PHYSICS SECTION

P MASVEURE (0772405742)

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TOPICS
1. DATA PRESENTATION

2. MEASUREMENTS

3. FORCE

4. MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

5. ENERGY

6. MAGNETISM

7. ELECTRICITY

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DATA PRESENTATION

OBJECTIVES
After completing this topic you should be able to:
 Construct a pie chart
 Interpret and analyze data from pie charts and line graphs
 construct, interpret and analyze pie charts and line graphs
 Express derived quantities in terms of base units

Data is information collected in form of numbers

Data collected by scientists and researchers can be presented in different ways so that it is easier
to understand, interpret and analyze the information. Graphs allow us to represent data or
information in a way that is easy to understand

PIE CHARTS AND LINE GRAPHS

PIE CHARTS

- Is a circular graph divided proportionally into segments to illustrate one set of data as a
percentage of the total.
- Each sector is represented as a portion of 360o because there is 360o in a full circle
- The angle of each sector is proportional to the amount of data in that data set. The more
data there is, the larger the angle.
Constructing a pie chart

36 learners were asked the type of transport they use to get to school every day. The number of
learners that use each transport type were recorded in the table below
Transport type Number of learners
Bicycle 3
Bus 9
Car 2
Kombi 8
Foot 14
Calculate the size of the angle for each sector and percentage of the data relative to the total
number of learners.
Transport Number of Size of angle (o) % number of
type learners learners
Bicycle 3 3 𝑜 3

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𝑥 360 = 30 𝑥 100 = 8%
Bus 9

Car 2

Kombi 8

Foot 14

Draw a circle using a mathematical compass and use a radius of about 3cm. Draw a radius line
from the center to the edge to intersect the circle.
Using a protractor, measure the central angle of each sector in a clockwise direction.

Start with the largest angle and end with the sector with the smallest central angle.
Draw a line between each sector. The end of sector is the beginning of each new sector

Example 1 There are 142 animals in an enclosure. Table 1.3 shows the number of animals for
each animal type

Animal type Number

Buffalo 70
Elephant 46
Rhino 26

a. Calculate the central angles of each data set

b. Draw the pie chart to represent the information

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Advantages and disadvantages of pie chats

advantages disadvantages
- They are simpler to understand and - They do not show exact values of
interpret compared to other forms quantities
of data presentation - They do not show changes of
- They summarize large amounts of quantities over time
data in visual form - In physics we mostly study
relationships between variables, and
in this respect, pie charts are quite
limited and therefore not that useful

LINE GRAPHS

Pie charts are visually appealing and because of their presentation, easy to understand. However
bar and line graphs present more information and are therefore more useful

When plotting a line graph;

- Draw and label axes – axes should be labelled with the quantity and the unit in a similar
manner to column headings in a table. The independent variable (the one you control) is
put on the horizontal axis (x-axis). The dependent variable (the one that changes due to
changes in the independent variable) goes on the vertical axis (y-axis).
- Choose sensible scales – scales should be chosen so that the points occupy at least half
the sheet of graph paper used. You do not necessarily have to include the origin on the
graph.
- Plot points accurately – points should be plotted by drawing a small cross (+) with a
sharp pencil. Do not use dots or blobs
- Draw the best-fit straight line or best smooth curve – when you draw a straight line use a
30cm ruler and a sharp pencil. There should be an equal number of points above and
below the line. Take care that those points above and those below the line are evenly
distributed along the line.
- Curves should be drawn with a single sweep, with no feathering or sudden jerks
- Always give the graph a heading
- The line that you draw after plotting the points, should always show up the general
pattern that the results take.
- A graph can show a steady increase or decrease in the measurements. This kind of pattern
is called a trend.
- A graph can show the high points and low points in your measurements (peaks and
trough)
- A graph can be used to find values that you have not actually measured

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Example 1 An investigation was carried out to find out the effect of temperature on
germination time. Table below shows the results of the investigation

Temperature/oC 5 10 20 25 30 35 40 50
Germination
time/ days 20 15 6 4 8 13 22 No germination
a) Plot the graph of germination time against temperature
b) From your curve, how long would these seeds take to germinate when
temperature was 15oC?
c) Explain why there was no germination at 50oC.

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MEASUREMENT

OBJECTIVES
After completing this topic you should be able to:
 measure physical quantities accurately using appropriate instruments
 read instruments scale to the nearest fraction of the division
 determine density of liquids

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Physical quantity is a property of an object or substance that can be measured using an

appropriate measuring instrument.

SI UNITS

All quantities in science consist of a number and a unit

There is a system of units used throughout the scientific world known as SI units. The SI units
are based on the units of six base quantities:
 Length metre (m)
 Mass kilogram (kg)
 Time second (s)
 Temperature Kelvin (K)
 Electric current ampere (A)
 Amount of substance mole (mol)

DERIVED UNITS

- The units of all other quantities are derived from these base units.
- For example, speed is found by dividing the distance travelled by the time taken.
Therefore the unit of speed is metres per second which can be written as m/s or ms-1
- Each derived quantity has units which show how it is related to the base quantities.

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MEASURING LENGTH

Length is a straight line distance between two points along an object. SI unit for length is the
metre (m). Instruments used to measure length include
• Ruler, measuring tape
• Vernier callipers
• Screw gauge micrometer

RULER

- Have markings as small as a centimeter. Each centimeter is divided into 10 divisions

which are millimeter.
- When taking measurements your eye must be directly above the reading to avoid
parallax error
- Place the object to be measured in line with the zero mark to avoid zero error.
- Rulers can measure to the nearest millimeter
VERNIER CALLIPERS

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- Is used to accurately measure the thickness or internal diameter of small objects.

- The callipers use a vernier scale and the simplest type enables a length to be measured to
0.01cm. it is a small sliding scale which is 9mm long but divided into 10 equal divisions
so;

- One end of length to be measured is made to coincide with the zero of the millimeter
scale and the other end with the zero of the vernier scale
- To measure internal diameter of a narrow tube, place the internal jaws inside the tube.
Move the jaws apart until they touch the inner sides of the object. Once the jaws are in
position, tighten the screw clamp to ensure the vernier scale does not move out of place
while measurement is read.
How to read a vernier

i. To measure the internal or external diameter

ii. Take the millimeters from the man scale marking before the zero on the vernier scale.
iii. Take the next reading from the first vernier mark to coincide with a main scale mark
iv. Add the two readings

Example What is the reading the instrument shown on the diagram below

Main scale reading = 11mm Vernier reading = 0.4 mm

Final reading = 11.4mm

Exercise

Read the following vernier scales

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SCREW GAUGE MICROMETER

- Can measure smaller lengths than the vernier callipers.

- It can measure very small objects to 0.001cm. one revolution of the thimble opens the
accurately flat, parallel jaws by one division on the scale on the shaft of the gauge; this is
usually , i.e. 0.05cm
- If the thimble has a scale of 50 divisions round it, then rotation of the drum by one
division opens the jaws by
- A friction clutch ensures that the jaws exert the same force when the object is gripped. -
To read the micrometer

i. Take the reading of millimeters and half millimeters from the sleeve 3.50mm

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ii. Take the reading from the thimble 0.11mm

iii. Add the readings together 3.61mm
Exercise Read a micrometer screw gauge

DENSITY

Density of liquids

Density is the mass per unit volume. The units of density is g/cm3 or kg/m3
Density

To determine density of a liquid, first determine both its mass and volume
- Volume is found by pouring the liquid into a measuring cylinder. The volume of
irregularly shaped objects can be found by submerging it in water in a measuring cylinder
and measuring how much water it displaced. The volume of displaced water is equal to
the volume of the object
- Mass is found by;
 Weighing the beaker and record its mass in grams
 Pour the liquid into the beaker and measure the mass in grams
 Subtract the two measurements of mass, to find the mass of water
- Then use the mass and volume obtained to find its density

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FORCE

OBJECTIVES
After completing this topic you should be able to:
 define weight, momentum and inertia
 distinguish between weight and mass
 state Newton’s laws of motion
 calculate force, given mass and acceleration
 state application of Newton’s laws of motion
FORCE
In general terms, one can describe any force as 'the cause of a deformation or a velocity change'.
A force is a vector quantity (it has magnitude and a direction) and the SI units for the
measurement of force are Newton’s (N).

