UNIT-I

INTRODUCTION

Meaning of research:

Research in simple terms refers to search for knowledge. It is a scientific and systematic search for
information on a particular topic or issue. It is also known as the art of scientific investigation. Several
social scientists have defined research in different ways.
In the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, D. Slesinger and M. Stephension(1930) defined research
as ―the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend,
corrector verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in the construction of theory or in the
practice of anart.. Research is a careful and detailed study into a specific problem, concern, or issue
using the scientific method.
According to Redman and Mory (1923), research is a ―systematized effort to gain new knowledge‖.
It is an academic activity and therefore the term should be used in a technical sense. According to
Clifford Woody (kothari, 1988), research comprises ―defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypotheses or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making
deductions and reaching conclusions; and finally, carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulated hypotheses. Thus, research is an original addition to the available
knowledge, which contributes to its further advancement. It is an attempt to pursue truth through the
methods of study, observation, comparison and experiment. In sum, research is the search for
knowledge, using objective and systematic methods to find solution to a problem.

Objectives of research:

The objective of research is to find answers to the questions by applying scientific procedures. In
other words, the main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and has not yet been
discovered. Although every research study has its own specific objectives, the research objectives
may be broadly grouped as follows:
1. To gain familiarity with new insights into a phenomenon (i.e., formulative research studies);
2. To accurately portray the characteristics of a particular individual, group, or a situation (i.e.,
descriptive research studies);
3. To analyze the frequency with which something occurs (i.e., diagnostic research studies)
4. To examine the hypothesis of a causal relationship between two variables (i.e., hypothesis- testing
research studies).

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Research Methods versus methodology:

Research methods include all those techniques/methods that are adopted for conducting research.
Thus, research techniques or methods are the methods that the researchers adopt for conducting the
research studies. On the other hand, research methodology is the way in which research problems
are solved systematically. It is a science of studying how research is conducted scientifically. Under
it, the researcher acquaints himself/herself with the various steps generally adopted to study a
research problem, along with the underlying logic behind them. Hence, it not only important for the
researcher to know the research techniques/ methods, but also the scientific approach called
methodology.

Research approaches:

Research approach is a plan and procedure that consists of the steps of broad assumptions to detailed
method of data collection, analysis and interpretation. It is therefore, based on the nature of the
research problem being addressed. There are two main approaches to research, namely quantitative
approach and qualitative approach. The quantitative approach involves the collection of
quantitative data, which are put to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid manner.
This approach further includes experimental, inferential, and simulation approaches to research.
Meanwhile, the qualitative approach uses the method of subjective assessment of opinions,
behavior and attitudes. Research in such a situation is a function of the researcher ‘s impressions
and insights. The results generated by this type of research are either in non-quantitative form
or in the form which cannot be put to rigorous quantitative analysis. Usually, this approach uses
techniques like in depth interviews, focus group interviews, and projective techniques.

Types of research:

There are different types of research. The basic ones are as follows.

1. Descriptive versus analytical:

Descriptive research consists of surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different types. The main
objective of descriptive research is describing the state of affairs as it prevails at the time of
study. The term ‗ex post facto research’s is quite often used for descriptive research studies in
social sciences and business research. The most distinguishing feature of this method is that the
researcher has no control over the variables here. He/she has to only report what is happening or
what has happened. Majority of the ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies
in which the researcher attempts to examine phenomena, such as the consumers‘ preferences,
frequency of purchases, shopping, etc. Despite the inability of the researchers to control the
variables, ex post facto studies may also comprise attempts by them
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 to discover the causes of the selected problem. The methods of research adopted in conducting
descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including correlational and comparative
methods. Meanwhile in the Analytical research, the researcher has to use the already available
facts or information, and analyze them to make a critical evaluation of the subject.

2. Applied versus fundamental:

Research can also be applied or fundamental in nature. An attempt to find a solution to an

immediate problem encountered by a firm, an industry, a business organization, or the society is
known as applied research. Researchers engaged in such researches aim at drawing certain
conclusions confronting a concrete social or business problem. On the other hand, fundamental
research mainly concerns generalizations and formulation of a theory. In other words, Gathering
knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed pure or basic research (Young in Kothari, 1988).
Researches relating to pure mathematics or concerning some natural phenomenon are instances of
Fundamental Research. Likewise, studies focusing on human behavior also fall under the category
of fundamental research. Thus, while the principal objective of applied research is to find a
solution to some pressing practical problem, the objective of basic research is to find information
with a broad base of application and add to the already existing organized body of scientific
knowledge.

3. Quantitative versus qualitative:

Quantitative research relates to aspects that can be quantified or can be expressed in terms of
quantity. It involves the measurement of quantity or amount. Various available statistical and
econometric methods are adopted for analysis in such research. Which includes correlation,
regressions and time series analysis etc,. On the other hand, Qualitative research is concerned with
qualitative phenomena, or more specifically, the aspects related to or involving quality or kind.
For example, an important type of qualitative research is ‗Motivation Research‘, which
investigates into the reasons for certain human behavior. The main aim of this type of research is
discovering the underlying motives and desires of in-depth interviews. The other techniques
employed in such research are story completion tests, sentence completion tests, word association
tests, and other similar projective methods. Qualitative research is particularly significant in the
context of behavioral sciences, which aim at discovering the underlying motives of human
behavior. Such research helps to analyze the various factors that motivate human beings to behave
in a certain manner, besides contributing to an understanding of what makes individuals like
or dislike a particular thing. However, it is worth noting that

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conducting qualitative research in practice is considerably a difficult task. Hence, while
undertaking such research, seeking guidance from experienced expert researchers is important.

4 Conceptual versus empirical:

The research related to some abstract idea or theory is known as Conceptual Research. Generally,
philosophers and thinkers use it for developing new concepts or for reinterpreting the existing
ones. Empirical Research, on the other hand, exclusively relies on the observation or
experience with hardly any regard for theory and system. Such research is data based, which
often comes up with conclusions that can be verified through experiments or observation.
Empirical research is also known as experimental type of research, in which it is important to
first collect the facts and their sources, and actively take steps to stimulate the production of
desired information. In this type of research, the researcher first formulates a working hypothesis,
and then gathers sufficient facts to prove or disprove the stated hypothesis. He/she
formulates the experimental design, which according to him/her would manipulate the variables,
so as to obtain the desired information. This type of research is thus characterized by the
researcher‘s control over the variables under study. In simple term, empirical research is most
appropriate when an attempt is made to prove that certain variables influence the other variables
in some way. Therefore, the results obtained by using the experimental or empirical studies are
considered to be the most powerful evidences for a given hypothesis.

5 Other types of research:

The remaining types of research are variations of one or more of the afore-mentioned type of
research. They vary in terms of the purpose of research, or the time required to complete it, or may
be based on some other similar factor. On the basis of time, research may either be in the nature
of one-time or longitudinal time series research. While the research is restricted to a single time-
period in the former case, it is conducted over several time-periods in the latter case. Depending
up on the environment in which the research is to be conducted, it can also be laboratory research
or field-setting research, or simulation research, besides being diagnostic or clinical in nature.
Under such research, in-depth approaches or case study method may be employed to analyse the
basic causal relations. These studies usually undertake a detailed in-depth analysis of the
causes of certain events of interest, and use very small samples and sharp data collection methods.
The research may also be explanatory in nature. Formalized research studies consist of substantial
structure and specific hypotheses to be verified. As regards to historical research, sources like
historical documents, remains, etc. Are utilized to study past events or ideas. It also includes
philosophy of persons and groups of the past or any remote point of time.

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 Research has also been classified into decision-oriented and conclusion-oriented categories. The
decision-oriented research is always carried out as per the need of a decisionmaker and hence, the
researcher has no freedom to conduct the research according to his/her own desires. On the other
hand, in the case of Conclusion-oriented research, the researcher is free to choose the problem,
redesign the enquiry as it progresses and even change conceptualization as he/she wishes. An
operation research is a kind of decision- oriented research, where in scientific method is used in
providing the departments, a quantitative basis for decision-making with respect to the activities
under their preview.

Importance of knowing how to conduct research:

The importance of knowing how to conduct research are listed below:

a. The knowledge of research methodology provides training to new researchers and enables
them to do research properly. It helps them to develop disciplined thinking or absent of mind
to objectively observe the field;

b. The knowledge of doing research inculcates the ability to evaluate and utilize the research
findings with confidence;
c. The knowledge of research methodology equips the researcher with the tools that help him/her
to make the observations objectively; and

d. The knowledge of methodology helps the research consumers to evaluate research and make
rational decisions.

