MOBILE COMPUTING

UNIT-IV

ULEMU MPONELA
DMI ST JOHN THE BAPTIST UNIVERSITY
Contents
Unit IV .................................................................................................................................................... 4
CDMA & 3G NETWORKS ................................................................................................................... 5
A Simple Analogy.......................................................................................................................... 5
Salient Features of CDMA ............................................................................................................ 5
CDMA - SPREAD SPECTRUM ............................................................................................................. 6
a) Direct Sequence (DS) ................................................................................................................ 7
Demodulating DS Signals - 1 ........................................................................................................ 7
Demodulating DS Signals − 2 ..................................................................................................... 8
b) Frequency Hopping Technology ............................................................................................ 9
IS 95 ........................................................................................................................................................ 9
CDMA VS GSM ................................................................................................................................... 11
Differences Between GSM and CDMA ......................................................................................... 11
1. Technology Used ................................................................................................................ 11
2. SIM Cards ............................................................................................................................. 11
3. Flexibility .............................................................................................................................. 12
4. Spectrum frequencies .......................................................................................................... 12
5. Radiation Exposure ............................................................................................................. 12
6. Global Reach ....................................................................................................................... 12
7. Security ................................................................................................................................. 12
8. Data Transfer Rate .............................................................................................................. 12
Comparison Chart between CDMA and GSM ............................................................................ 13
3G NETWORKS & APPLICATIONS .............................................................................................. 13
Features ............................................................................................................................................ 13
Specifications for 3G ....................................................................................................................... 14
Areas of Application ....................................................................................................................... 14
WIRELESS LAN .................................................................................................................................... 15
Advantages of WLANs ................................................................................................................... 15
Disadvantages of WLANs ............................................................................................................... 16
IEEE 802.11 WIRELESS LAN STANDARDS ........................................................................................ 16
a) IEEE 802.11 ............................................................................................................................... 17
b) IEEE 802.11a ............................................................................................................................. 17
c) IEEE 802.11b............................................................................................................................. 17
d) IEEE 802.11g ............................................................................................................................. 18
e) IEEE 802.11n............................................................................................................................. 18

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 f) IEEE 802.11p ............................................................................................................................ 18
IEEE 802.11 ARCHITECTURE ............................................................................................................ 18
Important Terminologies of IEEE 802.11 Architecture.............................................................. 18
IEEE 802.11 Architecture and Services ......................................................................................... 19
1. Basic Service Set .................................................................................................................. 19
2. Independent Basic Service Set........................................................................................... 20
3. Extended Service Set .......................................................................................................... 20
Frame Format of IEEE 802.11 ....................................................................................................... 21
Frame Control............................................................................................................................. 22
Duration / ID............................................................................................................................... 22
Address 1 to 4 ............................................................................................................................. 22
SC (Sequence Control) ............................................................................................................... 23
Data .............................................................................................................................................. 23
CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) ............................................................................................. 23
MOBILE ADHOC NETWORK (MANET) ......................................................................................... 23
Characteristics of MANET .............................................................................................................. 24
Applications of MANET ................................................................................................................. 24
WIRELESS LAN SECURITY ................................................................................................................. 25
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WIFI AND 3G TECHNOLOGY .............................................................. 27
Features of WiFi .......................................................................................................................... 27
Features of 3G Technology ....................................................................................................... 28
Difference Between Wifi & 3G Technology ................................................................................ 28
INTERNETWORKING IN COMPUTER NETWORK ...................................................................... 29
Fundamentals of Call Processing ....................................................................................................... 29
i. Call Signaling ....................................................................................................................... 29
ii. Call Routing ......................................................................................................................... 30
iii. Call Setup ......................................................................................................................... 30
iv. Call Management ............................................................................................................ 30
v. Call Termination ................................................................................................................. 30
vi. Interworking .................................................................................................................... 30
vii. Media Handling .............................................................................................................. 31
viii. Security ............................................................................................................................. 31
ix. Billing and Charging ....................................................................................................... 31
INTELLIGENT NETWORKS ....................................................................................................... 31
SIGNALLING SYSTEM #7 (SS7) ................................................................................................. 31