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION.
Every object continues in its state of rest, or uniform motion in a straight line, unless acted upon
by an external force

- The first law tells us two things i.e. if there is no resultant force acting on an object at rest,
the object will remain at rest an if there is no resultant force acting on a moving object, the
moving object will continue to move at a constant speed in a straight line, i.e. constant
velocity.
Application

- Drivers need to wear seat belts when driving because of the effect of inertia. Without the seat
belt, if the driver suddenly applies his car brakes, he will continue to move forward due to his
inertia and crash into the windscreen.
- Slide a glass full of water across a table to the right. The water in the glass will seem as
though it is moving to the left of the glass. This is a result of inertia.
- A football will remain stationery forever unless moved by some external force
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION.
The acceleration of mass is directly proportional to the force that causes it, provided the mass
stays the same

Newton’s second law tells us that when there is a resultant force acting on an object, the object
will either slow down (decelerate) or speed up (accelerate)

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Force (N) = mass (kg) x acceleration (m/s2)

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

Example 1 A boy pushed a box of mass 20kg with a force of 50N. What is the acceleration of
the box?
Example 2 What is the force that acts on 2kg mass when a constant acceleration of 3m/s-2 is
expressed?
Example 3 A car of mass 1.2 tonnes accelerates from 5ms-1 to 30ms-1 in 7.5s. Calculate the
average accelerating force on the car.

NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION.

For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
- If body A exerts a force on body B then body B will exert a force on body A of equal
magnitude but in opposite direction.
- Forces occur in pairs i.e. action force and reaction force
- The action and reaction are equal in magnitude, act opposite to one another and act on
different bodies.
Application

- A high jump will exert an action on the ground which reacts by causing the jumper to
spring upwards.
- As birds push down on the air with their wings, the air pushes their wings up and gives
them lift thus making it possible for them to fly
- A fish uses its fins to push water backwards. The water reacts by pushing the fish
forward, propelling the fish through the water.
- The baseball forces the ball to the left and the bat forces the ball to the right.

INERTIA

- It is the property of a mass which resists change from its state rest or uniform motion.
- The inertia of an object refers to the reluctance of the object to start moving if it is
stationery or reluctance of the object to stop moving if it is moving in the first instance
(newton’s first law of motion).
- The greater the object’s mass, the greater its inertia and the larger the force needed to
overcome inertia.
MOMENTUM

- Linear momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity. Simply its mass in motion.
- It is a measure of an object’s resistance to stop.
- The units are kgms-1
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

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- For example, that a body of mass 2 kg travelling 3ms-1 has a momentum of 6kgms-1.
Example 1 A trolley has a mass of 30Kg. The trolley is moving at a constant (uniform)
velocity of 2ms-1 to the right. Calculate the momentum of the trolley.

Example 2 calculate the momentum of a cruise tuner of mass 20 000tonne when travelling at
6.0ms-1 (1 tonne = 1000kg)

WEIGHT AND MASS

- Weight is the force acting on mass due to gravity. It is the pull of gravity on the body .It is
measured in Newton (N) using a spring balance or force meter

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

W = mg
m - The mass of the body measured in kilograms (kg)
g - The gravitational field strength of the earth which is measured in Newton’s per kilogram (N
kg-1) or sometimes m s-2. On the surface of the earth g= 9.81 N kg -1.grnerally we use 10Nkg-1
- Therefore a mass of about 100g (0.1kg) has a weight of just less than 1N on the earth’s
surface. Its weight on moon is only 0.16N. The gravitational acceleration on the moon is not
the same as on the earth. On the moon gravitational acceleration is 1.6Nkgs-1 while on earth
is 10Nkg-1
Example An astronaut and his spacesuit have a total mass of 120kg. What will be his?
(a) Weight on earth (b) Mass on moon (c) Weight on moon

Differences between mass and weight

Mass Weight
- Is a measure of the body’s inertia - force acting on mass due to gravity
- Measured in kilograms using a balance - Measured in newton using a force meter or
spring balance
- Depends on inertia - Depends on mass
- Is independent of the position of a body - Varies according to the gravitational field
- Has only magnitude and no direction in which the body lies
- Has both magnitude and direction

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MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

OBJECTIVES
After completing this topic you should be able to:
 describe the uses and applications of machines
 determine Mechanical Advantage (MA), Velocity Ratio (VR) and efficiency of levers
inclined plane, pulleys and gears
 explain energy loses in machines
 describe ways of improving efficiency in machines
 Define pressure
 Calculate pressure
 Calculate pressure in fluids
 Describe effect of depth on pressure
 Describe atmospheric pressure
 Describe the construction and use of a simple manometer
 Explain the function and operation of simple fluid systems
 Describe the structures, functions and operations of simple pumps

MACHINES
A machine is any device which is used to do work. It enables us to do work easier.
There are two types of machines;
1. Simple machines: - (levers e.g hammers, wheel barrows, pumps, screw drivers etc)
2. Complex machines: - e.g cranes, earthmovers etc. these are built from a combination of
simple machines.

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE.
A machine makes a big job lighter which means there is an advantage when using a machine.
This advantage is called mechanical advantage (MA)
MA is the ratio of the load lifted to the effort exerted, i.e

The larger the Mechanical advantage, the more useful is the machine or the less the effort
required to lift the load.

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MA is a ratio and has no units of measurement.

VELOCITY RATIO (VR).

It is the ratio of the distance moved by the effort to the distance moved by the load.

It is a measure of how useful a machine is. The smaller the VR the more useful a machine is.

WORK DONE.
Two kinds of work can be identified when it comes to machines. There is work done by the
machine and work done by the effort. Work is calculated using the formula below;
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒(𝑁) × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑚)

EFFICIENCY (E).
Is the ratio of work output (MA) and work input (VR). It can be expressed as a percentage.

It is a measure of how well a machine works. If a machine is perfect, it is 100% efficient as work
input (work done by effort) equals work output work done.
NB Efficiency, VR and MA are all ratios hence have no units

Why are machines mot 100% efficient?

No machine is 100% efficient because some energy is lost due to friction and it is lost in the
form of heat. It is therefore necessary to reduce friction as much as is possible.
Energy is also lost as energy to overcome its own mass of moving parts

Ways to increase the efficiency of machines

Friction is reduced by; lubrication using grease or oil, putting rollers, putting bearings
Energy lost due to weight of machine is reduced by using light material and use of hollow beams

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AN INCLINED PLANE
- Is a flat surface that is at an angle to the horizontal
- It is a sloping plane and is a simple machine
because it reduces the amount of force
required to lift a load but the load must move
through a greater distance.
- The smaller the angle of the inclined plane,
the smaller the force used to lift the load but
the further the load must move.
Efficiency can be improved through
 Lubrication
 Increasing length of incline

LEVERS

- These are simple machines which move a load through a pivot.

- Is a rigid bar that rotates around a fixed support called a fulcrum to lift a load
- The lever is a machine which acts as a force multiplier i.e. it allows a smaller force
(effort) to overcome a large force (load) e.g. pliers, crowbar, scissors, wheelbarrow
- By increasing the effort distance MA and VR increases while efficiency remains the
same.