Qualities of a researcher:

It is important for a researcher to possess certain qualities to conduct research. First and foremost,
he being a scientist should be firmly committed to the ‗articles of faith of the scientific methods
of research. This implies that a researcher should be a social science person in the truest sense. Sir
Michael Foster cited by (Wilkinson and Bhandarkar, 1979) identified a few distinct qualities of a
scientist. According to him, a true research scientist should possess the following qualities:

1. First of all, the nature of a researcher must be of the temperament that vibrates in unison with the
theme which he is searching. Hence, the seeker of knowledge must be truthful with truthfulness
of nature, which is much more important, much more exacting than what is sometimes known as
truthfulness. The truthfulness relates to the desire for accuracy of observation and precision of
statement. Ensuring facts is the principle rule of science, which is not an easy matter. The
difficulty may arise due to untrained eye, which fails to see anything beyond what it has the
power of seeing and sometimes even less than that. This may also be due to the lack of
discipline in the method of science. An unscientific individual

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 often remains satisfied with the expressions like approximately, almost, or nearly, which is never
what nature is. Real research cannot see two things which differ, however minutely, as the same.
2. A researcher must possess an alert mind. Nature is constantly changing and revealing itself
through various ways. A scientific researcher must be keen and watchful to notice such changes,
no matter how small or insignificant they may appear. Such receptivity has to be cultivated slowly
and patiently over time by the researcher through practice. An individual who is ignorant or not
alert and receptive during his research will not make a good researcher. He will fail as a good
researcher if he has no keen eyes or mind to observe the unusual changes behind the routine.
Research demands a systematic immersion into the subject matter by the researcher grasp even the
slightest hint that may culminate into significant research problems. In this context, Cohen and
Negal cited by (Selltiz et al, 1965; Wilkinson and Bhandarkar, 1979) state that ―the ability to
perceive in some brute experience the occasion of a problem is not a common talent among men…
it is a mark of scientific genius to be sensitive to difficulties where less gifted people pass by
untroubled by doubt.
3. Scientific enquiry is pre-eminently an intellectual effort. It requires the moral quality of courage,
which reflects the courage of a steadfast endurance. The process of conducting research is not an
easy task. There are occasions when a research scientist might feel defeated or completely
lost. This is the stage when a researcher would need immense courage and the sense of
conviction. The researcher must learn the art of enduring intellectual hardships. In the words
of Darwin, ―It’s dogged that does it‖.
In order to cultivate the afore-mentioned three qualities of a researcher, a fourth one may be added.
This is the quality of making statements cautiously. According to Huxley, the assertion that
outstrips the evidence is not only a blunder but a crime (Thompson, 1975). A researcher should
cultivate the habit of reserving judgment when the required data are in sufficient.

Significance of research:

According to a famous Hudson Maxim, ―All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better
than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention‖. It brings out the
significance of research, increased amount of which makes the progress possible. Research
encourages scientific and inductive thinking, besides promoting the development of logical habits
of thinking and organization. The role of research in applied economics in the context of an
economy or business is greatly increasing in modern times. The increasingly complex nature of
government and business has raised the use of research in solving

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 operational problems. Research assumes significant role in the formulation of economic policy
for both, the government and business. It provides the basis for almost all government policies of
an economic system. Government budget formulation, for example, depends particularly on the
analysis of needs and desires of people, and the availability of revenues, which requires research.
Research helps to formulate alternative policies, in addition to examining the consequences of
these alternatives. Thus, research also facilitates the decision-making of policy-makers,
although in itself is not a part of research. In the process, research also helps in the proper
allocation of a country’s scarce resources.
Research is also necessary for collecting information on the social and economic structure of
an economy to understand the process of change occurring in the country. Collection of statistical
information, though not a routine task, involves various research problems. Therefore, large
staff of research technicians or experts is engaged by the government these days to undertake
this work. Thus, research as a tool of government economic policy formulation involves three
distinct stages of operation:
(i) investigation of economic structure through continual compilation of facts; (ii) diagnosis of
events that are taking place and analysis of the forces underlying them; and (iii) the prognosis
i.e., the prediction of future developments (Wilkinson and Bhandarkar,1979).
Research also assumes significance in solving various operational and planning problems
associated with business and industry. In several ways, operations research, market research and
motivational research are vital and their results assist in taking business decisions. Market research
refers to the investigation of the structure and development of a market for the formulation of
efficient policies relating to purchases, production and sales. Operational research relates to the
application of logical, mathematical, and analytical techniques to find solution to business
problems, such as cost minimization or profit maximization, or the optimization problems.
Motivational research helps to determine why people behave in the manner they do with respect
to market characteristics. More specifically, it is concerned with the analysis of the motivations
underlying consumer behavior. All these researches are very useful for business and industry, and
are responsible for business decision-making. Research is equally important to social scientists for
analyzing the social relationships and seeking explanations to various social problems. It gives
intellectual satisfaction of knowing things for the sake of knowledge. It also possesses the
practical utility for the social scientist to gain knowledge so as to be able to do something better
or in a more efficient manner. The research in social sciences is concerned with both knowledge
for its own sake, and knowledge for what it can contribute to solve practical problems.

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Research process:

Research process consists of a series of steps or actions required for effectively conducting
research. The following are the steps that provide useful procedural guidelines regarding the
conduct of research:

(1) Formulating the research problem;

(2) Extensive literature survey;
(3) Developing hypothesis;
(4) Preparing the research design;
(5) Determining sample design;
(6) Collecting data;
(7) Execution of the project;
(8) Analysis of data;
(9) Hypothesis testing;
(10) Generalization and interpretation, and
(11) Preparation of there poster presentation of the results.
In other words, it involves the formal write-up of conclusions.

Research problem:

The first and foremost stage in the research process is to select and properly define the
research problem. A researcher should first identify a problem and formulate it, so as to make
it amenable or susceptible to research. In general, a research problem refers to an unanswered
question that a researcher might encounter in the context of either a theoretical or practical
situation, which he/she would like to answer or find a solution to. A research problem is generally
said to exist if the following conditions emerge (Kothari, 1988):
i. There should be an individual or an organization, say X, to whom the Problem can be
attributed. The individual or the organization is
situated in an environment Y, which is governed by certain uncontrolled variables Z;
ii. There should be at least two courses of action to be pursued, say A1 and A2. These
courses of action are defined by one or more values of the controlled variables. For
example, the number of items purchased at a specified time is said to be one course of
action.

iii. There should be at least two alternative possible outcomes of the said courses of
action, say B1 and B2. Of them, one alternative should be preferable to the other. That is,
at least one outcome should be what the researcher wants, which becomes an objective.

iv. The courses of possible action available must offer a chance to the researcher to achieve
the objective, but not the equal chance. Therefore, if P(Bj / X, A, Y)

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 represents the probability of the occurrence of an outcome Bj when X selects Aj in Y, then
P(B1 / X, A1,Y) ≠ P (B1 / X, A2, Y). Putting it in simple words, it means that the choices must
not have equal efficiencies for the desired outcome. Above all these conditions, the individual or
organization may be said to have arrived at the research problem only if X does not know what
course of action to be taken is the best. In other words, X should have a doubt about the solution.
Thus, an individual or a group of persons can be said to have a problem if they have more
than one desired outcome. They should have two or more alternative courses of action, which
have some but not equal efficiency. This is required for probing the desired objectives, such
that they have doubts about the best course of action to be taken. Thus, the components of a
research problem may be summarized as:

a) There should be an individual or a group who have some difficulty or problem.

b) There should be some objective(s) to be pursued. A person or an organization who

wants nothing cannot have a problem.

c) There should be alternative ways of pursuing the objective the researcher wants to
pursue. This implies that there should be more than one alternative means available to
there searcher. This is because if the researcher has no choice of alternative means,
he/she would not have a problem.
d) There should be some doubt in the mind of the researcher about the choice of
alternative means. This implies that research should answer the question
relating to the relative efficiency or suitability of the possible alternatives.

Elements of a research problem:

A research problem refers to some difficulty either of a theoretical or practical character which an
individual or organization is experiencing and wants to obtain a solution for the same. There are a
number of elements (components) which a problem must have before it becomes a research problem
ready for study.

Elements of a Research Problem

1. Objective or aim of the problem which is to be investigated. This answers the question
―Why?‖ Why is there a need for investigation, inquiry or study?
1. The topic or theme which needs to be investigated. This answers the question ―What?‖ What is
to be researched or studied?‖ For example: What would a rival company do if we decrease our prices
by 25%? What would sales be if prices were Rs. 89?Rs. 99? How would a

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 rival firms action influence our sales and profits? The right question needs to be addressed if
research is to help decision makers. The decision maker can‘t acquire all the information, but it
is often feasible to identify the factors that are critical to the existing problem. These factors are
then included in the problem definition.
1. The time dimension of a decision problem is always the future. The period or time
of the study when the data are to be gathered. This answers the question ―When?‖ When is the
research to be performed?‖ Managers frequently run the risk of making the correct decision at
incorrect time. It is essential that the decision maker as well as the researcher determine the right
time reference for-the decision.
2. The area or location in which the study is to be conducted. This answers the question
―Where?‖ Where we need to conduct the study? The space coordinates give you the geographic
boundaries within which the action is to be taken. In the problem definition, these lines are hardly
ever neat political divisions or subdivisions. The universe of interest should be defined either
conceptually or by enumeration.
3. Population or universe from whom the data needs to be gathered. This answers the
question ―Who?‖ or ―from whom?‖ Who are the respondents? From who are the data to be
collected?‖ They may include persons, groups of persons, business establishments.
Criteria/ characteristics of a good research problem:
Criteria for selection of research problem depend on the following characteristics.

 Personal Inclination.
 Resources Availability.
 Relative Importance. .
 Researcher Knowledge.
 Practicality: Practicality is also responsible for the selection. ...
 Time-lines of the Problem. ...
 Urgency.

Personal Inclination: The chief motivation in the way of selecting research problem is the personal
inclination of the researcher. If a researcher has personal interest in the topic, he would select that
problem for his research work
Resources Availability: During the selection, a researcher will see to the resources available. If
these resources like money, time, accommodation and transport are available to the selection place,
then the selection of the problem is easy.
Data Availability: If the desired data is available to the researcher, then the problem would be
selected.
Urgency: Urgency is a pinpoint in the way of the selection of research problem. Urgent problem
must be given priority because the immediate solution can benefit the people.
Feasibility: Feasibility is also an important factor for the selection of the research problem. The
researcher qualification, training and experience should match the problem.

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 Area Culture: The culture of the area for which a researcher conducts his research is also
responsible for the selection of research problem.

Characteristic of Research Problem

Any research is a difficult task to achieve and research needs to do a great effort. Selection of
research topic is the first step to success.

1. Research topic must be very clear and easy to understand. It should not distract people.
2. If a topic is well defined is the only way to successful research. The topic should not create doubt
and double impression.
3. Easy language is a key to success. Use technical words if necessary otherwise focus of simplicity.
4. Research title should be according to the rules of titling. There are different rules of titling, a
researcher must aware before writing a research title.
5. While selecting a research topic current importance of a researcher should also be considered. Topic
should not be obsolete and it should have great importance in the current day.