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Interfaces ...................................................................................................................................... 33
Technologies Supporting IN ...................................................................................................... 33

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Unit IV
CDMA and 3G: Introduction – Spread - Spectrum Technology – IS-95 – CDMA
Vs GSM – Wireless Data – 3GNetworks & Applications. Wireless LAN: Introduction –
Advantages – IEEE 802.11 Standards – Architecture –Mobility – Deploying – Mobile
AdHoc Networks and Sensor Networks – Wireless LAN Security – WiFi Vs 3G. Internet
Networks and Interworking: Introduction – Fundamentals of Call Processing –
Intelligence in the Networks – SS#7 Signaling – IN Conceptual Model –Softswitch –
Programmable Networks – Technologies and Interfaces for IN.

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 CDMA & 3G NETWORKS
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a digital cellular technology used for mobile
communication. CDMA is the base on which access methods such as cdmaOne,
CDMA2000, and WCDMA are built. CDMA cellular systems are deemed superior to
FDMA and TDMA, which is why CDMA plays a critical role in building efficient, robust,
and secure radio communication systems.

A Simple Analogy
Let’s take a simple analogy to understand the concept of CDMA. Assume we have a
few students gathered in a classroom who would like to talk to each other
simultaneously. Nothing would be audible if everyone starts speaking at the same time.
Either they must take turns to speak or use different languages to communicate.
The second option is quite similar to CDMA — students speaking the same language
can understand each other, while other languages are perceived as noise and rejected.
Similarly, in radio CDMA, each group of users is given a shared code. Many codes
occupy the same channel, but only those users associated with a particular code can
communicate.

Salient Features of CDMA

CDMA, which is based on the spread spectrum technique has following salient features

 In CDMA, every channel uses the full available spectrum.

 Individual conversations are encoded with a pseudo-random digital sequence
and then transmitted using a wide frequency range.
 CDMA consistently provides better capacity for voice and data communications,
allowing more subscribers to connect at any given time.
 CDMA is the common platform on which 3G technologies are built. For 3G,
CDMA uses 1x EV-DO and EV-DV.
CDMA2000 uses Frequency Division Duplexing-Multicarrier (FDD-MC) mode. Here,
multicarrier implies N × 1.25 MHz channels overlaid on N existing IS-95 carriers or
deployed on unoccupied spectrum. CDMA2000 includes;
 1x — uses a spreading rate of 1.2288 Mcps.
 3x — uses a spreading rate of 3 × 1.2288 Mcps or 3.6864 Mcps.
 1xEV-DO (1x Evolution – Data Optimized) — uses a spreading rate of 1.2288
Mcps, optimized for the data.
 WCDMA/FDD-DS — Wideband CDMA (WCDMA) Frequency Division
Duplexing-Direct Sequence spreading (FDD-DS) mode. This has a single 5 MHz
channel. WCDMA uses a single carrier per channel and employs a spreading rate
of 3.84 Mcps.

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 CDMA - SPREAD SPECTRUM
All technical modulation and demodulation strive for greater power and/or efficiency
of bandwidth in a white Gaussian additive stationary noise channel. Since bandwidth is
a limited resource, one of the primary design goals of all the modulation schemes is to
minimize the bandwidth required for transmission. On the other hand, spread spectrum
techniques use a transmission bandwidth that is order of the magnitude greater than
the bandwidth required the minimum signal.
The advantage of spread spectrum technique is that — many users can simultaneously
use the same bandwidth without interfering with each other. Therefore, spread
spectrum is not economic when the number of users is less.