There are three types of levers:-

 Those with the load in the middle i.e. effort, load, pivot or pivot, load, effort. Examples
include the wheel barrow
 Those with the effort in the middle i.e. pivot, effort, load or load, effort, pivot. Examples
include the fishing line, hammer
 Those with the pivot in the middle i.e. effort, pivot, load or load, pivot, effort. Examples
include see saw, pliers, scissors, borehole etc

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PULLEY
These are grooved wheels mounted on a block and a rope passes through the groove and is used
for changing the direction and size of an effort required. There are three types of pulleys;

SINGLE FIXED PULLEY

- It is used to change the direction of the effort. The load is raised off the
ground by an effort which is also directed down wards; therefore the
pulley changes the direction of the force.
- MA = 1 because the values of the load and effort will be the same
- VR = 1 because distance moved by the load and effort must be the same
- The effort is slightly bigger than the load because there is always some
friction to be overcome.
- It is more efficient than a single movable pulley

SINGLE MOVABLE PULLEY

- It has a pulley on which the load is attached and the pulley can be
moved.
- The rope on both sides of the pulley produces an upward force.
- The VR = 2 because the rope must move twice the distance moved
by the load as the pulley moves.
- MA = 2 because the load is two times the effort

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BLOCK AND TACKLE

- It consists of two blocks each with one or more pulleys mounted
on the same axle.
- One block is fixed and the other is movable. Each fixed pulley
simply changes the direction in which effort is applied and the
movable block increases the MA of the system.
- The more the pulleys, the easier it is to lift a load.
NB VR = the number of pulleys/ropes

Efficiency of pulleys can be improved through

 Lubrication
 Using lighter pulleys
 Increasing number of pulleys

GEARS
Gears are simple machines. The gear system will consists of cog wheels mounted on an
axle/shaft. Effort is applied on one gear which in turn drives the wheel carrying the load.
Effort gear is smaller than load gear and has to be turned several times for the load gear to turn

A gear with 12 teeth makes two revolutions to drive and rotate another gear with 24 teeth a full
cycle.

Efficiency can be improved by

 Lubrication
 Appropriate shaping of gear teeth
 Proper alignment of gear teeth to reduce friction

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PRESSURE

PRESSURE IN SOLIDS.
Pressure is force acting on an area. The unit of pressure is N/m² or Pascals (Pa)

For high pressures the pressure is expressed in kilopascals (kPa).

The greater the area over which a force acts, the less the pressure. Diagram below shows
pressure exerted on the floor by the same box standing on end and lying flat.
The pressure is large when the area is small and this why nails are made with sharp points

Example 1 Calculate the pressure under a girl’s feet if her mass is 50 kg and the area of her
shoes in contact with the ground is

(i)2cm2 (high heels)

(ii) 200cm2 (flat sole)(Take acceleration due to gravity, g = 10ms-2)
Example 2 If a block is resting on one of its faces measuring 5cm x 10cm, and its weight is 22.5
N. Calculate the pressure.
Example 3 A 1000kg truck with four wheels is parked on a tarmac road. If each tyre has a
contact surface area of 0.0080m2, what is the pressure caused on the road. [g =
10N/kg]

PRESSURE IN FLUIDS.
LIQUID PRESSURE

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- A liquid exerts pressure on the sides of its container and on any object in the liquid. The
pressure exerted by the liquid increases as the depth increased.
- Pressure depends on the density of the liquid. Gravity pulls a liquid down into its
container and the liquid exerts pressure on the container The denser the liquid, the greater
the pressure at any given depth

Pressure due to a liquid column = height of column x density of the liquid x gravity
𝐥𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝 𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 = 𝛒𝐠𝐡
. The following points should be noted:-

Pressure of a liquid at a certain depth acts equally in all directions.

This can be shown by punching holes in a tin at the same depth and
then filling the tin with water.
Pressure in a liquid increases with depth because of the weight of
the liquid above. This can be shown by punching holes on a tin at
different depths and filling with water

Water spurts out further from the lowest outlet and spurts out less
far at highest outlet. This shows that liquid pressure increases with
depth.
Dam walls are wide at the base to withstand large forces of water at
the bottom since pressure increases with depth.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

- It is the pressure exerted by the air on earth. Atmospheric pressure decrease with height
since force of gravity decrease further away from the center of the earth.
- It exerts pressure equally in all directions
- At sea level atmospheric pressure is approximately 100 000 Pa (100kPa)

Factors affecting air pressure

Temperature- pressure increase with increase in temperature. This is because increase in
temperature increase speed (kinetic energy) of molecules and therefore force they exert as well
Density- increase in density also increase pressure. Increase in density increase number of
molecules and hence the force they exert increase
Water vapour –water molecules are lighter than the other molecules in the air. An increase in
water vapour thus causes a decrease in atmospheric pressure.

GAS PRESSURE

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Any gas, like all other matter, consists of particles called molecules. These molecules constantly
collide with one another and the sides of any object with which it comes into contact. The
particles move in all directions and are in constant motion. Because of this constant movement
and the collisions, a gas will exert pressure on any object with which it comes into contact

The formulae is

𝒈𝒂𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝒂𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉

A MANOMETER.
- It is an instrument used to measure pressure
in fluids.
- It is a U tube half filed with a liquid such as
mercury or water.
- When both arms are open to atmospheric
pressure, the level of the liquid in both
arms are the same.
- If one arm is connected to a fluid or gas
supply, the levels move. The liquid in the
arm connected to the fluid or gas is forced
downwards by the fluid or gas pressure.
- The pressure of the fluid or gas is then balanced by atmospheric pressure plus the column
of liquid of height h.
Example 1 Atmospheric pressure at sea level supports a column of 0.76m of mercury,
density 13600kg/m3. If g is taken to be 10m/s2, calculate pressure
Example 2 Water whose density is 1000kg/m3 fills a tank 5m high. Calculate the pressure
exerted at the bottom of the tank. [g = 10ms-2]
Example 3 Given that acceleration due to gravity is 10ms-2 and the density of water is
1000kg/m3. Calculate the water pressure at a point 20cm deep.

Example 4 In a reservoir, the height of water at the dam is 50m. Given that the density of
water is 1000kg/m3 and acceleration due to gravity is 10ms-2. Calculate the
pressure exerted at the bottom of the dam(ignore atmospheric pressure)

PUMPS
A pump is a device used for lifting water and gases using atmospheric pressure.
Types of pumps

LIFT PUMP

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Consists of a piston which moves up and down through a cylinder. The pump has two leather or
rubber flaps which act as valves. One is attached to the piston and the other one is on the cylinder
as on the diagram above

OPERATION
Up stroke
- Piston moves up
- Volume inside the cylinder
increases
- Pressure inside the cylinder
decreases
- Top valve opens while bottom valve
closes
- Atmospheric pressure pushes on the
surface of the water in the well.
This opens valve B and water enters
the cylinder section below valve A
Down stroke:
- Piston moves up
- Volume inside the cylinder increases
- Pressure inside the cylinder decreases
- Top valve opens while bottom valve closes
- Pressure inside the cylinder forces water out. This opens valve B.
Water will come out of the spot only on the upstroke

DRAWBACKS OF THE LIFT PUMP

 It can only lift water through less than 9m
 It only delivers water on the upstroke
 A lift pump must be primed before use. i.e. water must be put in the pump first before it
can work.

A FORCE PUMP

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Consists of a piston moving up and down through a cylinder. The piston has no valve but both
valves are on the cylinder as shown on the diagram.
OPERATION
Up stroke
- Piston moves up
- Volume inside the cylinder
increases
- Pressure inside the cylinder
decreases
- Top valve opens while bottom
valve closes
- Atmospheric pressure pushes on the
surface of the water in the well.
This opens valve A and water
enters the cylinder section below
valve B
Down stroke:
- Piston moves up
- Volume inside the cylinder increases
- Pressure inside the cylinder decreases
- Top valve opens while bottom valve closes
- Pressure inside the cylinder forces water out. This opens valve B .Water flows
continuously on upstroke and down stroke because of the pressure of the air trapped in
the reservoir

THE BLAIR PUMP

It gives a steady supply of water for small communities. It can lift water to a height of about
10m. Pump handle is connected to a piston which moves in a cylinder that is fixed below the
water level in a well
Valves are present, one at the bottom of the cylinder and another one on the piston. These valves
only open upwards.