Criteria of Good Research

Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they
all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific
research to satisfy the following criteria.
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already
been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that areas
objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be
checked carefully.

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6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to
those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research12 as under:
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be
taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules. Systematic
characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use
of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.

2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out
research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the
process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In
fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more
aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to
research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by
replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

Problems Encountered by Researchers in India

Researchers in India, particularly those engaged in empirical research, are facing several
problems.
Some of the important problems are as follows:
1. The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research is a great impediment for
researchers in our country. There is paucity of competent researchers. Many researchers take a leap
in the dark without knowing research methods. Most of the work, which goes in the name of
research is not methodologically sound. Research to many researchers and even to their guides, is
mostly a scissor and paste job without any insight shed on the collated materials. The
consequence is obvious, viz., the research results, quite often, do not reflect the reality or realities.
Thus, a systematic study of research methodology is an urgent necessity. Before undertaking
research projects, researchers should be well equipped with all the methodological aspects. As such,
efforts should be made to provide short duration intensive courses for meeting this requirement.
2. There is insufficient interaction between the university research departments on one
side and business establishments, government departments and research institutions on the other
side. A great deal of primary data of non-confidential nature

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 Remains untouched/untreated by the researchers for want of proper contacts. Efforts should be made
to develop satisfactory liaison among all concerned for better and realistic researches. There is
need for developing some mechanisms of a university—industry interaction programmer so that
academics can get ideas from practitioners on what needs to be researched and practitioners can
apply the research done by the academics.
3. Most of the business units in our country do not have the confidence that the material
supplied by them to researchers will not be misused and as such they are often reluctant in
supplying the needed information to researchers. The concept of secrecy seems to be sacrosanct to
business organizations in the country so much so that it proves an impermeable barrier to
researchers. Thus, there is the need for generating the confidence that the information/data obtained
from a business unit will not be misused.
4. Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of adequate
information. This results in duplication and fritters away resources. This problem can be solved
by proper compilation and revision, at regular intervals, of a list of subjects on which and the
places where the research is going on. Due attention should be given toward identification of
research problems in various disciplines of applied science which are of immediate concern to the
industries.
5. There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter-university and
interdepartmental rivalries are also quite common. Hence, there is need for developing a code
of conduct for researchers which, if adhered sincerely, can win over this problem.
6. Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial
assistance, including computerial assistance. This causes unnecessary delays in the completion of
research studies. All possible efforts be made in this direction so that efficient secretarial assistance
is made available to researchers and that too well in time. University Grants Commission must play
a dynamic role in solving this difficulty.
7. Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places and much of
the time and energy of researchers are spent in tracing out the books, journals, reports, etc., rather
than in tracing out relevant material from them.
8. There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of old
and new Acts/Rules, reports and other government publications in time. This problem is felt more
in libraries which are away in places from Delhi and/or the state capitals. Thus, efforts should be
made for the regular and speedy supply of all governmental publications to reach our libraries.
9. There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data from various government
and other agencies doing this job in our country. Researcher also faces the problem on account of
the fact that the published data vary quite significantly because of differences in coverage by
the concerning agencies.
10. There may, at times, take place the problem of conceptualization and also

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 Problems relating to the process of data collection and related things.

Errors in selecting a research problem:

Researcher in selecting a research problem should be aware of
1. Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for I will be a difficult task to throw
any new light in such a case.
2. Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.
3. Naming a broad field/area of the study instead of a specific problem.
4. Starting it in such a way that investigation is impossible.
5. Narrowing/localizing a topic
6. Including in it terms of an unscientific, emotional or biased nature.
7. Lack of precision in the instruments.
8. Quantitative errors such as
- Population specification error
- Sampling error.
- Selection error
- Non response error
- Surrogate information error.
- Measurement error
- Experiment error.

Scope and objectives of research problem:

The scope of the study basically means all those things that will be covered in the research project
objective of an activity, project or procedure represents the output or what you want to accomplish
by doing it.
Scope: Scope of an activity, project or procedure represents their limitations or defines the
boundaries of its application.
Research design:

The most important step after defining the research problem is preparing the design of the research
project, which is popularly known as the research design. A research design helps to decide upon
issues like what, when, where, how much, by what means etc. With regard to an enquiry or a
research study. A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of
data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.
In fact, research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes
the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data (Selltizetal, 1962). Thus, research
design provides an outline of what the researcher is going to do in terms of framing the hypothesis,
its operational implications and the final data analysis. Specifically, the research design highlights
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decisions which include:

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 1. The nature of the study
2. The purpose of the study
3. The location where the study would be conducted
4. The nature of data required
5. From where the required data can be collected
6. What time period the study would cover
7. The type of sample design that would be used
8. The techniques of data collection that would be used
9. The methods of data analysis that would be adopted and
10. The manner in which the report would be prepared

In view of the stated research design decisions, the overall research design may be divided into the
following (Kothari 1988):
a) The sampling design that deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the selected
study;
b) The observational design that relates to the conditions under which the observations are to be made;
c) The statistical design that concerns with the question of how many items are to be observed
and how the information and data gathered are to be analyzed and
d) The operational design that deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified in the
sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.

Features of research design:

The important features of Research Design may be outlined as follows:

i. It constitutes a plan that identifies the types and sources of information required for the
Research problem;
ii. It constitutes a strategy that specifies the methods of data collection and analysis which
would be adopted and
iii. It also specifies the time period of research and monetary budget involved in conducting
the study, which comprise the two major constraints of undertaking any research

CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN:

Some of the important concepts relating to Research Design are discussed below:
1. Dependent and independent variables:

A magnitude that varies is known as a variable. The concept may assume different
quantitative values like height, weight, income etc. Qualitative variables are not quantifiable

17
 In the strictest sense of the term. However, the qualitative phenomena may also be
quantified in terms of the presence or absence of the attribute(s) considered. The phenomena that
assume different values quantitatively even in decimal points are known as ‗continuous variables.
But all variables need not be continuous. Values that can be expressed only in integer values are
called ‗non-continuous variables. In statistical terms, they are also known as ‗discrete variables.
For example, age is a continuous variable, whereas the number of children is a non-continuous
variable. When changes in one variable depend upon the changes in other variable or variables,
it is known as a dependent or endogenous variable, and the variables that cause the changes in the
dependent variable are known as the independent or explanatory or exogenous variables. For
example, if demand depends upon price, then demand is a dependent variable, while price is the
independent variable. And, if more variables determine demand, like income and price of the
substitute commodity, then demand also depends upon them in addition to the price of original
commodity. In other words, demand is a dependent variable which is determined by the independent
variables like price of the original commodity, income and price of substitutes.

2. Extraneous variables:

The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose of the study but affect the
dependent variables, are known as extraneous variables. For instance, assume that a researcher
wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between children‘s school performance
and their self-confidence, in which case the latter is an independent variable and the former, a
dependent variable. In this context, intelligence may also influence the school performance.
However, since it is not directly related to the purpose of the study under taken by the researcher, it
would be known as an extraneous variable. The influence caused by the extraneous variable(s) on
the dependent variable is technically called the experimental error. Therefore, a research study
should always be framed in such a manner that the influence of extraneous variables on the
dependent variable/s is completely controlled, and the influence of independent variable/s is clearly
evident. Control, One of the most important features of a good research design is to minimize the
effect of extraneous variable(s). Technically, the term control is used when a researcher designs the
study in such a manner that it minimizes the effects of extraneous variables. The term control is
used in experimental research to reflect the restrain in experimental conditions.

3.Confounded relationship:

The relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by an
extraneous variable, when the dependent variable is not free from its effects.

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3. Research hypothesis:

When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is tested by adopting scientific methods, it is

known as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement which relates to a
dependent variable and an independent variable. Generally, a research hypothesis must consist of at
least one dependent variable and one independent variable. Whereas, the relationships that are
assumed but not to be tested are predictive statements that are not to be objectively verified, thus
are not classified as research hypotheses.

4. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testing research:

When the objective of a research is to test a research hypothesis, it is known as hypothesis- testing
research. Such research may be in the nature of experimental design or non- experimental design.
The research in which the independent variable is manipulated is known as experimental
hypothesis-testing research, whereas the research in which the independent
Variable is not manipulated is termed as non-experimental hypothesis- testing research. For
example, assume that a researcher wants to examine whether family income influences the school
attendance of a group of students, by calculating the coefficient of correlation between the two
variables. Such an example is known as a non-experimental hypothesis-testing research, because
the independent variable - family income is not manipulated here. Again assume that the researcher
randomly selects150 students from a group of students who pay their school fees regularly and
then classifies them into two sub-groups by randomly including 75 in Group A, whose parents
have regular earning, and 75 in Group B, whose parents do not have regular earning. Assume that
at the end of the study, the researcher conducts a test on each group in order to examine the effects
of regular earnings of the parents on the school attendance of the student. Such a study is an
example of experimental hypothesis-testing research, because in this particular study the
independent variable regular earnings of the parents have been manipulated.

5. Experimental and control groups:

When a group is exposed to usual conditions in an experimental hypothesis-testing research, it is

known as control group. On the other hand, when the group is exposed to certain new or special
condition, it is known as an experimental group. In the afore-mentioned example, Group A can be
called as control group and Group B as experimental group. If both the groups, A and B are exposed
to some special feature, then both the groups may be called as experimental groups. A research
design may include only the experimental group or both the experimental and control groups
together.

6. Treatments:

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 Treatments refer to the different conditions to which the experimental and control groups are subject
to. In the example considered, the two treatments are the parents with regular earnings and those
with no regular earnings. Likewise, if a research study attempts to examine through an experiment
the comparative effect of three different types of fertilizers on the yield of rice crop, then the three
types of fertilizers would be treated as the three treatments.