 Spread spectrum is a form of wireless communications in which the frequency of

the transmitted signal is deliberately varied resulting higher bandwidth.
 Spread-spectrum is apparent in the Shannon and Hartley channel-capacity
theorem −
 C = B × log2 (1 + S/N)
 In the given equation, `C’ is the channel capacity in bits per second (bps), which
is the maximum data rate for a theoretical bit-error rate (BER). ‘B’ is the required
channel bandwidth in Hz, and S/N is the signal-to-noise power ratio.
 Spread spectrum uses wideband, noise-like signals that are hard to detect,
intercept, or demodulate. Additionally, spread-spectrum signals are harder to
jam (interfere with) than narrow band signals.
 Since spread-spectrum signals are so wide, they transmit at a much lower spectral
power density, measured in watts per hertz, than narrow band transmitters.
Spread-spectrum and narrowband signals can occupy the same band, with little
or no interference. This capability is the main attraction for all the interest in
spread spectrum today.
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Following are the two types of spread spectrum techniques −

 Direct Sequence and

 Frequency Hopping.

a) Direct Sequence (DS)

Direct Sequence Code Division Multiple Access (DS-CDMA) is a technique to multiplex

users by different codes. In this technique, the same bandwidth is used by different users.
Each user is assigned with one its own spreading code. These sets of codes are divided
into two classes −

 Orthogonal Codes and

 Non-Orthogonal Codes
Walsh sequences come into the first category which is Orthogonal Codes whereas other
sequences i.e. PN, Gold, and Kasami are shift register sequences.

Orthogonal codes are assigned to the users, the output of the correlator in the receiver
will be zero except the desired sequence. In synchronous direct sequence, the receiver
receives the same code sequence which was transmitted so that there is no time shift
between the users.

Demodulating DS Signals - 1

In order to demodulate DS signals, you need to know the code that was used at the
time of transmission. In this example, by multiplying the code used in the transmission
to the reception signal, we can get the transmitted signal.

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In this example, multiple codes were used at the time of transmission (10,110,100) to
the received signal. Here, we have calculated by using the law of two additives (Modulo
2 Addition). It is further demodulated by multiplying the code that was used at the time
of this transmission, called the reverse diffusion (de-spreading). In the diagram given
below, it can be seen that during the transmission of the data to the narrow band
(Narrow Band) spectrum, the spectrum of the signal is dispread.

Demodulating DS Signals − 2

On the other hand, if you do not know the code that was used at the time of
transmission, you will not be able to demodulate. Here, you are trying to demodulation
in the code of different (10101010) and the time of transmission, but it has failed.

Even looking at the spectrum, it is spreading during the time of transmission. When it
is passed through a band-pass filter (Band Path Filter), only this small signal remains and
these are not demodulated.

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 b) Frequency Hopping Technology

Frequency hopping is a spread spectrum in which the propagation takes place by

hopping in frequency over a wide band. The precise order in which the break occurs is
determined by a hopping table generated by using a pseudo-random code sequence.

Hopping rate is a function of the speed information. The order of frequencies is selected
by the receiver and is dictated by the pseudo-random noise sequence. Although the
transmission of a frequency hopping signal spectrum is quite different from that of a
direct sequence signal, it suffices to note that the data is distributed over a signal band
is larger than necessary to carry. In both the cases, the resulting signal will appear as
noise and the receiver uses a similar technique, which is used in the transmission to
recover the original signal.

IS 95
IS-95 stands for Interim Standard 95 and is also known as CDMAOne. It was the first
ever CDMA-based digital cellular technology and was developed by Qualcomm. It is
an 2G cellular system based on DS-CDMA. To understand IS-95 we need to understand
DS and CDMA separately.
DSSS is Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Technique which is a spread spectrum
technique in which the data to be transmitted is encoded using spreading code and
received and then decoded using the same code. It is used to avoid interference, spying
and jamming. The spreading code used is known to transmitter and receiver only.

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Narrow bandwidth signals are multiplied with a very large bandwidth signals called
Pseudo Noise Code Sequence (PN code). Each user has its own PN code which is
orthogonal to each other. Auto-correlation is maximum and cross-correlation is zero of
these PN codes. They normally repeat themselves after a very large time period and
hence, appears to be random. PN Sequence is generated by Linear Feedback Shift
Register.

Power Control in IS-95:

It solves the Near-far problem in which transmitters at different distances transmits
signal of same power then the power of the signal of Transmitter (nearer to the base
station) will be greater than that of Transmitter (farther to the base station). So in power
control technique transmitter nearer to the base station transmits less power signal that
of the transmitter farther.
It is of two types:

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  Open loop power control:
Transmitter senses the power of the received signal at the base station and then adjusts
its transmitting power accordingly in subsequent transmissions.