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OPERATION
Up stroke
-Piston moves up
-Volume inside the cylinder increases
-Pressure inside the cylinder decreases
-Top valve opens while bottom valve
closes
- Atmospheric pressure pushes on the
surface of the water in the well. This
opens cylinder valve and water enters the
cylinder section below piston valve
Down stroke:
- Piston moves up
- Volume inside the cylinder increases
- Pressure inside the cylinder decreases
- Top valve opens while bottom valve
closes
- Pressure inside the cylinder pushes water out. This opens piston valve and closes cylinder
Water will come out of the spot only on the down stroke
Advantages of the Blair pump
It is simple to construct
It is cheap to maintain
It is usually made of plastic making it light, cheap and easy to assemble, operate and
repair
Disadvantages
 It can only deliver water on the down stroke.

THE BICYCLE PUMP

Is made up of a piston moving within a cylinder. The cylinder has a hole at one end and the
piston has a leather washer which acts as a valve.

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OPERATION
Up stroke
- When the piston is pulled out, pressure inside the cylinder is reduced and the tyre valve
closes while the leather washer valve opens.
- Volume inside the barrel increase while pressure decrease
- Atmospheric pressure forces air in around the edges of the washer into the cylinder.
Down stroke
- When the piston is pushed inwards, the air in the cylinder is compressed.
- Volume inside the barrel decrease while Pressure increases.
- The leather washer gives an airtight fit against the wall of the cylinder and the air is
pushed into the tyre through the tyre valve
- As air is added to the tyre, it becomes increasingly difficult to pump in more air due to
the increase in pressure in the tyres.

THE SIPHON
The siphon is a system that uses gravity to transfer a liquid from one container to another using a
flexible tube..
OPERATION
For the siphon to work;
 Source container must be at a higher level than the receptacle container for siphon to
work.
 The tube is first filled with water, this is done by gently sucking air out and then releasing
the liquid through the lower end M.

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- When end M is opened, water flows out of the tube and this reduces pressure inside the tube.
- Atmospheric pressure on the surface of the water
in the container forces more water into the tube.
- The water will continue to flow down the tube
due to its weight until the container is empty as
long as the source container is on a higher
platform than the receiving container
Nb The theory for the siphon action is based on the
molecules nature of matter and the fact that the
molecules in the liquid have a force of attraction
between them. Once the liquid is moving under
these conditions, the molecular force of attraction in
the remaining stream will allow the liquid to
continue to flow.

HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
These make use of three properties of liquids;
 Liquids can pass pressure applied to them in all directions
 Liquids cannot be compressed
 Liquids can flow

MOTOR CAR BREAKING SYSTEM

- When the brake pedal is pressed, this creates a pressure in the fluid which is transmitted
equally through the cylinder and into the brake (slave) cylinders.
- Pressure acts on slave cylinder pistons and force is exerted on brake shoes so that they
come into contact with the wheel drum. This causes friction which stops the car.
- By having large slave cylinders than the master cylinder, the driver will exert a small
force on the brake pedal than is finally felt by the brakes.

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The hydraulic fluid has the following properties

 Cannot be compressed
 Transmit pressure equally in all directions
 Prevents bubble formation-presence of bubbles in the fluid means any transmitted force
would compress the bubbles instead of passing on the pressure.
Brake fluid is used because it is non-corrosive

HYDRAULIC JACK/PRESS/

- Small force is applied at the effort piston (A) and pressure is created in the fluid by the
piston.
- Pressure is transmitted equally in all directions and the fluid moves towards the larger
piston (B). Same pressure acts on the load piston causing the load to rise
- Load piston has greater area, therefore greater force to raise the load than the force on the
small piston.

Example 1 Suppose f = 40N; a = 0.2m2 and A = 0.5m2, calculate force on the load.

In this case A force of 40N could lift a load of 100N; the hydraulic system multiplies the force

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ENERGY

OBJECTIVES
After completing this topic you should be able to:
 describe the operation of a four stroke petrol and diesel engine
 explain the role of the fuel injector and carburettor
 describe the operation of a modern petrol and diesel engine
 outline the advantages of modern petrol engines over old petrol engines
 give an account of heat transfer
 explain convection in terms of the kinetic theory
 state good and bad reflectors, absorbers and emitters of heat
 Describe the functions and designs of a solar cooker and a solar water heater
 Describe communication over a distance cell phone and email
 List down types of media for signal transmission
 Describe how signal is transmitted in different media transmitters
 Describe operations of cell phones and related signal transmitters and receivers

FUEL ENGINES
An engine is a device that converts chemical energy in fuel to kinetic energy to do work. E.g.
moving a car
Chemical energy (in fuel) to Kinetic/Mechanical energy

THE PETROL ENGINE

How the fuel engine operates
- Petrol engines have two main sections, the cylinder section and the
carburetor.
- The action of the pistons in the cylinders converts chemical energy into
kinetic energy and The carburetor supplies the cylinders with a petrol-
air mixture to each cylinder.
- Most vehicles have at least four cylinders in their engines.
- The advantage of multiple cylinders is that the engine will run more
smoothly and will be more powerful.

There are four strokes in a petrol engine for each cylinder.

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The intake/inlet stroke

- The pistons move down
- The intake/ inlet valve is opened while the exhaust valve is closed
- The petrol air mixture enters the cylinder from the carburetor
The compression stroke
- Both valves are closed
- The piston moves upwards
- the petrol air mixture is compressed
The power stroke
- Both valve are closed
- A spark is produced by the spark plug and sets fire to the petrol air mixture (ignition)
- The mixture explodes and forces the pistons down
- Piston moves down
NB It is during this stroke when chemical energy is converted to kinetic energy causing the car
to move. The piston will rotate the crankshaft, which in turn will rotate the wheels through the
gear box.

The exhaust stroke

- The exhaust valve is opened
- The inlet valve is closed
- The pistons move upwards forcing the exhaust gases out of the cylinder.

NB: Note that each of the cylinders must go through these four strokes but the strokes are timed
differently for each cylinder so that they smoothly rotate the crankshaft.
The inlet, compression and exhaust strokes are driven by the momentum of the engine’s
flywheel. The flywheel itself is initially energized by the starter motor and afterwards it is driven
by the power stroke.

THE CARBURETOR.

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The carburetor is a connection to the engine used to filter petrol and mix it with air in the desired
proportions. The petrol air mixture is then drawn into each cylinder during the intake/inlet stroke
of each cylinder.
 The petrol is cleaned by passing through a fine gauze filter. This is to ensure that the
carburetor jet does not get blocked by dirt. The air filter removes any dirt from the air that
in drawn in.
 The choke controls the air supply, if it is partially closed, the petrol air mixture is rich in
petrol and this makes it easy to start the vehicle.
 Jet – fuel supply
 The throttle/ accelerator controls the amount of petrol air mixture that gets to the
engine. Opening the throttle allows more mixture to the engine speeding it up.

Defects and effects of parts of a carburetor

PART FUNCTION DEFECTS EFFECTS
Jets Fuel supply Worn out Results in limited fuel supply. This leads to
incomplete combustion and the engine becomes
less efficient
Choke Air supply sticking Results in limited air supply. This leads to
incomplete combustion and the engine becomes
less efficient
Filters Clean air and fuel blocked Results in limited fuel or air supply. This leads to
incomplete combustion and the engine becomes
less efficient

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THE DIESEL ENGINE

The diesel engine operates along the same principles as a petrol engine but there
is no spark plug. The engine has four strokes as follows;
The intake/inlet stroke
- The pistons move down
- The intake/ inlet valve is opened while the exhaust valve is closed
- The air enters the cylinder from the carburetor

The compression stroke

- Both valves are closed
- The piston moves upwards
- The air is compressed. The compression is three times that in a petrol engine and it makes
the air hot.

The power stroke

- Both valve are closed
- Diesel is injected into the hot air.
- An explosion occurs which forces the pistons down
- Piston moves down
NB It is during this stroke when chemical energy is converted to kinetic energy causing the car
to move. The piston will rotate the crankshaft, which in turn will rotate the wheels through the
gear box.