7. Experiment:
Experiment refers to the process of verifying the truth of a statistical hypothesis relating to a given
research problem. For instance, an experiment may be conducted to examine the yield of a certain
new variety of rice crop developed. Further, Experiments may be categorized in to two types
namely, absolute experiment and comparative experiment. If a researcher wishes to determine the
impact of a chemical fertilizer on the yield of a particular variety of rice crop, then it is known as
absolute experiment. Meanwhile, if the researcher wishes to determine the impact of chemical
fertilizer as compared to the impact of bio-fertilizer, then the experiment is known as a comparative
experiment.

8. Experimental unit(s):
Experimental units refer to the pre-determined plots, characteristics or the blocks, to which
different treatments are applied. It is worth mentioning here that such experimental units must
be selected with great caution.

Types of research design:

There are different types of research designs. They may be broadly categorized as:

(1) Exploratory research design;

(2) Descriptive and diagnostic research design and
(3) Hypothesis-testing research design.

1. Exploratory research design:

The Exploratory Research Design is known as formulative research design. The main objective of
using such a research design is to formulate a research problem for an in-depth or more precise
investigation, or for developing a working hypothesis from an operational aspect. The major purpose
of such studies is the discovery of ideas and insights. Therefore, such a research design suitable for
such a study should be flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering different dimensions
of the problem understudy. The in-built flexibility in research design is required as the initial research
problem would be transformed

20
 into a more precise one in the exploratory study, which in turn may necessitate changes in the
research procedure for collecting relevant data. Usually, the following three methods are considered
in the context of a research design for such studies. They are (a) a survey of related literature; (b)
experience survey; and (c) analysis of insight- stimulating instances.

1. Descriptive and diagnostic research design:

A Descriptive Research Design is concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular

individual or a group. Meanwhile, a diagnostic research design determines the frequency with which
a variable occurs or its relationship with another variable. In other words, the study analyzing
whether a certain variable is associated with another comprises a diagnostic research study. On the
other hand, a study that is concerned with specific predictions or with the narration of facts and
characteristics related to an individual, group or situation, are instances of descriptive research
studies. Generally, most of the social research design falls under this category. As a research design,
both the descriptive and diagnostic studies share common requirements, hence they are grouped
together. However, the procedure to be used and the research design need to plan carefully. The
research design must also make appropriate provision for protection against bias and thus
maximize reliability, with due regard to the completion of the research study in an economical
manner. The research design in such studies should be rigid and not flexible. Besides, it must also
focus attention on the following:

a) Formulation of the objectives of the study,

b) Proper designing of the methods of data collection,
c) Sample selection,
d) Data collection,
e) Processing and analysis of the collected data, and
f) Reporting the findings.
2. Hypothesis-Testing research design:

Hypothesis-Testing Research Designs are those in which the researcher tests the hypothesis of
causal relationship between two or more variables. These studies require procedures that would not
only decrease bias and enhance reliability, but also facilitate deriving inferences about the causality.
Generally, experiments satisfy such requirements. Hence, when research design is discussed in such
studies, it often refers to the design of experiments.

Importance of Research design:

The need for a research design rises out of the fact that it facilitates the smooth conduct of the
various stages of research. It contributes to making research as efficient as possible, thus

21
yielding the maximum information with minimum effort, time and expenditure. A research design
helps to plan in advance, the methods to be employed for collecting the relevant data and the
techniques to be adopted for their analysis. This would help in pursuing the objectives of the
research in the best possible manner, provided the available staff, time and money are given.
Hence, the research design should be prepared with utmost care, so as to avoid any error that may
disturb the entire project. Thus, research design plays a crucial role in attaining the reliability of
the results obtained, which forms the strong foundation of the entire process of the research work.
Despite its significance, the purpose of a well-planned design is not realized at times. This is because
it is not given the importance that it deserves. As a consequence, many researchers are not able
to achieve the purpose for which the research designs are formulated, due to which they end
up arriving at misleading conclusions. Therefore, faulty designing of the research project tends to
render the research exercise meaningless. This makes it imperative that an efficient and suitable
research design must be planned before commencing the process of research. The research design
helps the researcher to organize his/her ideas in a proper form, which in turn facilitates him/her
to identify the inadequacies and faults in them. The research design is also discussed with other
experts for their comments and critical evaluation, without which it would be difficult for any
critic to provide a comprehensive review and comments on the proposed study.

Characteristics of a good research design:

A good research design often possesses the qualities of being flexible suitable, efficient and
economical and soon. Generally, a research design which minimizes bias and maximizes the
reliability of the data collected and analyzed is considered a good design (Kothari 1988). A
research design which does not allow even the smallest experimental error is said to be the
best design for investigation. Further, a research design that yields maximum information and provides
an opportunity of viewing the various dimensions of a research problem is considered to be
the most appropriate and efficient design. Thus, the question of a good design relates to the
purpose or objective and nature of the research problem studied. While a research design may
be good, it may not be equally suitable to all studies. In other words, it may be lacking in
one aspect or the other in the case of some other research problems. Therefore, no single
research design can be applied to all types of research problems.

A research design suitable for a specific research problem would usually involve the following
considerations:

22
i. The methods of gathering the information;
ii. The skills and availability of the researcher and his/her staff, if any;
iii. The objectives of the research problem being studied;
iv. The nature of the research problem being studied and
v. The available monetary support and duration of time for the research work.

Case study research:

The method of exploring and analyzing the life or functioning of asocial or economic unit, such as
a person, a family, a community, an institution, a firm or an industry is called case study method.
The objective of case study method is to examine the factors that cause the behavioral patterns of a
given unit and its relationship with the environment. The data for a study are always gathered with
the purpose of tracing the natural history of a social or economic unit, and its relationship with the
social or economic factors, besides the forces involved in its environment. Thus, a researcher
conducting a study using the case study method attempts to understand the complexity of factors
that are operative within a social or economic unit as an integrated totality. Burgess (Kothari, 1988)
described the special significance of the case study in understanding the complex behavior and
situations in specific detail. In the context of social research, he called such data as social
microscope.

Criteria for evaluating Adequacy of case study:

John Dollard (Dollard, 1935) specified seven criteria for evaluating the adequacy of a case or life
history in the context of social research. They are:

i. The subject being studied must be viewed as a specimen in a cultural setup. That is the case selected
from its total context for the purpose of study should be considered a member of the particular
cultural group or community. The scrutiny of the life history of the individual must be carried out
with a view to identify the community values, standards and shared ways of life.

ii. The organic motors of action should be socially relevant. This is to say that the action of the
individual cases should be viewed as a series of reactions to social stimuli or situations. To put in
simple words, the social meaning of behavior should be taken into consideration.

iii. The crucial role of the family-group in transmitting the culture should be recognized. This
means, as an individual is the member of a family, the role of the family in shaping his/her behavior
should never be ignored.

iv. The specific method of conversion of organic material into social behavior should be clearly
demonstrated. For instance, case-histories that discuss in detail how basically a

23
 biological organism, that is man, gradually transforms into a social person are particularly
important.
v. The constant transformation of character of experience from childhood to adulthood should be
emphasized. That is, the life-history should portray the inter-relationship between the individual‘s
various experiences during his/her life span. Such a study provides a comprehensive understanding
of an individual‘s life as a continuum.
vi. The social situation that contributed to the individual‘s gradual transformation should carefully
and continuously be specified as a factor. One of the crucial criteria for life- history is that an
individual‘s life should be depicted as evolving itself in the context of a specific social situation
and partially caused by it.

vii. The life-history details themselves should be organized according to some conceptual framework,
which in turn would facilitate their generalizations at higher levels.

These criteria discussed by Dollard emphasize the specific link of coordinated, related, continuous
and configured experience in a cultural pattern that motivated the social and personal behavior.
Although, the criteria indicated by Dollard are principally perfect, some of them are difficult to put
to practice.

Dollard (1935) attempted to express the diverse events depicted in the life-histories of persons
during the course of repeated interviews by utilizing psycho-analytical techniques in a given
situational context. His criteria of life-history originated directly from this experience. While the
life-histories possess independent significance as research documents, the interviews recorded by
the investigators can afford, as Dollard observed, ―rich insights into the nature of the social
situations experienced by them‖.

It is a well-known fact that an individual‘s life is very complex. Till date there is hardly any
technique that can establish some kind of uniformity, and as a result ensure the cumulative of case-
history materials by isolating the complex totality of a human life. Nevertheless, although case
history data are difficult to put to rigorous analysis, a skillful handling and interpretation of such
data could help in developing insights into cultural conflicts and problems arising out of cultural-
change.

Gordon Allport in (Kothari 1988) has recommended the following aspects so as to broaden the
perspective of case-study data:

i. If the life-history is written in first person, it should be as comprehensive and coherent as possible.
ii. Life-histories must be written for knowledgeable persons. That is, if the enquiry of study is
sociological in nature, the researcher should write it on the assumption

24
 that it would be read largely by sociologists only.
iii. It would be advisable to supplement case study data by observational, statistical and historical data,
as they provide standards for assessing the reliability and consistency of the case study materials.
Further such data offer a basis for generalizations.
iv. Efforts must be made to verify the reliability of life-history data by examining the internal
consistency of the collected material, and by repeating the interviews with the concerned person.
Besides this, personal interviews with the persons who are well- acquainted with him/her, belonging
to his/her own group should be conducted.
v. A judicious combination of different techniques for data-collection is crucial for collecting data
that are culturally meaningful and scientifically significant.
vi. Life-histories or case-histories may be considered as an adequate basis for generalization to the
extent that they are typical or representative of a certain group.
vii. The researcher engaged in the collection of case study data should never ignore the unique or
typical cases. He/she should include them as exceptional cases.