 Closed loop power control:

Base station sends the received signal power information to the transmitter and tells to
increment or decrement the transmission power accordingly in subsequent
transmissions.

CDMA VS GSM
Cellular mobile services have been used all over the world for a long time and still
evolving day by day. With these services, various communication services also evolved,
and CDMA and GSM are two of them. CDMA and GSM are the two most important
technology standards that are known for mobile communication. Both the GSM and
CDMA converts the data from the mobile phone into radio waves. But these
technologies are differentiated in the way in which the calls & data transfer takes place
over a network. One of the key differences between CDMA and GSM is that GSM uses
SIM cards to connect a mobile phone with its network, whereas CDMA does not need
any SIM card and operates on ESNs (Electronic Serial Number). In this topic, we will
understand what GSM and CDMA technologies are and how they differentiate from
each other in detail.
GSM and CDMA are the two most popular networking standards for mobile
connectivity. While CDMA is older and now entering a legacy stage, it remains a staple
for specific device variants and geographic regions. GSM is the bedrock of advanced
cellular networks, fuelling the rise of 4G and 5G. This article explains the difference
between CDMA and GSM and their relevance in the IoT era.

Differences Between GSM and CDMA

1. Technology Used

The GSM is based on the wedge spectrum technology, also known as a carrier. This
carrier is split into various time slots on the basis of TDMA technology, and each time
slots are assigned to each user. Due to this, until one outgoing call is finished, no other
user can access that slot. It uses FDMA to provide multiuser access by dividing the user
frequencies.
On the other hand, CDMA uses the spread spectrum technology and hence it makes
optimal use of the available bandwidth. It enables each user to transfer the data over
the entire frequency spectrum at any time.

2. SIM Cards

SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) is a smart card that contains the user identification
information to identify the subscriber on a telephony device. In a GSM-based phone, a

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SIM card is required to make the data or call transmission. These cards can be easily
replaced from one mobile phone to another with saved information.

On the other hand, CDMA based devices do not require a SIM card; instead, it uses
ESN (Electronic Serial Number). Since it does not use a SIM card, hence changing a
device from another is difficult and required a proper procedure.

3. Flexibility

The GSM standard is more flexible as compared to CDMA. It is because, in GSM, the
SIM card can be inserted into any device and can be used. Whereas, CDMA mobile
phone can only be used if ESN is registered in its database.

If a CDMA stops working on a phone, we need to buy the new phone, whereas if a
SIM stops working, we can use another SIM rather than changing the phone.

4. Spectrum frequencies
The GSM works on the frequency spectrum ranging from 850 MHz to 1900 MHz,
whereas CDMA also operates in the frequency range of 850MHz and 1900MHz.

5. Radiation Exposure

In GSM phones, there is 28 times more radiation exposure takes place as compared to
CDMA phones.

GSM phone continuously transmits wave pulses, whereas CDMA phones do not
continuously produce such pulses.

6. Global Reach

GSM is more used globally as compared to CDMA technology. Approx. 80% of the
mobile networks across 210 countries use GSM compared to CDMA. The CDMA-based
mobile phones are mostly used in the US, Canada, and Japan.

7. Security

The CDMA provides more security as compared to GSM technology because it has
inbuilt encryption and uses the spread spectrum for data transmission.

In CDMA, the signal detection is much difficult than in GSM. Hence it is more secure.

8. Data Transfer Rate

The data transfer rate is high in CDMA compared to GSM technology. In CDMA, EVDO
data transfer technology is used, which provides a maximum download speed of 2
Mbps.

On the other hand, GSM uses EDGE data transfer technology that provides a maximum
download speed of 384 Kbps, which is much slower than CDMA.