The exhaust stroke

- The exhaust valve is opened
- The inlet valve is closed
- The pistons move upwards forcing the exhaust gases out of the cylinder.
The diesel engine uses a fuel injector instead of a carburetor and has no spark plugs. Diesel
engines are therefore called compression ignition engines as the ignition results from the heat
generated by compression. Because of the higher compression required, diesel engines are bigger
and heavier than petrol engines.

The role of the fuel injector

- Pump fuel into the combustion chamber. It makes sure that the correct quantity of fuel is
injected at the correct time.

Comparing Diesel engine to petrol engine

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PETROL DIESEL

- Has a carburetor - Has a fuel injector

- Uses a spark plug for ignition - No spark plug, uses compression ignition
- Is lighter - Heavier to withstand increased compression
- Is 40% less efficient than diesel i.e. travels - Is about 40% more efficient, travels more
less kilometers per liter kilometers per liter of fuel
- Petrol is more expensive per liter - Diesel is less expensive per liter
- Causes more pollution - Causes less pollution
- Uses petrol fuel - Uses diesel fuel

THE OPERATION OF A MODERN PETROL AND DIESEL ENGINE

Petrol Engine

- Have more powerful, better fuel efficiency and release few harmful emissions
- Carburettor have been replaced with an electronically controlled fuel injector to allow for
more accurate ratio of fuel and air before the spark plugs ignite the mixture. This
improves efficiency of the petrol engines.
- Most of the operating systems of new petrol engines are run by computers, which makes
the process more accurate
- It has turbo chargers to increase compression power
Diesel Engine

- Cylinder made of stronger material to allow the temperature of the air in the cylinder to
increase even more.
- Higher air temperature increases the efficiency of the ignition of the diesel fuel. It allows
for a more powerful explosion that increases the efficiency and power output of the
engine.
- It has turbo-intercooler to improve efficiency
- Has pre-combustion chambers and has multiple holes on the injector
Advantages of modern petrol engines over old petrol engines

 Fast start
 Increased efficiency due to use of computers and stronger materials
 Increased power due to use of more accurate fuel injector and more powerful explosions
can occur in the combustion chamber.
 Reduces the number of litres of petrol needed to drive a certain distance thus reducing
running costs of the vehicle

FUEL CONSERVATION

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Fuels should be conserved, especially fossil fuels like coal and petroleum because they cannot be
replaced once used up. Renewable sources like wind, water and solar power should be used to
replace our use of nonrenewable sources because they are cleaner and will not be used up.
HEAT TRANSFER

Heat (thermal) energy is due to the movement of atoms and molecules in a substance. The faster
the atoms/molecules move the higher the temperature of the substance. Therefore, heat energy is
really the kinetic energy of the atoms and molecules of a substance.
Heat energy can be transferred in three ways:
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation

CONDUCTION

Heat transfer through solids by vibrations of particles. All solids are made up of atoms or
molecules. When heat is applied at one end free electrons are given kinetic energy by heat and
they move along the metal carrying energy. Particles begin to vibrate vigorously and in turn
transmit the energy they have to their neighboring particles.

Demonstrating Good and bad heat Conductors

Method
Equal sized rods of different materials had match sticks attached on ends by wax and heat is
applied.
Heat flows from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature, therefore the
wax on the rods melts.

Observation
The wax melts faster on the copper rod, followed by brass, iron, aluminium and lastly wood

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Conclusion
Metals are good heat conductors and transfer heat energy rapidly while nonmetals, gases and
liquids are poor conductors and transfer heat slowly. They are called thermal insulators

RADIATION

Heat transfer through a vacuum. No material medium is required and heat travel in form of
waves i.e. electromagnetic waves.

Good and bad reflectors, absorbers and emitters of heat

- Absorption occurs when an object receives heat energy and increases in temperature
- Reflection occurs when heat energy strikes an object and bounces back off the object
- Emission is the transfer of heat through radiation. Emission causes temperature to fall

Demonstrating good and bad reflectors, absorbers and emitters of heat

Method
Pour same amount of water in both tins
Close the tins and place a thermometer
Record initial temperature of water in each tin
Place the tins in sun for 30 minutes and record the temperature again

Observation
Black or dull tin will have a larger increase in temperature while the white tin will have smaller
increase in temperature. Black dull tins absorb all the heat faster while the white tin reflects
some of the heat and absorbs less heat

Method
Place the tins in a room for 30 mins and record the temperature.

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Observation
Temperature of water in the black tin decreased faster and was lower than that of the white tin
after 30 minutes

Conclusion
Dull, black surfaces are good absorbers and emitters of heat while shiny, white surfaces are good
reflectors but bad absorbers and emitter of heat.

EVERYDAY APPLICATIONS OF THESE CONCEPTS.

Ø Light coloured clothes should be worn in summer when it is hot as these will not absorb a lot
of heat. In winter, dark coloured clothes should be worn so that as much heat as possible is
absorbed.
Ø Storage tanks for water are painted silver, white or some other lighter colour so that the water
remains cool while black pots are used on solar cookers to increase absorption of heat.
Ø Refrigerators are painted white to reflect heat as much as possible.

CONVECTION

- Convection is heat transfer through fluids (liquids or gas). The movement of a liquid or
gas allows heat to be transferred by convection currents.
- A convection current is the movement of fluid by the change in densities in various parts
of the fluid
- Convection currents occur only in fluids (liquids and gases) because convection involves
the bulk movement of the fluids which carry heat with them
Observing the transfer of heat in liquids by convection.
Materials: beaker, water, potassium permanganate crystals or small, burner and stand.

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Method
- Fill the beaker with water to almost ¾ full
- Drop a small crystal of potassium permanganate to the bottom edge of the beaker. (a
small leaf can be used instead of potassium permanganate)
- Heat the water around the crystal or leaf as shown in the diagram
Observations
- As heat is applied around the crystal, purple colored streaks are seen rising from the
bottom to the top, then horizontally and the trickles sink back down to the bottom.
Eventually all the water turns purple.
Explanation
As water around the bottom is heated, it expands and becomes less dense and rises to the surface.
More dense Cold water from the top moves in to replace the rising warm water and convection
currents are formed as shown by the arrows.

Purpose of the potassium permanganate - The purple streaks make the convection currents
visible.
Purpose of burner - To heat up the water to start the convection currents

Observing the transfer of heat in the air by convection.

Materials: burner/candle, cardboard box, plastic paper, torch paper
B A

Method
- Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram and light up the candle.
- Light the brown paper (torch paper) and bring it closer to the chimney A.
- Observe what happens
Observations

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- Before putting the smoldering paper over chimney A, smoke was moving vertically into
the air. (smoke rising into the air is evidence of heated particles moving upwards carrying
heat by convection)
- When the smoking paper was put over chimney A, the smoke moved into the box through
A and out of the box through B.

Explanation
The candle under chimney B heats the air around it causing it to expand and become less dense.
The air rises and escapes through chimney B.
Cooler, denser air moves in through chimney A to replace the warm air which has escaped. This
creates convection currents shown by the arrows in the diagram which are made visible by the
smoke

Purpose of smoke - The smoke makes the convection currents visible but the currents are there
even in the absence of the smoke.
Purpose of the candle - It heats up the air creating the convection currents.

APPLICATION OF HEAT TRANSFER

SOLAR COOKER

- The dish is shiny to reflect or change the direction of radiation energy without absorbing
it.
- The dish curved to focus the reflected energy onto a single point, a black pot or a
pressure cooker.
- The pot is painted black to ensure that most of the heat is absorbed and used for cooking
purposes. Black surfaces are good absorbers of heat.
- Radiant energy falls on mirrors and is reflected. The reflected radiation is concentrated
and focused at one point. This produces intense heat which can reach temperature of up
to 200oC. The cooking point has a dark surface in order to increase heat absorption.