Case histories are filled with valuable information of a personal or private nature. Such information
not only helps the researcher to portray the personality of the individual, but also the social
background that contributed to it. Besides, it also helps in the formulation of relevant hypotheses.
In general, although Blumer (in Wilkinson and Bhandarkar, 1979) was critical of documentary
material, he gave due credit to case histories by acknowledging the fact that the personal documents
offer an opportunity to the researcher to develop his/her spirit of enquiry. The analysis of a
particular subject would be more effective if the researcher acquires close acquaintance with it
through personal documents. However, Blummer also acknowledges the limitations of the personal
documents. According to him, such documents do not entirely fulfill the criteria of adequacy,
reliability, and representativeness. Despite these shortcomings, avoiding their use in any scientific
study of personal life would be wrong, as these documents become necessary and significant
for both theory- building and practice.
In spite of these formidable limitations, case study data are used by anthropologists, sociologists,
economists and industrial psychiatrists. Gordon All port (Kothari, 1988) strongly recommends the
use of case study data for in-depth analysis of a subject. For, it is one‘s acquaintance with an
individual that instills a desire to know his/her nature and understand them. The first stage
involves understanding the individual and all the complexity of his/her nature. Any haste in
analyzing and classifying the individual would create the risk of reducing his/her emotional world
into artificial bits. As a consequence, the important emotional organizations, anchorages and natural
identifications characterizing the personal life of the individual might not yield adequate
representation. Hence, the researcher should understand the life of the subject. Therefore, the
totality of life-processes reflected in the well-ordered life-history documents

25
 become invaluable source of stimulating insights. Such life-history documents provide the basis for
comparisons that contribute to statistical generalizations and help to draw inferences regarding the
uniformities in human behavior, which are of great value. Even if some personal documents do
not provide ordered data about personal lives of people, which is the basis of psychological
science, they should not be ignored. This is because the final aim of science is to understand,
control and make predictions about human life. Once they are satisfied, the theoretical and
practical importance of personal documents must be recognized as significant. Thus, a case study
may be considered as the beginning and the final destination of abstract knowledge.
Characteristics of a good sample design:
The following are the characteristic features of a good sample design
a. The sample design should yield a truly representative sample;
b. The sample design should be such that it results in small sampling error;
c. The sample design should be viable in the context of budgetary constraints of the research study;
d. The sample design should be such that the systematic bias can be controlled and
e. The sample must be such that the results of the sample study would be applicable, in general, to the
universe at a reasonable level of confidence.

Data Collection & Sources of Data

1) Primary data, secondary data

2) Investigation
3) Indirect oral methods of collecting primary data
4) Direct personal Interviews
5) Information received through local agencies
6) Mailed Questionnaire method
7) Schedules Sent through enumerators

Introduction:

It is important for a researcher to know the sources of data which he requires for different purposes.
Data are nothing but the information. There are two sources of information or data they are - Primary
and Secondary data. The data are name after the source. Primary data refers to the data collected
for the first time, whereas secondary data refers to the data that have already been collected and
used earlier by somebody or some agency. For example, the statistics collected by the Government
of India relating to the population is primary data for the Government of India since it has been
collected for the first time. Later when the

26
 same data are used by a researcher for his study of a particular problem, then the same data become
the secondary data for the researcher. Both the sources of information have their merits and
demerits. The selection of a particular source depends upon the
a) Purpose and scope of enquiry,
b) Availability of time,
c) Availability of finance,
d) Accuracy required, e)Statistical tools to be used,
f) Sources of information (data)
g) Method of data collection.

a. Purpose and Scope of enquiry:

The purpose and scope of data collection or survey should be clearly set out at the very beginning.
It requires the clear statement of the problem indicating the type of information which is needed
and the use for which it is needed. If for example, the researcher is interested in knowing the nature
of price change over a period of time, it would be necessary to collect data of commodity prices.
It must be decided whether it would be helpful to study wholesale or retail prices and the possible
uses to which such information could be put. The objective of an enquiry may be either to collect
specific information relating to a problem or adequate data to test a hypothesis. Failure to set out
clearly the purpose of enquiry is bound to lead to confusion and waste of resources.

After the purpose of enquiry has been clearly defined, the next step is to decide about the scope of
the enquiry. Scope of the enquiry means the coverage with regard to the type of information, the
subject-matter and geographical area. For instance, an enquiry may relate to India as a whole or a
state or an industrial town where in a particular problem related to a particular industry can be
studied.

b. Availability of time:

The investigation should be carried out within a reasonable period of time, failing which the
information collected may become outdated, and would have no meaning at all. For instance, if
a producer wants to know the expected demand for a product newly launched by him and the
result of the enquiry that the demand would be meager takes two years to reach him, and then the
whole purpose of enquiry would become useless because by that time he would have already
incurred a huge loss. Thus, in this respect the information is quickly required and hence the
researcher has to choose the type of enquiry accordingly.

c. Availability of resources:
The investigation will greatly depend on the resources available like number of skilled

27
 personnel, the financial position etc. If the number of skilled personnel who will carry out the
enquiry is quite sufficient and the availability of funds is not a problem, then enquiry can be
conducted over a big area covering a good number of samples, otherwise a small sample size
will do.

e. The Degree of accuracy desired:

Deciding the degree of accuracy required is a must for the investigator, because absolute accuracy
in statistical work is seldom achieved. This is so because (i) statistics are based on estimates, (ii)
tools of measurement are not always perfect and (iii) there may be unintentional bias on the part of
the investigator, enumerator or informant. Therefore, a desire of 100% accuracy is bound to remain
unfulfilled. Degree of accuracy desired primarily depends upon the object of enquiry. For example,
when we buy gold, even a difference of 1/10 gram in its weight is significant, whereas the same
will not be the case when we buy rice or wheat. However, the researcher must aim at attaining a
higher degree of accuracy; otherwise the whole purpose of research would become meaningless.

f. Statistical tools to be used:

A well-defined and identifiable object or a group of objects with which the measurements or counts
in any statistical investigation are associated is called a statistical unit. For example, in socio-
economic survey the unit may be an individual, a family, a household or a block of locality. A very
important step before the collection of data begins is to define clearly the statistical units on which
the data are to be collected. In number of situations the units are conventionally fixed like the
physical units of measurement, such as meters, kilometers, quintals, hours, days, weeks etc., which
are well defined and do not need any elaboration or explanation. However, in many statistical
investigations, particularly relating to socio-economic studies, arbitrary units are used which must be
clearly defined. This is a must because in the absence of a clear cut and precise definition of the
statistical units, serious errors in the data collection may be committed in the sense that we may
collect irrelevant data on the items, which should have, in fact, been excluded and omit data on
certain items which should have been included. This will ultimately lead to fallacious conclusions.

g. Sources of information (Data):

After deciding about the unit, a researcher has to decide about the source from which the information
can be obtained or collected. For any statistical inquiry, the investigator may collect the data first
hand or he may use the data from other published sources, such as publications of the
government/semi-government organizations or journals and magazines etc.

28
h. Method of data collection

There is no problem if secondary data are used for research. However, if primary data are to be
collected, a decision has to be taken whether (i) census method or (ii) sampling technique is to
be used for data collection. In census method, we go for total enumeration i.e., all the units of a
universe have to be investigated. But in sampling technique, we inspect or study only a selected
representative and adequate fraction of the population and after analyzing the results of the
sample data we draw conclusions about the characteristics of the population. Selection of a
particular technique becomes difficult because where population or census method is more
scientific and 100% accuracy can be attained through this method, choosing this becomes difficult
because it is time taking, it requires more labor and it is very expensive. Therefore, for a
single researcher or for a small institution it proves to be unsuitable. On the other hand, sample
method is less time taking, less laborious and less expensive but a 100% accuracy cannot be attained
through this method because of sampling and non-sampling errors attached to this method. Hence,
a researcher has to be very cautious and careful while choosing a particular method.
Methods of Collecting Primary Data:

Primary data may be obtained by applying any of the following methods:

a. Direct Personal Interviews.

b. Indirect Oral Interviews.
c. Information from correspondents.
d. Mailed questionnaire methods.
e. Schedule Sent through enumerators.

1.Direct personal interviews:

A face to face contact is made with the informants (persons from whom the information is to be
obtained) under this method of collecting data. The interviewer asks them questions pertaining to
the survey and collects the desired information. Thus, if a person wants to collect data about the
working conditions of the workers of the Tata Iron and Steel Company, Jamshedpur, he would
go to the factory, contact they are a obtain the desired information. The information collected in this
manner is first hand and also original in character. There are many merits and demerits of this
method, which are discussed asunder:

Merits:

 Most often respondents are happy to pass on the information required from them when contacted
personally and thus response is encouraging.

29
 The information collected through this method is normally more accurate because interviewer can
clear doubts of the informants about certain questions and thus obtain correct information. In case
the interviewer apprehends that the informant is not giving accurate information, he may cross-
examine him and thereby try to obtain the information.
 This method also provides the scope for getting supplementary information from the informant,
because while interviewing it is possible to ask some supplementary questions which may be of
greater use later.
 There might be some questions which the interviewer would find difficult to ask directly but with
some tactfulness, he can mingle such questions with others and get the desired information. He
cannot twist the questions keeping in mind the informant‘s reaction. Precisely, a delicate situation
can usually he handled more effectively by a personal interview than by other survey techniques.
 The interviewer can adjust the language according to the status and educational level of the
person interviewed, and thereby can avoid inconvenience and misinterpretation on the part of
the informant.

Demerits:

 This method can prove to be expensive if the number of informants is large and the area is widely
spread.
 There is a greater chance of personal bias and prejudice under this method as compared to other
methods.
 The interviewers have to be thoroughly trained and experienced; otherwise they may not be able to
obtain the desired information. Untrained or poorly trained interviewers may spoil the entire work.
 This method is more time taking as compared to others. This is because interviews can be held only
at the convenience of the informants. Thus, if information is to be obtained from the working
members of households, interviews will have to be held in the evening or on week end. Even
during evening only an hour or two can be used for interviews and hence, the work may have to be
continued for a long time, or a large number of people may have to be employed which may involve
huge expenses.

