean free path ( λ ) of about 2.85 nm, but experimental values show that it
is more than 10 times larger than this predicted value.
3. Classical theory assumes that all free electrons participate in thermal conduction. However,
quantum theory shows that only electrons near the Fermi level contribute to conduction.
4. Classical free electron theory fails to explain the electrical conductivity of semiconductors.
5. The theory suggests that the paramagnetic susceptibility of metals should vary inversely with
temperature, but experimentally, paramagnetism is found to be independent of temperature.
6. According to classical theory, resistivity ρ should be proportional to temperature T , but
experimentally, resistivity does not follow this exact relationship.

Energy Bands
In an isolated atom, electrons at any given orbit have a definite energy. However, in a solid, atoms are
surrounded by neighboring atoms. Due to the influence of these neighboring atoms, the energy levels of
electrons in solids form a range of energies instead of discrete energy levels. This range of energies is
known as an energy band.

Valence Band: The valence band contains the outermost electrons of an atom, occupying the highest
energy levels that are partially or completely filled. These electrons are responsible for chemical bonding,
and in inert gases, the valence band is fully filled, making the atoms stable.

Conduction Band: The conduction band holds free electrons that have escaped from the valence band,
primarily in metals where valence electrons are loosely bound. These free electrons enable electrical

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conductivity. Materials with partially filled conduction bands (like metals) are good conductors, whereas
insulators have empty conduction bands, preventing the flow of electricity.

Energy Gap: The energy gap, or forbidden gap, is the energy difference between the valence band and the
conduction band, where no electron states exist. Greater Energy gap means less conduction and vice
versa.

Property Conductors Insulators Semiconductors

Very low; do not allow Intermediate; conductivity
High; allow electric current to
Conductivity electric current to flow lies between conductors
pass easily.
easily. and insulators.
Limited number of free
Few or no free electrons
Free Electrons Large number of free electrons. electrons, increases with
in normal conditions.
temperature.
No gap; valence and conduction
Energy Band Gap Large gap (around 15 eV). Small gap (about 1 eV).
bands overlap.
Resistance decreases with Resistance decreases with
Resistance slightly increases with
Temperature Effect temperature (negative temperature (negative
temperature.
coefficient). coefficient).
Silicon (Si), Germanium
Examples Copper, aluminum, iron, gold. Glass, plastic, wood.
(Ge).

SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
Superconductivity is a phenomenon where a material's electrical resistance
disappears completely below a certain temperature, known as the critical
temperature. In this state (Fig. B) , the material exhibits zero resistivity and
becomes a perfect diamagnet.

Critical Temperature ( Tc )
It is the highest temperature at which superconductivity occurs in a material. Below this transition
temperature Tc, the resistivity of the material is equal to zero.

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Critical Magnetic Field ( HC )

It is the value of externally applied magnetic field above which a superconductor becomes normal
conductor. Critical magnetic field at temperature T is described by Tuyn's law, which is given by the
formula:

[ ( )]
2
T
H C (T )=H (0) 1−
TC

• H C (T ) is the critical field at temperature T .

• H (0) is the critical field at absolute zero temperature ( 0 K ).
• T is the current temperature.
• T C is the critical temperature, at which superconductivity is
lost.

Critical Current Density (Jc)

The maximum value of electrical current per unit of cross-sectional area, which a superconductor can
carry without resistance.

Meissner Effect
The sudden and complete expulsion of magnetic field from the interior of superconductor when it is
cooled below critical temperature is called Meissner effect.

Magnetic Induction Inside the Specimen (Normal state): B= μ 0 ( H + M ) , where H = Magnetic Field
Strength, M = Magnetization, μ0 = Permeability of Free Space

In the superconducting state, i.e., at T <T c :

B=0 ⇒ μ 0 ( H +M )=0

⇒ M =− H

Susceptibility, χ , is given by:

M
χ= =−1
H

This means the superconductor is getting magnetized in a direction opposite to the applied field, and its
susceptibility is −1 . Thus, the substance in the superconducting state is a perfect diamagnet.

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Type I and Type II Superconductors

Type I Superconductors Type II Superconductors

Called soft superconductors Called hard superconductors

Exhibit complete Meissner effect Do not exhibit complete Meissner effect
Show perfect diamagnetic behavior Do not show perfect diamagnetic behavior
Have one critical magnetic field ( H C ) Have two critical magnetic fields ( H C 1 and H C 2 )
Abrupt transition from superconducting to Gradual transition from superconducting to
normal normal
No mixed state Mixed state or intermediate state is present
Magnetization is lost abruptly Magnetization is lost gradually
Highest critical field is about 0.1 Wb/m² Upper critical field is of the order of 30 Wb/m²
Critical magnetic field is small (~0.1 T) Critical magnetic field is high (~100 T)
Eg: Lead (Pb), Tin (Sn), Mercury (Hg) Eg: Nb3Ge, Nb3Si

BCS Theory
When an electron approaches a
•
positive ion in metal lattice, there is a
coulomb attraction between electron
and lattice ion. This causes a distortion
in position of lattice ion (lattice
vibration) creating an area of high
positive charge.
• When a second electron approaches this distorted positive ion, it will experience coulomb
attraction. (Second electron chases the area of higher positive charge). This can be considered as
interaction of two electrons via the lattice vibration.
• In superconducting state this attraction between a pair of electrons through the lattice vibration
reaches maximum value, for a pair of electrons of opposite spin and exceeds the coulomb force of
repulsion between them. The pair of free electrons of opposite spin coupled through lattice
vibration is called a Cooper pair.
• In superconductor, cooper pairs act as the charge carriers. Cooper pair are bosons and as a result
any number of cooper pairs can coexist at same energy level. Since they have same energy, cooper
pairs flows without resistance. The small velocity of cooper pairs combined with precise ordering
minimises collision and leads to zero resistivity.

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Josephson Junction:

Junction formed by a thin layer of insulator between two superconductors.

Applications of Superconductivity
1. Low-Loss Transmission Lines and Transformers: Reducing energy losses in power systems.

2. Computing: Used in computers, enables faster processing and more efficient memory systems.

3. High-Capacity Computer Chips

4. Cryotron: A cryotron, an advanced electrical switching system, employs superconductors for

highly efficient and fast electronic switching.

5. SQUID (Superconducting Quantum Interference Device): SQUID devices, are used for detecting
magnetic fields in scientific research, medical diagnostics, and communication technologies.

6. Large-Scale Superconducting Magnets: Applications like magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power

plants, controlled fusion reactors, and energy storage systems.

7. Maglev Trains: Superconductors are integral to the development of levitated (Maglev) trains,
enabling high-speed transit systems through magnetic levitation.

8. Medical Field: Used in MRI machines for generating strong and stable magnetic fields required for
detailed imaging.

9. Other Applications: Superconductors are also applied in magnetic flux concentration, shielding, RF
and microwave filters, fast fault current limiters, and SQUID-based microscopes for imaging local
magnetic fields.

Previous Year Questions:

1. Electrical Conductivity in Metals – Derivation (Essay Question)

2. Critical Magnetic Field – Variation (Short Answer)

3. Type I and Type II Superconductors (Essay Question)

4. Applications of Superconductivity (Short Answer)

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