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SOLAR WATER HEATER

- The solar water heater is placed on the roof of a house to absorb maximum solar
radiation since there no obstacles.
- The panel is heated directly by radiation from the sun. The heat is then transferred to
water inside the panel by conduction.
- Radiation falls on blackened copper plate. Black surfaces are good absorbers of heat.
- The absorbed heat is passed on to thin copper tubes. Copper is a good heat conductor.
- Heat is then passed to the water; the thin copper tubes easily pass heat to the water.
- The thin copper tubing is coiled to increase surface area for heating the water.
- Heated water is stored in an insulated tank to reduce heat loss.
- The glass prevents heat loss by convection and traps heat energy inside the panel through
the greenhouse effect.
- The expanded polystyrene base prevents heat loss by convection while air spaces prevent
heat loss by conduction to the roof.

TELECOMMUNICATION

Telecommunication is the transmission of information of any nature (e.g signals, signs, and
messages) over distance usually by wire or radio

CELL PHONES

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- A microchip inside a cell phone takes the vibrations of your voice into a tiny microphone
which turns it to strings of numbers (encoding) that are transmitted in form of radio
waves by means of the phone’s antenna to the nearest cell phone mast.
- The mast works in the same way as the tiny antenna in the phone, transmitting the radio
waves across to the next phone mast and the next, until it reaches the one closest to the
person you are trying to phone.
- From that mast it is transmitted to the other person’s phone where the encoded digital
message is decoded back into electrical pulses that get the speaker of the receiver
vibrating to produce sound waves.
- The signal is analogue at first and the cell phone digitalizes it before sending it off to a
mast. The signal quality is very good i.e. there is very little loss of energy and sound
quality
- The signal is converted back to analogue by the other cell phone and into sound waves
for the other person to hear.
EMAIL

- The internet works similar to cell phones and regular phones, converting information into
a string of numbers and transmitting these through a combination of radio waves through
antennas, electrical pulse through phone lines and pulses of lights through fibre optics.
- In order to make this possible, the computer chips in the computer break up information
into smaller, addressed packets.
TELEPHONES
- Transmits vibrations created by a person’s vocal cords through a wire to a receiver.
- The signal is analogue from sender to receiver.
- When speaking in the mouth piece, the voice makes the diaphragm in the microphone
inside vibrate converting sound energy into electrical energy. The electrical energy
travels from the phone through exchanges to another phone where the diaphragm in the
loud speaker inside the ear piece of the receiving phone converting the incoming
electrical energy back to sound energy.
SIGNAL TRANSMISSION

There are two types of signals are used in telecommunications i.e.

a) Analogue signals is made up of a continuous wave that varies over time in both
amplitude and frequency. The wave contains the message that is being transmitted.
b) Digital signal is an electrical signal that has been chopped into bits which are in form of
pulses that can only take two values either 1 or 0. Therefore a digital signal is made up of
series of ones (on) and zeros (off).

Media for signal transmission

Signal carry the message and is transmitted in two ways i.e.
a) Guided media in cables e.g. optic fibre, coaxial cables and sheathed pair cables

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b) Wireless media e.g. Wi-Fi

TRANSMISSION IN CABLES

Optic fibre sends information coded in a beam of light down a glass pipe in modes. The light
that carries the signal cannot leave the cable but continue to totally internally reflect off the
edges of the glass until it reaches its destination
Sheathed cables and coaxial cables all have copper wires through which electrical signal
travels.
- The signal is analogue from talker to listener. The signal travels by electrical pulses
through copper wires or by light through optic cables.
- The signals via copper cables tend to attenuate (lose energy) along the way. This is why
amplifiers (signal boosters) are needed along the way. However there is less attenuation
in optic cables and the signal speed is very fast sent via light. Optic fibre can also carry
far more data than copper cables
WIRELESS SIGNAL TRANSMISSION

- A wireless network uses radio waves

- Wireless signals are electromagnetic waves travelling through a pathway from a
transmitter, into space and finally receiver. The space of the pathway is unguided, so
waves generally transmit in all directions and any appropriated antenna can receive the
signal.
- A computer’s wireless adapter translates data into a radio signal and transmits it using an
antenna and waves are formed around the antenna which can travel some distance
depending on the strength of that energy. A wireless router receives the signal and
decodes it. The router sends the information to the internet thus the router relay
connections to and from the internet.
- When a device sends out a wireless signal, it is called a transmitter
- When another device picks up that wireless signal and understands the information, it is
called a receiver
- Wi-Fi is essentially two radios communicating back and forth that use lower power and
broad cast over much shorter distances. Wi-Fi is a method of linking wireless devices to
the internet through a shared connection point (router) which typically makes a wired
connection to a telephone or cable line.

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MAGNETISM

OBJECTIVES
After completing this topic you should be able to:

Describe an experiment to demonstrate that a current carrying conductor has a magnetic
field around it.
 Illustrate how movement is produced in a current carrying wire in a magnetic field
 describe the operation of a direct current (d.c) motor
 state the factors that affect the rotation of the coil
 describe an experiment which shows that a change in magnetic field can induce an
electro motive force (e.m.f) in a conductor
 state the factors which affect the magnitude of induced e.m.f
 describe the operation of an alternating current (a.c) and direct current (d.c) generator
 describe hydro and thermal power generation
ELECTROMAGNETISM

Demonstrating magnetic field in a conductor current carrying

- A large coil with many turns of insulated copper wire is set up vertically with one of its
vertical side passing through a hole in the centre of a piece of a cardboard supported
horizontally.
- Current is passed through the coil
- A fine layer of iron filings is then sprinkled on the cardboard and is taped gently. Iron
filings set in a series of concentric circles about the wire.
- A small compass placed on the card indicates the direction of the field

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Magnetic field in a long straight conductor

- The magnetic field of a straight current-carrying conductor can be investigated using

apparatus shown in diagram above.
- The field of a straight current-carrying conductor is a set of concentric circles around the
wire. The field direction depends on the current direction

MOTORS

THE MOTOR EFFECT

When a current carrying conductor lies in a magnetic field there is a force on the conductor. This
is called the motor effect
When the coil is placed in another magnetic field that is created by two magnets. The interaction
of the two fields creates a force that causes movement and runs the motor.

How movement is produced in a current carrying wire in a magnetic field

- A conductor carrying current has a magnetic field around it.

- When the current carrying wire is placed in another magnetic field, the interaction of the
two fields will produce movement on the wire
- Observation would confirm that the wire moved up when the current was in one direction
and moved in the other direction when the current is reversed

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THE OPERATION OF A DIRECT CURRENT (D.C.) MOTOR

- The motor converts electrical energy to kinetic energy

- Consist of a coil placed in a magnetic field.
- The coil carrying current has a magnetic field. The permanent magnets also produces a
magnetic field
- Therefore the interaction between the two magnetic fields will cause the coil to move
- The commutator reverse its contact with the ends of the coil thereby ensuring that current
is always in one direction.

Factors that affect the rotation of the coil

 Strength of magnetic field

 Number of turns in the coil
 Amount of current passed
 Cross sectional area of the coil

The speed of a motor is increased by

 Increasing current
 Increasing number of turns in the coil to increase surface area
 Using stronger magnets to increase density of magnetic field
 Place a soft-iron core within the magnetic field lines

GENERATORS

GENERATOR EFFECT

- When a conducting wire is moved through a magnetic field, a voltage is generated along
the conductor. This causes a change in the magnetic field, called a magnetic flux. This
called generator effect. The voltage induced is the e.m.f

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- An e.m.f can be induced when a magnet is moved through a current carrying coil. The
rotation of the coil in a magnetic field induces an e.m.f in the coil.
An experiment which show that a change in magnetic field can induce electromotive force (e.m.f)
in a conductor.

Method
- The bar magnet was pushed into a coiled
wire as shown and galvanometer reading
was noted
- The bar magnet was pulled out of the
coiled wire and the galvanometer reading
noted again
- The coil was then pushed in and pulled
out while the magnet was stationary.
Galvanometer reading was noted in each
case
Observation

- The galvanometer pointer moved in one direction when the magnet was pushed into the
coil and moved in the opposite direction when the magnet was pulled out of the coil
- The galvanometer pointer moved in one direction when the coil was pushed in and moved
in the opposite direction when the coil was pulled out.
Conclusion

Movement of galvanometer pointer showed that current was induced when the magnet moved
into the coil and vice versa

Explanation

Relative motion between a magnet and a conductor produces an electric current. This is called
the Generator effect.