2. Indirect Oral Interviews:

Under this method of data collection, the investigator contacts third parties generally called witnesses
who are capable of supplying necessary information. This method is generally adopted when the
information to be obtained is of a complex nature and informants are not inclined to respond if
approached directly. For example, when the researcher is trying to

30
 obtain data on drug addiction or the habit of taking liquor, there is high probability that the
addicted person will not provide the desired data and hence will disturb the whole research process.
In this situation taking the help of such persons or agencies or the neighbors who know them well
becomes necessary. Since these people know the person well, they can provide the desired data.
Enquiry Committees and Commissions appointed by the Government generally adopt this method
to get people‘s views and all possible details of the facts related to the enquiry.
Though this method is very popular, its correctness depends upon a number of factors such as

i. The person or persons or agency whose help is solicited must be of proven integrity; otherwise any
bias or prejudice on their part will not bring out the correct information and the whole process of
research will become useless.
ii. The ability of the interviewers to draw information from witnesses by means of appropriate
questions and cross-examination.
iii. It might happen that because of bribery, nepotism or certain other reasons those who are
collecting the information give it such a twist that correct conclusions are not arrived at.

Therefore, for the success of this method it is necessary that the evidence of one person alone is not
relied upon. Views from other persons and related agencies should also be ascertained to find the
real position. Utmost care must be exercised in the selection of these persons because it is on their
views that the final conclusions are reached.
3. Information from correspondents:

The investigator appoints local agents or correspondents in different places to collect information
under this method. These correspondents collect and transmit the information to the central office
where data are processed. This method is generally adopted by newspaper agencies. Correspondents
who are posted at different places supply information relating to such events as accidents, riots,
strikes, etc., to the head office. The correspondents are generally paid staff or sometimes they
may be honorary correspondents also. This method is also adopted generally by the government
departments in such cases where regular information is to be collected from a wide area. For
example, in the construction of a wholesale price index numbers regular information is obtained
from correspondents appointed in different areas. The biggest advantage of this method is that, it
is cheap and appropriate for extensive investigation. But a word of caution is that it may not always
ensure accurate results because of the personal prejudice and bias of the correspondents. As stated
earlier, this method is suitable and adopted in those cases where the information is to be
obtained at regular intervals from a wide area.

31
 4. Mailed questionnaire Method:
Under this method, a list of questions pertaining to the survey which is known as
‗Questionnaire‘ is prepared and sent to the various informants by post. Sometimes the researcher
himself too contacts the respondents and gets the responses related to various questions in the
questionnaire. The questionnaire contains questions and provides space for answers. A request is
made to the informants through a covering letter to fill up the questionnaire and send it back within
a specified time. The questionnaire studies can be classified on the basis of:

i. The degree to which the questionnaire is formalized or structured.

ii. The disguise or lack of disguise of the questionnaire and
iii. The communication method used.
When no formal questionnaire is used, interviewers adapt their questioning to each interview as it
progresses. They might even try to elicit responses by indirect methods, such as showing pictures
on which the respondent comments. When a researcher follows a prescribed sequence of questions,
it is referred to as structured study. On the other hand, when no prescribed sequence of questions
exists, the study is non-structured.

When questionnaires are constructed in such a way that the objective is clear to the respondents
then these questionnaires are known as non- disguised; on the other hand, when the objective is
not clear, the questionnaire is a disguised one. On the basis of these two classifications, four types
of studies can be distinguished:

1. Non-disguised structured,
2. Non-disguised non-structured,
3. Disguised structured and
4. Disguised non-structured.
There are certain merits and demerits of this method of data collection which are discussed below:

Merits:

 Questionnaire method of data collection can be easily adopted where the field of investigation is
very vast and the informants are spread over a wide geographical area.
 This method is relatively cheap and expeditious provided the informants respond in time.
 This method has proved to be superior when compared to other methods like personal interviews or
telephone method. This is because when questions pertaining to personal nature or the ones
requiring reaction by the family are put forth to the informants, there is a chance for them to be
embarrassed in answering them.

32
 Demerits:

 This method can be adopted only where the informants are literates so that they can understand
written questions and the answers in writing.
 It involves some uncertainty about the response. Co-operation on the part of informants may be
difficult to resume.
 The information provided by the informants may not be correct and it may be difficult to verify the
accuracy.

However, by following the guidelines given below, this method can be made more effective: The
questionnaires should be made in such a manner that they do not become an undue burden
on the respondents; otherwise the respondents may not return them back.
i. Prepaid postage stamp should be affixed
ii. The sample should be large
iii. It should be adopted in such enquiries where it is expected that the respondents would return
the questionnaire because of their own interest in the enquiry.
iv. It should be preferred in such enquiries where there could be a legal compulsion to provide the
information.

5.Schedules sent through enumerators:

Another method of data collection is sending schedules through the enumerators or interviewers.
The enumerators contact the informants, get replies to the questions contained in a schedule and
fill them in their own handwriting in the questionnaire form. There is difference between
questionnaire and schedule. Questionnaire refers to a device for securing answers to questions by
using a form which the respondent fills in himself, whereas schedule is the name usually applied to
a set of questions which are asked in a face-to face situation with another
person. This method is free from most of the limitations of the mailed
questionnaire method.

Merits:

The main merits or advantages of this method are listed below:

 It can be adopted in those cases where informants are illiterate.

 There is very little scope of non-response as the enumerators go personally to obtain the information.
 The information received is more reliable as the accuracy of statements can be checked by
supplementary questions where ever necessary.

33
  This method too like others is not free from defects or limitations. The main limitations are listed
below:

Demerits:

 In comparison to other methods of collecting primary data, this method is quite costly as
enumerators are generally paid persons.
 The success of the method depends largely upon the training imparted to the enumerators.
 Interviewing is a very skilled work and it requires experience and training. Many statisticians have
the tendency to neglect this extremely important part of the data collecting process and this result
in bad interviews. Without good interviewing most of the information collected may be of doubtful
value.
 Interviewing is not only a skilled work but it also requires a great degree of politeness and thus
the way the enumerators conduct the interview would affect the data collected. When questions are
asked by a number of different interviewers, it is possible that variations in the personalities of the
interviewers will cause variation in the answers obtained. This variation will not be obvious.
Hence, every effort must be made to remove as much of variation as possible due to different
interviewers.

Secondary Data:

As stated earlier, secondary data are those data which have already been collected and analyzed
by some earlier agency for its own use, and later the same data are used by a different agency.
According to W.A. Neiswanger, A primary source is a publication in which the data are published
by the same authority which gathered and analyzed them. A secondary source is a publication,
reporting the data which was gathered by other authorities and for which others are responsible.
Sources of secondary data:

The various sources of secondary data can be divided into two broad categories:
1. Published sources, and
2. Unpublished sources.
1. Published sources:

The governmental, international and local agencies publish statistical data, and chief among them
are explained below:
(a) International publications:

There are some international institutions and bodies like I.M.F, I.B.R.D, I.C.A.F.E and

34
 U.N.O who publish regular and occasional reports on economic and statistical matters.

(b) Official Publications of Central and State Governments:

Several departments of the Central and State Governments regularly publish reports on a number of
subjects. They gather additional information. Some of the important publications are: The Reserve
Bank of India Bulletin, Census of India, Statistical Abstracts of States, Agricultural Statistics of
India, Indian Trade Journal, etc.

(c) Semi-official publications:

Semi-Government institutions like Municipal Corporations, District Boards Panchayats, etc.

Publish reports relating to different matters of public concern.

(d) Publications of research institutions:

Indian Statistical Institute (I.S.I), Indian Council of Agricultural Research (I.C.A.R), Indian
Agricultural Statistics Research Institute (I.A.S.R.I) etc. Publish the findings of their research
programs.

(e) Publications of various commercial and financial Institutions

(f) Reports of various Committees and Commissions appointed by the Government as the Raj
Committee‘s report on Agricultural Taxation, Wanchoo Committee‘s Report on Taxation and Black
Money, etc. Are also important source of secondary data.

(g) Journals and News Papers:

Journals and News Papers are very important and powerful source of secondary data. Current and
important materials on statistics and socio- economic problems can be obtained from journals and
newspapers like Economic Times, Commerce, Capital, Indian Finance, Monthly Statistics of trade
etc.

2. Unpublished sources:

Unpublished data can be obtained from many unpublished sources like records maintained by
various government and private offices, the theses of the numerous research scholars in the
universities or institutions etc.

3. Precautions in the use of secondary data:

Since secondary data have already been obtained, it is highly desirable that a proper scrutiny of
such data is made before they are used by the investigator. In fact, the user has to be extra- cautious
while using secondary data. In this context Prof. Bowley rightly points out that Secondary
data should not be accepted at their face value.‖ The reason being that data may
35
 be erroneous in many respects due to bias, inadequate size of the sample, substitution, errors of
definition, arithmetical errors etc. Even if there is no error such data may not be suitable and
adequate for the purpose of the enquiry. Prof. Simon Kuznet‘s view in this regard is also of great
importance. According to him, ―the degree of reliability of secondary source is to be assessed from
the source, the compiler and his capacity to produce correct statistics and the users also, for the most
part, tend to accept a series particularly one issued by a government agency at its face value without
enquiring its reliability‖. Therefore, before using the secondary data the investigators should
consider the following factors:
4. The Suitability of data:

The investigator must satisfy himself that the data available are suitable for the purpose of enquiry.
It can be judged by the nature and scope of the present enquiry with the original enquiry. For
example, if the object of the present enquiry is to study the trend in retail prices, and if the data
provide only wholesale prices, such data are unsuitable.
(a) Adequacy of data:

If the data are suitable for the purpose of investigation then we must consider whether the data are
useful or adequate for the present analysis. It can be studied by the geographical area covered by
the original enquiry. The time for which data are available is very important element. In the above
example, if our object is to study the retail price trend of India, and if the available data cover
only the retail price trend in the state of Bihar, then it would not serve the purpose.