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Comparison Chart between CDMA and GSM

CDMA GSM

It stands for Code Division Multiple Access It stands for Global System for Mobile
Communication

It uses a CDMA mechanism for data & call It uses TDMA and FDMA mechanism for
transmission data & voice transmission

The transmission rate is fast compared to The transmission rate is slow compared to
GSM CDMA

It uses EVDO data transfer technology It uses EVDO data transfer technology
It is handset specific and does not require It is SIM specific, hence requires a SIM card
any SIM for communication for communication

During transmission, it is much prone to During transmission, it is comparatively less

radiation emission prone to radiation emission

It offers more secure communication It offers less secure communication

compared to GSM compared to CDAM

The signal detection is difficult in CDMA The signal detection is easy in GSM
It provides built-in encryption It requires additional encryption as no built-
in encryption is available

It enables limited roaming It enables worldwide roaming

3G NETWORKS & APPLICATIONS

Third generation mobile phones, or “3G Internet” mobile phones, is a set of standards
for wireless mobile communication systems, that promises to deliver quality multimedia
services along with high quality voice transmission.
Features

 3G systems comply with the International Mobile Telecommunications-2000

(IMT-2000)
 specifications by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).
 The first 3G services were available in 1998.
 It provides high speed transmission having data transfer rate more than 0.2Mbps.
 Global roaming services are available for both voice and data.

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  It offers advanced multimedia access like playing music, viewing videos,
television services etc.
 It provides access to all advanced Internet services, for example surfing webpages
with audio and video.
 It paved the way for the increased usage of smartphones with wide screens as
they provided better viewing of mobile webpages, videos and mobile
televisions.

Specifications for 3G

3G specifications are laid down by two groups, 3GPP and 3GPP2.

 3GPP (Third Generation Partnership Project) − These specifications are based

upon Global System for Mobile (GSM) communications, and are known as
Universal Mobile Telecommunications Systems (UMTS). The technologies
included in it are;
o Universal Terrestrial Radio Access (UTRA)
o General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
o Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE)
 3GPP2 − These specifications are based upon Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA). Two main specifications under this are;
o Wideband CDMA (WCDMA)
o CDMA2000

Areas of Application

 Wireless voice telephony

 Fixed wireless Internet access
 Mobile Internet access
 Video calls
 Mobile TV technologies
 Video-on-demand
 Video conferencing
 Tele-medicine
 Global Positioning System (GPS)
 Location-based services

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 WIRELESS LAN
Wireless LAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network. It is also called LAWN (Local
Area Wireless Network). WLAN is one in which a mobile user can connect to a Local
Area Network (LAN) through a wireless connection.
The IEEE 802.11 group of standards defines the technologies for wireless LANs. For path
sharing, 802.11 standard uses the Ethernet protocol and CSMA/CA (carrier sense
multiple access with collision avoidance). It also uses an encryption method i.e. wired
equivalent privacy algorithm.
Wireless LANs provide high speed data communication in small areas such as building
or an office. WLANs allow users to move around in a confined area while they are still
connected to the network.
In some instance wireless LAN technology is used to save costs and avoid laying cable,
while in other cases, it is the only option for providing high-speed internet access to the
public. Whatever the reason, wireless solutions are popping up everywhere.
Examples of WLANs that are available today are NCR's waveLAN and Motorola's
ALTAIR.