Factors which affect the magnitude of induced e.m.f.

Strength of a magnet – a stronger magnet induces a stronger e.m.f

Relative motion – moving or rotating the conductor (coil) faster induces a stronger e.m.f
Number of turns – the more the turns are in the coil, the stronger the induced e.m.f
Area of coil – the larger the area that the magnetic field acts over the stronger the induced e.m.f

SIMPLE D.C. GENERATOR

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- It converts kinetic energy into electrical

energy
- It has a split ring
- As the coil rotates in the magnetic field of a
permanent magnet, it cuts across magnetic
lines of force
- This induces an e.m.f (electro motive
force)through the coil, so current is produced
through the coil.
- The split ring ensures that current flows in one
direction
- The brushes are arranged so that as the coil
goes through the vertical, changeover of
contact occurs from one half of the split ring of commutator to the other.

SIMPLE A.C. GENERATOR

- It converts kinetic energy into electrical

energy
- As the coil rotates in the magnetic field of
a permanent magnet, it cuts across
magnetic lines of force
- This induces an e.m.f (electro motive
force) through the coil, so current is
produced through the coil.
- The current produced is collected by
carbon brushes

AC AND DC CURRENT
- Dc is direct current. It moves in one direction. It is produced by a DC generator
- Ac current is alternating current. It changes directions when moving. It is produced by
A.C generator
- Electricity is transported as AC current over long distances because
i. Ac current can be stepped up or down using transformers
ii. They are fewer energy losses when electricity is transported as AC

HYDRO AND THERMAL POWER GENERATION

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The processes involved in the production of electricity at power stations depend on the energy
being used. Power stations for generating electricity use alternators driven either by water or
steam turbines. A turbine is a wheel with paddles that can be rotated by running water or steam.

THERMAL POWER
- Turbines are connected to the generator driven by steam under great pressure
- Coal (or any fossil fuel) is burnt to produce heat energy that turns water into steam. The
steam drives turbines which in turn drive the generators that produce electrical energy.
- If coal is used, the steam is obtained from a boiler

Chemical energy heat energy kinetic energy of electrical energy

of steam rotating turbine

HYDRO POWER

- Turbines are connected to a generator driven by the movement of water.

- Water is channeled down towards the turbines and then released back into the river after
use.
- The potential energy of water falling from a height is changed by turbines to kinetic
energy and then by generators to electrical energy.

Potential energy kinetic energy kinetic energy electrical energy

of water of falling water of rotating turbine

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ELECTRICITY

OBJECTIVES
After completing this topic you should be able to:
 Describe simple experiments to show electrostatic charging using an electroscope
 Describe forces between charges
 describe the production of lightning
 Explain the principle of a lightning conductor
 state the dangers of lightning
 state safety precaution against lightning
 state Ohm’s law
 calculate resistance /voltage/current using Ohm’s law
 describe an experiment to determine resistance
 state the limitations of Ohm’s law
 state factors that affect resistance
 construct simple electric circuits
 draw and interpret circuit diagrams
 calculate resistance in simple circuits
 Define electrical power and energy
 Calculate electrical power and energy
 Describe electrical hazards and safety precautions
 Describe wiring of a three pin plug
 Explain the use of a two pin plug
 state uses of electricity in the home
 Calculate cost of electricity
 Discuss different methods of saving electricity
 Explain the use of solar photo voltaic systems

STATIC ELECTRICITY

ELECTROSTATIC CHARGING

Friction between objects can cause electrons to be transferred from one object to another. When
the object gains electrons, it becomes negatively charged. When an object loses electrons it
becomes positively charged. Perspex attains positive charge while polythene attains negative
charge when charged.

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Rub a polythene rod with a woolen cloth and suspend the charged rod by a cotton thread from a
retort stand. Charge a second polythene rod and bring it towards the suspended rod and repulsion
occurs i.e. like charges repel. Charge a Perspex rod towards the suspended polythene rod and
attraction occurs i.e. unlike charges attract.

GOLD LEAF ELECTROSCOPE

The gold leaf electroscope is a simple instrument used to detect electric charges
A gold-leaf electroscope consists of a brass rod, with a brass (metal) cap and a brass plate at the
bottom. A thin leaf of gold or Aluminium foil is attached to the brass plate. The brass rod is
mounted in a glass case, supported by a plug of insulating material

Detecting a charge
- When the gold leaf is close to the brass plate in a collapse state then the brass cap, brass
rod, brass plate and the gold leaf are electrically neutral. There is no excess charge.
- When a charged insulator (such as a positively-charged glass rod) is brought near to the
brass cap, the free electrons from the brass and gold parts of the electroscope are attracted
to the brass cap leaving the brass plate and gold leaf positively charged. This causes the
gold leaf to diverge due to the repulsion between like positive charges.

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LIGHTNING

PRODUCTION OF LIGHTNING

- The thunder clouds are charged by friction between the water molecules in the
thundercloud and the air molecules
- As violent movement on the cloud continues, charging also continues i.e. very high
voltage build up between the positive and negative charges within the cloud.
- The base of the cloud becomes negatively charged and this in turn cause the charge on
the ground to be positive
- When the charge on the thundercloud is sufficiently large, it can ionize the air which then
provides a conducting path for the huge quantity of charge to be discharged to the
nearest or sharpest object on the ground
- The sudden jump of electrons towards the positively charged ground causes lighting

THE PRINCIPLE OF A LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR

- The lightning conductor provides an alternative steady path for the flow of charge from
the top of the building to the earth.

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- Negative electrons are attracted to the spikes and become discharged.

- The electrons are then passed down the conductor and are dissipated (earthed) to the
ground from the copper plate.
- The conductor is placed above the building to collect charges and pass it harmlessly
into the earth.
- The conductor is made of thick copper strip to conduct electrons to the ground since
copper is a good conductor of electricity.
- The copper strip is attached to a copper plate in the ground to earth excess electrons

DANGERS OF LIGHTNING

- Light voltage causes outbreak of fire

- Flow of current result in electrocution and severe burns
- Heating effect of current cause destruction of buildings
SAFETY PRECAUTION AGAINST LIGHTNING

- Keep away from metallic objects

- Disconnect roof top aerials
- Do not shelter near or under isolated trees
- Disconnect electrical appliances
- Avoid being in contact with water during a lightning storm i.e. swimming

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CURRENT ELECTRICITY

VOLTAGE

- It is the potential difference across two energy sources

- It is measured using a voltmeter and the SI unit of voltage is Volts (V)
CURRENT

- It is the flow is charge or electricity

- It is measured using a ammeter and the SI unit of voltage is Amps (A)
RESISTANCE

- It is the opposition of the flow of current. It is measured in Ohms (Ω).

- When applying a fixed potential difference across different components in a circuit,
different values of current flow because the different components resist the flow of
electrons by different amounts.
An experiment to determine resistance

- To determine the resistance of a load, a simple circuit using an ammeter and a voltmeter

- Adjust the variable resistor to allow the smallest possible current to flow in the circuit
and record corresponding ammeter and voltmeter reading.
- Adjust the variable resistor to allow a larger current to flow in the circuit and note the
values of I and V.
- Repeat the above for five sets of I and V readings
- Plot a graph showing V against I, and determine the gradient of the graph.
- The gradient of the graph gives the resistance of the load, R.