(b) Reliability of data:

The reliability of data is must. Without which there is no meaning in research. The reliability of
data can be tested by finding out the agency that collected such data. If the agency has used proper
methods in collection of data, statistics may be relied upon. It is not enough to have baskets of data
in hand. In fact, data in a raw form are nothing but a handful of raw material waiting for proper
processing so that they can become useful. Once data have been obtained from primary or
secondary source, the next step in a statistical investigation is to edit the data i.e. to scrutinize the
same. The chief objective of editing is to detect possible errors and irregularities. The task of editing
is a highly specialized one and requires great care and attention. Negligence in this respect may
render useless the findings of an otherwise valuable study. Editing data collected from internal
records and published sources is relatively simple but the data collected from a survey need
excessive editing.

36
 While editing primary data, the following considerations should be borne in mind:
• The data should be complete in every respect
• The data should be accurate
• The data should be consistent, and
• The data should be homogeneous.

Data to possess the above mentioned characteristics have to undergo the same type of editing which
is discussed below:

• Editing for completeness:

While editing, the editor should see that each schedule and questionnaire is complete in all respects.
He should see to it that the answers to each and every question have been furnished. If some
questions are not answered and if they are of vital importance, the informants should be contacted
again either personally or through correspondence. Even after all the efforts it may happen that a
few questions remain unanswered. In such questions, the editor should mark ‗No answer‘ in the
space provided for answers and if the questions are of vital importance then the schedule or
questionnaire should bedropped.

(a) Editing for consistency:

At the time of editing the data for consistency, the editor should see that the answers to
questions are not contradictory in nature. If they are mutually contradictory answers, he should
try to obtain the correct answers either by referring back the questionnaire or by contacting,
wherever possible, the informant in person. For example, if amongst others, two questions in
questionnaire are (a) Are you a student?
(a) Which class do you study and the reply to the first question is no‘ and to the latter tenth‘ then
there is contradiction and it should be clarified.
(b) Editing for accuracy:

The reliability of conclusions depends basically on the correctness of information. If the information
supplied is wrong, conclusions can never be valid. It is, therefore, necessary for the editor to see that
the information is accurate in all respects. If the inaccuracy is due to arithmetical errors, it can be
easily detected and corrected. But if the cause of inaccuracy is faulty information supplied, it may
be difficult to verify it and an example of this kind is information relating to income, age etc.

© Editing for homogeneity:

Homogeneity means the condition in which all the questions

37
Been understood in the same sense. The editor must check all the questions for uniform
interpretation. For example, as to the question of income, if some informants have given
monthly income, others annual in come and still others weekly income or even daily income,
no comparison can be made. Therefore, it becomes an essential duty of the editor to check up
that the information supplied by the various people is homogeneous and uniform.

Choice between Primary and Secondary Data:

As we have already seen, there a real to differences in the methods of collecting Primary and
Secondary data. Primary data which is to be collected originally involves an entire scheme of plan
starting with the definitions of various terms used, units to be employed, type of enquiry to be
conducted, extent of accuracy aimed at etc. For the collection of secondary data, recompilation of
the existing data would be sufficient. A proper choice between the type of data needed for any
particular statistical investigation is to be made after taking into consideration the nature, objective
and scope of the enquiry; the time and the finances at the disposal of the agency; the degree of
precision aimed at and the status of the agency (whether government- state or central-or private
institution of an individual).

In using the secondary data, it is best to obtain the data from the primary source as far as possible.
By doing so, we would at least save ourselves from the errors of transcription which might have
inadvertently crept in the secondary source. Moreover, the primary source will also provide us with
detailed discussion about the terminology used, statistical units employed, size of the sample and
the technique of sampling (if sampling method was used), methods of data collection and analysis
of results and we can ascertain ourselves if these would suit our purpose. Now-a-days in a large
number of statistical enquiries, secondary data are generally used because fairly reliable published
data on a large number of diverse fields are now available in the publications of governments, private
organizations and research institutions, agencies, periodicals and magazines etc. In fact, primary
data are collected only if there do not existany secondary data suited to the investigation under study.
In some of the investigations both primary as well as secondary data may be used.

Summary:

There are two types of data, primary and secondary. Data which are collected first hand are called
Primary data and data which have already been collected and used by somebody are called Secondary
data. There are two methods of collecting data: (a) Survey method or total enumeration method
and (b) Sample method. When a researcher goes for investigating all the units of the subject, it is
called as survey method. On the other hand, if he/she resorts to investigating only a few units of the
subject and gives the result on the basis of that, it is known as sample survey method. There are
different

38
 sources of collecting Primary and Secondary data. Some of the important sources of Primary data
are—Direct Personal Interviews, Indirect Oral Interviews, Information from Correspondents,
mailed questionnaire method, Schedules sent through enumerators and so on. Though all these
sources or methods of Primary data have their relative merits and demerits, a researcher should use
a particular method with lot of care. There are basically two sources of collecting secondary data-
(a) Published sources and (b) Unpublished sources. Published sources are like publications of
different government and semi-government departments, research institutions and agencies etc.
Whereas unpublished sources are like records maintained by different government departments and
unpublished theses of different universities etc. Editing of secondary data is necessary for different
purposes as editing for completeness, editing for consistency, editing for accuracy and editing for
homogeneity.

It is always a tough task for the researcher to choose between primary and secondary data. Though
primary data are more authentic and accurate, time, money and labor involved in obtaining these
more often prompt the researcher to go for the secondary data. There are certain amount of doubt
about its authenticity and suitability, but after the arrival of many government and semi government
agencies and some private institutions in the field of data collection, most of the apprehensions in
the mind of the researcher have been removed.

Questionnaire & Sampling

Nowadays questionnaire is widely used for data collection in social research. It is a reasonably
fair tool for gathering data from large, diverse, varied and scattered social groups. The questionnaire
is the media of communication between the investigator and the respondents. According to
Bogardus, a questionnaire is a list of questions sent to a number of persons for their answers and
which obtains standardized results that can be tabulated and treated statistically. The Dictionary
of Statistical Termsdefinesitasa―groupoforsequenceofquestionsdesignedtoelicitinformation upon a
subject or sequence of subjects from information. A questionnaire should be designed or drafted
with utmost care and caution so that all the relevant and essential information for the enquiry may
be collected without any difficulty, ambiguity and vagueness. Drafting of a good questionnaire is a
highly specialized job and requires great care skill, wisdom, efficiency and experience. No hard and
fast rule can be laid down for designing or framing a questionnaire. However, in this connection,
the following general points may be borne in mind:

1. Size of the questionnaire should be small:

A researcher should try his best to keep the number of questions as small as possible, keeping
in view the nature, objectives and scope of the enquiry. Respondent‘s time should not be
wasted by asking irrelevant and unimportant questions. A large number of questions
would

39
 involve more work for the investigator and thus result in delay on his part in collecting and
submitting the information. A large number of unnecessary questions may annoy the respondent
and he may refuse to cooperate. A reasonable questionnaire should contain from 15 to 25 questions
at large. If a still larger number of questions are a must in any enquiry, then the questionnaire should
be divided into various sections or parts.

1. The questions should be clear:

The questions should be easy, brief, unambiguous, non-offending, and courteous in tone,
corroborative in nature and to the point, so that much scope of guessing is left on the part of the
respondents.
2. The questions should be arranged in a logical sequence:

Logical arrangement of questions reduces lot of unnecessary work on the part of the researcher
because it not only facilitates the tabulation work but also does not leave any chance for omissions
or commissions. For example, to find if a person owns a television, the logical order of questions
would be: Do you own a television? When did you buy it? What is its make? How much did it cost
you? Is its performance satisfactory? Have you ever got it serviced?
3. questions should be simple to understand:

The vague words like good, bad, efficient, sufficient, prosperity, rarely, frequently, reasonable,
poor, rich etc., should not be used since these may be interpreted differently by different persons
and as such might give unreliable and misleading information. Similarly, the use of words having
double meaning like price, assets, capital income etc., should also be avoided.

4. questions should be comprehensive & easily answer able:

Questions should be designed in such a way that they are readily comprehensible and easy to answer
for the respondents. They should not be tedious nor should they tax the respondents‘ memory. At
the same time questions involving mathematical calculations like percentages, ratios etc., should
not be asked.
5. Questions of personal &sensitive nature should not be asked:

There are some questions which disturb the respondents and he/she may be shy or irritated by
hearing such questions. Therefore, every effort should be made to avoid such questions. For
example, ‗do you cook yourself or your wife cooks?‘ ‗Or do you drink?‘ Such questions will
certainly the respondents and thus be avoided at any cost. If unavoidable then highest amount of
politeness should be used.

40
 Types of questions:

Under this head, the questions in the questionnaire may be classified as follows:

a. Shut questions:

Shut questions are those where possible answers are suggested by the framers of the questionnaire
and the respondent is required to tick one of them. Shut questions can further be subdivided into
the following forms:
i. Simple alternate questions:

In this type of questions the respondent has to choose from the two
clearcutalternativeslike‗Yes‘or‗No‘,‗RightorWrong‘etc.Suchquestionsare also called as
dichotomous questions. This technique can be applied with elegance to situations where two clear
cut alternatives exist.

1. Multiple choice questions:

Many a times it becomes difficult to define a clear cut alternative and accordingly in such a
situation additional answers between Yes and No, like Do not know, No opinion, Occasionally,
Casually, Seldom etc., are added. For example, in order to find if a person smokes or drinks, the
following multiple choice answers may be used:

Do you smoke?