Advantages of WLANs
o Flexibility: Within radio coverage, nodes can communicate without further
restriction. Radio waves can penetrate walls, senders and receivers can be placed
anywhere (also non-visible, e.g., within devices, in walls etc.).
o Planning: Only wireless ad-hoc networks allow for communication without
previous planning, any wired network needs wiring plans.
o Design: Wireless networks allow for the design of independent, small devices
which can for example be put into a pocket. Cables not only restrict users but
also designers of small notepads, PDAs, etc.
o Robustness: Wireless networks can handle disasters, e.g., earthquakes, flood etc.
whereas, networks requiring a wired infrastructure will usually break down
completely in disasters.
o Cost: The cost of installing and maintaining a wireless LAN is on average lower
than the cost of installing and maintaining a traditional wired LAN, for two
reasons. First, after providing wireless access to the wireless network via an access
point for the first user, adding additional users to a network will not increase the
cost. And second, wireless LAN eliminates the direct costs of cabling and the
labor associated with installing and repairing it.
o Ease of Use: Wireless LAN is easy to use and the users need very little new
information to take advantage of WLANs.
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Disadvantages of WLANs
o Quality of Services: Quality of wireless LAN is typically lower than wired
networks. The main reason for this is the lower bandwidth due to limitations is
radio transmission, higher error rates due to interference and higher delay/delay
variation due to extensive error correction and detection mechanisms.
o Proprietary Solutions: Due to slow standardization procedures, many companies
have come up with proprietary solutions offering standardization functionality
plus many enhanced features. Most components today adhere to the basic
standards IEEE 802.11a or 802.11b.
o Restrictions: Several govt. and non-govt. institutions world-wide regulate the
operation and restrict frequencies to minimize interference.
o Global operation: Wireless LAN products are sold in all countries so, national
and international frequency regulations have to be considered.
o Low Power: Devices communicating via a wireless LAN are typically power
consuming, also wireless devices running on battery power. Whereas the LAN
design should take this into account and implement special power saving modes
and power management functions.
o License free operation: LAN operators don't want to apply for a special license
to be able to use the product. The equipment must operate in a license free
band, such as the 2.4 GHz ISM band.
o Robust transmission technology: If wireless LAN uses radio transmission, many
other electrical devices can interfere with them (such as vacuum cleaner, train
engines, hair dryers, etc.). Wireless LAN transceivers cannot be adjusted for
perfect transmission is a standard office or production environment.

IEEE 802.11 WIRELESS LAN STANDARDS

IEEE 802.11 standard, popularly known as WiFi, lays down the architecture and
specifications of wireless LANs (WLANs). WiFi or WLAN uses high frequency radio
waves for connecting the nodes.
There are several standards of IEEE 802.11 WLANs. The prominent among them are
802.11, 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11n and 802.11p. All the standards use carrier-
sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA). Also, they have support for
both centralised base station based as well as ad hoc networks.

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 a) IEEE 802.11
IEEE 802.11 was the original version released in 1997. It provided 1 Mbps or 2 Mbps
data rate in the 2.4 GHz band and used either frequency-hopping spread spectrum
(FHSS) or direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS). It is obsolete now.
b) IEEE 802.11a
802.11a was published in 1999 as a modification to 802.11, with orthogonal frequency
division multiplexing (OFDM) based air interface in physical layer instead of FHSS or
DSSS of 802.11. It provides a maximum data rate of 54 Mbps operating in the 5 GHz
band. Besides it provides error correcting code. As 2.4 GHz band is crowded, relatively
sparsely used 5 GHz imparts additional advantage to 802.11a.
Further amendments to 802.11a are 802.11ac, 802.11ad, 802.11af, 802.11ah, 802.11ai,
802.11aj etc.
c) IEEE 802.11b
802.11b is a direct extension of the original 802.11 standard that appeared in early
2000. It uses the same modulation technique as 802.11, i.e. DSSS and operates in the
2.4 GHz band. It has a higher data rate of 11 Mbps as compared to 2 Mbps of 802.11,
due to which it was rapidly adopted in wireless LANs. However, since 2.4 GHz band is
pretty crowded, 802.11b devices faces interference from other devices.

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Further amendments to 802.11b are 802.11ba, 802.11bb, 802.11bc, 802.11bd and
802.11be.
d) IEEE 802.11g
802.11g was indorsed in 2003. It operates in the 2.4 GHz band (as in 802.11b) and
provides a average throughput of 22 Mbps. It uses OFDM technique (as in 802.11a). It
is fully backward compatible with 802.11b. 802.11g devices also faces interference from
other devices operating in 2.4 GHz band.
e) IEEE 802.11n
802.11n was approved and published in 2009 that operates on both the 2.4 GHz and
the 5 GHz bands. It has variable data rate ranging from 54 Mbps to 600 Mbps. It
provides a marked improvement over previous standards 802.11 by incorporating
multiple-input multiple-output antennas (MIMO antennas).

f) IEEE 802.11p
802.11 is an amendment for including wireless access in vehicular environments (WAVE)
to support Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS). They include network
communications between vehicles moving at high speed and the environment. They
have a data rate of 27 Mbps and operate in 5.9 GHz band.