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The graph is a straight line passing through the origin thus current is directly proportional to the
voltage across the resistor

OHM’S LAW

The Ohm’s law states that the current through a metallic conductor is proportional to the
potential difference across the conductor provided temperature remains constant. This means that
current increases in the same ratio as when voltage increases
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅

Examples 1 A p.d measured across a light bulb is 12V. The current measured is 5A.
Calculate resistance
Example 2 A potential difference of 240V applied across the heating coil of an electric
kettle drives a current of 8A through the coil. Calculate

(a) The resistance of the coil

(b) The new current flowing through the coil if the p.d. applied is
changed to 220V

Limitations of the Ohm’s law

Ohm’s law is not obeyed when

• Temperature of conductor changes e.g. bulbs and heater elements. if temperature
increases, the resistance also increases and if it decreases resistance also decreases. This will
cause variations in the answers when using Ohm’s law
• The conductor is cooled
• The conductor does not have a uniform cross sectional area

Factors that affect resistance

i. Length of the conductor – resistance increases with an increase in length of the material.
The longer the wire, the greater the resistance it has

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ii. Thickness of the conductor (cross sectional area) – resistance increases with an increase
in cross sectional area. The larger the cross sectional area of a wire, the smaller the
resistance it has.
iii. Temperature – higher temperature offers more resistance

SIMPLE ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

In the study of current electricity, it is vital to draw simple and clear diagrams. The following
diagrams gives a list of special symbols that are used to represent common devices that are
usually employed in electric circuits

CIRCUIT SYMBOLS

Representing some circuit diagrams using electric symbols

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RESISTORS

- Conductors intended to have resistance are called resistors and are made either from
wires of special alloys or from carbon.

The primary purpose of resistors is to control the size of the current flowing in a circuit.

Resistors in series

The same current I flow through each and the total voltage V across all three is the sum of the
separate voltages across them.
V = V1 + V2 + V3
But 𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1, 𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅2 and𝑉3 = 𝐼𝑅3. Also, if R is the combined resistance, 𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1 and
so:
𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅3
Dividing both sides by I,
𝐑𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 = 𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐 + 𝐑𝟑

Parallel arrangement of resistors

The p.d. across the two resistors in parallel is the same. In addition, the current (I) flowing into
the common point splits into I1, I2 and I3 and rejoins into I.

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The voltage V between the ends of each is the same and total current I equals the sum of the
currents in the separate branches, i.e.

For the simpler case of two resistors in parallel

- For more than two resistors in parallel, the reciprocal of the total resistance of
resistors connected in parallel is equal to the sum of reciprocal of each individual
resistors

HOUSEHOLD ELECTRICITY

USES OF ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME

- Lighting
- Heating
- Powering electrical devices e.g. motors
ELECTRICAL POWER

Is the rate of using electrical energy e.g. If a bulb is marked 100W, it is converting electrical
energy to heat and light at rate of 100J/s
The SI units of power is the watt (W)
P = VI

Examples 1 Find the power of an electric iron operating on a 240V supply using a current
of 0.5A
Example 2 Find the voltage of an electric motor if its power is 3kW and the current
passing through it is 12,5A.
Example 3 What is power of an electric light bulb if it is drawing a current of 0.25A
from the mains electricity supply of 240V?

Example 4 What current is drawn by a 1.5kW heater which operates on a 240V mains
supply?

ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Electrical energy is the amount of electricity that is connected to other forms of energy.

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Electrical energy can be found by multiplying the quantities of power and time
𝐸 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡
SI unit for energy is the joule (J)

Example 1 An electric iron has a heating element of resistance 60Ω. If the

operating current flowing through it is 4A, Calculate

(a) The supply voltage

(b) The electrical power produced
(c) The heat energy produced in 5 minutes
Example 2 A filament lamp is rated 60W and 240V. Find
(a) The current flowing through the lamp
(b) The resistance of the filament
(c) The energy produced by the lamp in one hour

COST OF ELECTRICITY

- The cost of electricity consumption is based on the number of kWh of electrical energy
used
- The kWh is the energy is the electrical energy used by a 1kW appliance in 1 hour
- Metres are installed to measure the amount of energy used by each house.
- One unit of electricity = 1kWh
Energy(number of units) = power(kW) x time(h)
- The cost of electricity each month is determined by reading the electricity meter and
multiplying the units by the cost per unit.
Cost = number of units x cost per unit

Example 1 If a company charges 14 cents for each kWh of electrical energy used,
calculate the total cost of using a 3kW electric kettle for 20 mins and a
100W filament bulb for 5 hours.
Example 2 If a unit of electricity costs 11,2c, calculate the cost of using an electric
stove that consume energy at a rate of 8000w for 3 hours
Example 3 Suppose you do some ironing for 3 hours using a 750W electric iron. a)
How many units of electrical energy are consumed?
b) How much did it cost to do the iron in January 2015, if cost per unit was
$0.1 per kWh?

Example 4 A 12V accumulator delivers a current of 3A through a car headlamp for 4

hours. Calculate;

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(a) The power supplied in watts

(b) Energy supplied in kilowatt-hour
(c) Cost of 300 units of electricity at 14 cents per unit

METHODS OF SAVING ELECTRICITY

- Use of energy saving bulbs

- Use of alternative sources of electricity e.g. solar panels, biogas
- Switch off appliances not in use
- Use of low power rating appliances
- Using appliances with heating elements sparingly as they consume the most energy.

ELECTRICAL HAZARDS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

Electrical hazards

- Damaged insulation – fire risks and electric shocks

- Overheating cables – fire risks because there is maximum current in a circuit
- Damp conditions – increase the severity of an electric shock because water lowers the
resistance of the path to the earth.
Safety precautions

- Earthing all appliances

- Avoid overloading circuits
- Use insulated cables
- Do not handle appliances with wet hands
- Put on rubber foot wear when using appliances
THREE PIN PLUG

Connects appliances to power circuits via power socket

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- The neutral (N) wire (blue) completes the circuit by forming a path for the current back
to the supply. It is usually at zero volt
- The earth (E) wire (yellow with green) is a low resistance wire usually connected to the
metal casing of the appliance.
- The live (L) wire (brown) delivers the energy at high alternating voltage to the appliance
- To wire the plug
• Remove sufficient amount of insulation from each of the three wires.
• Twist the wire strands together gently.
• Secure the three wire stands to the correct terminals according to the colour code
by means of wrap-round screws. Make sure that the insulation on the wires extends right
to the pins.
• Firmly, tighten the cord grip to grip the cord firmly.

Earthing

- The earth pin on a 3 pin plug is connected to the metal case of the appliance which is thus
joined to earth by a path of almost zero resistance.
- Earthing protects the user of the appliance from an electric shock, if the metal casing
should accidentally become live. The earth wire carries excess current to the ground thus
protecting the user from electric shocks.
Fuse
- The fuse should be connected to the live wire so that the appliance will not become live
after the fuse has blown.
- A fuse is a component made from a metal with low melting point. The fuse melts if too
large a current flow through it thus breaking the circuit. This prevent overheating and
damage of appliance and use from electric shocks.
- Fuses are normally rated 1A, 2A, 5A, 10A and 13A

Switches

All switches are designed to break or complete an electrical circuit. The switch must be fitted
onto the live wire so that switching off disconnects the high voltage from an appliance.

TWO PIN PLUG

- Double insulation is a safety feature in an electrical appliance that can substitute for an
earth wire. Only the live and neutral wires are required for the appliance.

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- This safety feature provides two levels of insulation i.e. the electric cable is insulated
from the internal components of the appliances and the metal parts which could become
live if a fault developed are also insulated from the external casing.
- Appliances with this feature normally have non metallic casing such as plastic or wood
e.g. radio, tv

SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS

- Photovoltaic means using light to produce voltage.

- Photovoltaic cells covert solar energy to electrical energy. It is made up of
semiconducting material i.e. silicon.
- The electrons in the silicon gain energy from the sun and create a voltage which can
produce current in a closed circuit.
- A certain amount of light is required to cause a significant current, thus making solar
power inefficient during times with low levels of sunlight. In bright sunlight, each cell
produces 0.5V and a current of 0.03A.
- Greater voltages and current are obtained by connecting cells in series and in parallel on
a panel. Cells are connected in series to give a higher voltage and in parallel to give a
higher current. Cells in series supply steady current which last longer.

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