(a) Yes regularly [] (b) No never [ ]

(c) Occasionally [] (d) Seldom [ ]

Multiple choice questions are very easy and convenient for the respondents to answer. Such
questions save time and also facilitate tabulation. This method should be used if only a selected
few alternative answers exist to a particular question.

j. Leading questions should be avoided:

Questions like ‗why do you use a particular type of car, say Maruti car‘ should preferably be
framed into two questions-

(i) Which car do you use? (ii) why do you prefer it?

It gives smooth ride []

It gives more mileage [ ]
It is cheaper [ ]
41
 It is maintenance Ree [ ]

9 Crosschecks:
The questionnaire should be so designed as to provide internal checks on the Accuracy of the
information supplied by the respondents by including some connected questions at least with respect
to matters which are fundamental to the enquiry.
10Pre testing the questionnaire:
It would be practical in every sense to try out the questionnaire on a small scale before using
it for the given enquiry on a large scale. This has been found extremely useful in practice. The given
questionnaire can be improved or modified in the light of the drawbacks, shortcomings and
problems faced by the investigator in the pretest.
11A Covering letter:
A covering letter from the organizers of the enquiry should be enclosed along with the questionnaire
for the purposes regarding definitions, units, concepts used in the questionnaire, for taking the
respondent‘s confidence, self-addressed envelope in case of mailed questionnaire, mention about
award or incentives for the quick response, a promise to send a copy of the survey report etc.
SAMPLING
Though sampling is not new, the sampling theory has been developed recently. People knew
or not but they have been using the sampling technique in their day to day life. For example, a house
wife tests a small quantity of rice to see whether it has been well-cooked and gives the generalized
result about the whole rice boiling in the vessel. The result arrived at is most of the times 100%
correct. In another example, when a doctor wants to examine the blood for any deficiency, takes
only a few drops of blood of the patient and examines. The result arrived at is most of the times
correct and represent the whole amount of blood available in the body of the patient. In all these
cases, by inspecting a few, they simply believe that the samples give a correct idea about the
population. Most of our decision are based on the examination of a few items only i.e. Sample
studies. In the words of Croxton and Cowdon, ―It maybe too expensive or too time consuming to
attempt either a complete or a nearly complete coverage in a statistical study. Further to arrive at
valid conclusions, it may not be necessary to enumerate all or nearly all of a population. We may
study a sample drawn from the large population and if that sample is adequately representative of
the population, we should be able to arrive at valid conclusions.

42
 According to Rosander, ―The sample has many advantages over a census or complete enumeration.
If carefully designed, the sample is not only considerably cheaper but may give results which are
just accurate and sometimes more accurate than those of a census. Hence a carefully designed
sample may actually be better than poorly planned and executed census.

Merits:

1. It saves time: Sampling method of data collection saves time because fewer items are collected and
processed. When the results are urgently required, this method is very helpful.

2. It reduces cost: Since only a few and selected items are studied in sampling, there is reduction in
cost of money and reduction in terms of man hours.

3. More reliable results can be obtained:

Through sampling, more reliable results can be obtained because

(a) There are fewer chances of sampling statistical errors. If there is sampling error, it is possible to
estimate and control the results.
(b) Highly experienced and trained persons can be employed for scientific processing and analyzing
of relatively limited data and they can use their high technical knowledge and get more accurate
and reliable results.
4. It provides more detailed information: As it saves time, money and labor, more detail
information can be collected in a sample survey.

k. Sometimes only sampling method to depend upon:

Sometimes it so happens that one has to depend upon sampling method alone because if
the population under study is finite, sampling method is the only method to be used. For example,
if someone‘s blood has to be examined, it will become fatal to take all the blood out from the
body and study depending upon the total enumeration method.

l. Administrative convenience:

The organization and administration of sample survey are easy for the reasons which have
been discussed earlier.

m. More scientific:

Since the methods used to collect data are based on scientific theory and results obtained can be
tested.

43
 sampling is a more scientific method of collecting data. It is not that sampling is free from
demerits or shortcomings. There are certain shortcomings of this method which are
discussed below:

1. Illusory conclusion:

If a sample enquiry is not carefully planned and executed, the conclusions may be inaccurate and
misleading.

2. Sample not representative:

To make the sample representative is a difficult task. If a representative sample is taken from the
universe, the result is applicable to the whole population. If the sample is not representative of
the universe the result may be false and misleading.
3. Lack of experts:
As there are lack of experts to plan and conduct a sample survey, its execution and analysis, and
its results would be Unsatisfactory and not trustworthy.
4. Sometimes more difficult than census method:
Sometimes the sampling plan may be complicated and requires more money, labor and time
than a census method.

5. Personal bias:
There may be personal biases and prejudices with regard to the choice of technique and
drawing of sampling units
6. Choice of sample size:
If the size of the sample is not appropriate then it may lead to untrue characteristics of the
population.
7. Conditions of complete c overage:
If the information is required for each and every item of the universe, then a complete
enumeration survey is better.

Essentials of sampling:

In order to reach a clear conclusion, the sampling should possess the following essentials:

It must be representative: The sample selected should possess the similar characteristics of the
original universe from which it has been

44
 drawn.
Homogeneity: Selected samples from the universe should have similar nature and
should mot have any difference when compared with the universe.
Adequate samples: In order to have a more reliable and representative result, a good number of
items are to be included in the sample.
Optimization: All efforts should be made to get maximum results both in terms of cost as well as
efficiency. If the size of the sample is larger, there is better efficiency and at the same time the
cost is more. A proper size of sample is maintained in order to have optimized results in terms of
cost and efficiency.
Sampling errors occur primarily due to the following reasons:

1. Faulty selection of the sample:

Some of the bias is introduced by the use of defective sampling technique for the selection of a
sample e.g. Purposive or judgment sampling in which the investigator deliberately selects a
representative sample to obtain certain results. This bias can be easily overcome by adopting the
technique of simple random sampling.

2. Substitution:

When difficulties arise in enumerating a particular sampling unit included in the random sample,
the investigators usually substitute a convenient member of the population. This obviously leads to
some bias since the characteristics possessed by the substituted unit will usually be different from
those possessed by the unit originally included in the sample.

3. Faulty demarcation of sampling units:

Bias due to defective demarcation of sampling units is particularly significant in area surveys such
as agricultural experiments in the field of crop cutting surveys etc. In such surveys, while dealing
with border line cases, it depends more or less on the discretion of the investigator whether to include
them in the sample or not.

4. Error due to bias in the estimation method:

Sampling method consists in estimating the parameters of the population by appropriate statistics
computed from the sample. Improper choice of the estimation techniques might introduce the
error.

5. Variability of the population:

Sampling error also depends on the variability or heterogeneity of the population to be sampled.

45
Sampling errors are of two types: Biased Errors and Unbiased Errors
Biased Errors: The errors that occur due to a bias of prejudice on the part of the informant or
enumerator in selecting, estimating measuring instruments are called biased errors. Suppose for
example, the enumerator uses the deliberate sampling method in the place of simple random
sampling method, then it is called biased errors. These errors are cumulative in nature and increase
when the sample size also increases. These errors arise due to defect in the methods of collection
of data, defect in the method of organization of data and defect in the method of analysis of data.

Unbiased Errors: Errors which occur in the normal course of investigation or enumeration on
account of chance are called unbiased errors. They may arise accidentally without any bias or
prejudice. These errors occur due to faulty planning of statistical investigation to avoid these errors,
the statistician must take proper precaution and care in using the correct measuring instrument.
He must see that the enumerators are also not biased. Unbiased errors can be removed with the
proper planning of statistical investigations. Both these errors should be avoided by the statisticians.

Reducing Sampling Errors:

Errors in sampling can be reduced if the size of sample is increased. This is shown in the following
diagram. From the above diagram it is clear that when the size of the sample increases, sampling
error decreases. And by this process samples can be made more representatives to the population.

Testing of hypothesis:

As a part of investigation, samples are drawn from the population and results are derived to help in
taking the decisions. But such decisions involve an element of uncertainty causing wrong decisions.
Hypothesis is an assumption which may or may not be true about a population parameter. For
example, if we toss a coin 200 times, we may get 110 heads and 90 tails. At this instance, we are
interested in testing whether the coin is unbiased or not.

SUMMARY

Nowadays questionnaire method of data collection has become very popular. It is a very powerful
tool to collect required data in shortest period of time and with little expense. It is scientific too.
But drafting of questionnaire is a very skilled and careful work. Therefore,

46
there are certain requirements and essentials which should be followed at the time of framing
the questionnaire. They include the following viz., (i) the size of the questionnaire should be small,
(ii) questions should be very clear in understanding, (iii)questions should be put in a logical order,
questions should have simple meaning etc. Apart from this, multiple choice questions should be
asked. Questionnaire should be pre tested before going for final data collection. Information
supplied should be cross checked for any false or insufficient information. After all these
formalities have been completed, a covering note should accompany the questionnaire explaining
various purposes, designs, units and incentives.
There are two ways of survey- census survey and Sample survey through which data can be
collected. Census survey means total enumeration i.e., collecting data from each and every unit of
the universe, whereas sample survey concentrates on collecting data from a few units of the universe
selected scientifically for the purpose. Since census method is more time taking, expensive and labor
intensive, it becomes impractical to depend on it. Therefore, sample survey is preferred which is
scientific, less expensive, less time taking and less labor intensive too.

Experiments:
Experiment is the process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis related to some research
problem. There are two types of experiments - absolute and comparative. There are three types of
research designs - research design for descriptive and diagnostic research, research design for
exploratory research studies and research design for hypothesis testing. Prof. Fisher has laid three
principles of experimental design. They are Principle of Replication, Principle of Randomization
and Principle of Local Control. There are different kinds of experimental designs. Some of them are
Informal experimental design, After only with control design, Formal experimental design,
Completely randomized design, Randomized block design, Latin square design and Factorial
design.

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