IEEE 802.11 ARCHITECTURE

The IEEE 802.11 standard, commonly known as Wi-Fi, outlines the architecture and
defines the MAC and physical layer specifications for wireless LANs (WLANs). Wi-Fi uses
high-frequency radio waves instead of cables for connecting the devices in LAN. Given
the mobility of WLAN nodes, they can move unrestricted within the network coverage
zone. The 802.11 structure is designed to accommodate mobile stations that participate
actively in network decisions. Furthermore, it can seamlessly integrate with 2G, 3G, and
4G networks.
The Wi-Fi standard represents a set of wireless LAN standards developed by the
Working Group of IEEE LAN/MAN standards committee (IEEE 802). The term 802.11x
is also used to denote the set of standards. Various specifications and amendments
include 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11e, 802.11g, 802.11n etc.
Important Terminologies of IEEE 802.11 Architecture

Station: Stations (STA) comprise all devices and equipment that are connected to the
wireless LAN. It can be of two types:

 Wireless Access Point (WAP): WAPs or simply access points (AP) are wireless
routers that bridge connections for base stations.
 Client: Examples include computers, laptops, printers, and smartphones.
Access Point: It is a device that can be classified as a station because of its functionalities
and acts as a connection between wireless medium and distributed systems.

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Distribution System: A system used to interconnect a set of BSSs and integrated LANs to
create an ESS.
Frame: It is a MAC protocol data unit.
SSID (Service Set Identifier): It’s the network name for a particular WLAN. All-access
points and devices on a specific WLAN must use the same SSID to communicate.
SDU: It is a data unit that acts as an input to each layer. These can be fragmented or
aggregated to form a PDU.
PDU: It is a data unit projected as an output to communicate with the corresponding
layer at the other end. They contain a header specific to the layer.
Network Interface Controller: It is also known as network interface card. It is a
hardware component that connects devices to the network.
Portal: Serves as a gateway to other networks

IEEE 802.11 Architecture and Services

In the year 1990, IEEE 802.11 Committee formed a new working group, the IEEE 802.11
standard which defines protocols for Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs). Just like
how Ethernet provides services for wired media, IEEE 802.11 architecture is designed to
provide features for wireless networks.
An AP supports both wired and wireless connections. The 802.11 standard calls the
upstream wired network the distribution system (DS). The AP bridges the wireless and
wired L2 Ethernet frames, allowing traffic to flow from the wired to the wireless
network and vice versa. Each wireless network has a unique SSID.
The 802.11 architecture provides some basic services for WLANs whose implementation
is supported by MAC layer:
1. Basic Service Set

The Basic Service Set configuration consists of a group of stations and relies on an Access
Point (AP), which serves as a logical hub. Stations from different BSSs interact through
the AP, which functions as a bridge, linking multiple WLAN cells or channels.
Operating Modes
Depending upon the mode of operation, BSS can be categorized into the following
types:

 Infrastructure BSS: Communication between stations takes place through access

points. The AP and its associated wireless clients define the coverage area and
form the BSS.

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  Independent BSS: Supports mutual communication between wireless clients.
An ad-hoc network is spontaneously created and does not support access to
wired networks.

2. Independent Basic Service Set

In the IBSS configuration, also referred to as independent configuration or ad-hoc

network, no single node is required to act as a server. The stations communicate directly
with one another in a peer-to-peer basis. Generally, IBSS covers a limited area instead
of a large network. Typically covering a specific area, IBSS is used for specific, short-
term purposes with a limited number of nodes.
3. Extended Service Set

ESS connects multiple BSSs and consists of several BSS cells, which can be interlinked
through wired or wireless backbones known as a distributed system. Multiple cells use
the same channel to boost aggregate throughput to network. The equipment outside
of the ESS, the ESS and all of its mobile stations comprise a single MAC layer network

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where all stations are virtually stationary. Thus, all stations within the ESS appear
stationary from an outsider’s perspective.
Other components include:

 Distribution System (DS): Links APs within the ESS.

 Portal: Serves as a gateway to other networks.

 Roaming: In an environment with multiple access points (like a large office

building or campus), a device can move from the range of one AP to another
and still maintain its connection. This is possible due to the underlying
architecture of the IEEE 802.11 standard which allows for roaming between APs.
 Authentication and Association: Before a station can send or receive data frames
on a WLAN, it needs to establish its identity with an AP. This process is called
authentication. After authentication, the station then establishes a data link-layer
connection with the AP through a process called association.

Frame Format of IEEE 802.11

IEEE 802.11 MAC layer data frame consists of 9 fields:

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Frame Control
It is 2 bytes long and defines type of frame and control information. The types of fields
present in FC are:

 Version: Indicates the current protocol version.

 Type: Determines the function of frame i.e. management(00), control(01) or
data(10).
 Subtype: Indicates subtype of frame like 0000 for association request, 1000 for
beacon.
 To DS: When set indicates that the destination frame is for DS(distribution
system).
 From DS: When set indicates frame coming from DS.
 More frag (More fragments): When set to 1 means frame is followed by other
fragments.
 Retry: If the current frame is a re-transmission of an earlier frame, this bit is set
to 1.
 Power Mgmt (Power Management): It indicates the mode of a station after
successful transmission of a frame. Set to ‘1’ field indicates that the station goes
into power-save mode. If the field is set to 0, the station stays active.
 More data: It is used to indicate to the receiver that a sender has more data to
send than the current frame.
 WEP: It indicates that the standard security mechanism of 802.11 is applied.
 Order: If this bit is set to 1 the received frames must be processed in strict order.
Duration / ID

It contains the value indicating the period of time in which the medium is occupied (in
µs).
Address 1 to 4

These fields contain standard IEEE 802 MAC addresses (48 bit each). The meaning of
each address is defined by DS bits in the frame control field.
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SC (Sequence Control)
It consists of 2 sub-fields i.e. sequence number (12 bits) and fragment number (4 bits).
Sequence number is used to filter duplicate frames.
Data

It is a variable length field which contains information specific to individual frames

which is transferred transparently from a sender to the receiver.
CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check)

It contains 32 bit CRC error detection sequence to ensure error free frame.

MOBILE ADHOC NETWORK (MANET)

 A MANET consists of a number of mobile devices that come together to form a

network as needed, without any support from any existing internet infrastructure
or any other kind of fixed stations.
 A MANET can be defined as an autonomous system of nodes or MSs(also serving
as routers) connected by wireless links, the union of which forms a
communication network modeled in the form of an arbitrary communication
graph.
 This is in contrast to the well-known single hop cellular network model that
supports the needs of wireless communication between two mobile nodes relies
on the wired backbone and fixed base stations.
 In a MANET, no such infrastructure exists and network topology may be
changed dynamically in an unpredictable manner since nodes are free to move
and each node has limiting transmitting power, restricting access to the node
only in the neighboring range.
 MANETs are basically peer-to-peer, multi-hop wireless networks in which
information packets are transmitted in a store and forward manner from a source
to an arbitrary destination, via intermediate nodes as given in the figure:

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  As nodes move, the connectivity may change based on relative locations of other
nodes. The resulting change in the network topology known at the local level
must be passed on to other nodes so that old topology information can be
updated.
 For example, as MS2 in the figure changes its point of attachment from MS3 to
MS4, other nodes that are part of the network should use this new route to
forward packets to MS2. In the figure, we assume that it is not possible to have
all nodes within each other's radio range. In case all nodes are closed by within
each other's radio range, there are no routing issues to be addressed.
 In figures raise another issue, that of symmetric and asymmetric (bidirectional)
and asymmetric (unidirectional) links. Consider symmetric links with associative
radio range; for example, if MS1 is within radio range of MS3, then MS3 is also
within radio range of MS1. The communication links are symmetric. This
assumption is not always valid because of differences in transmitting power levels
and the terrain. Routing in asymmetric networks is relatively hard task. In certain
cases, it is possible to find routes that exclude asymmetric links, since it is
cumbersome to find the return path. The issue of efficient is one of the several
challenges encountered in a MANET.
 The other issue is varying the mobility patterns of different nodes. Some other
nodes are highly mobile, while others are primarily stationary. It is difficult to
predict a node's movement and direction of movement and numerous studies
have been performed to evaluate their performance using different simulators.

Characteristics of MANET
Some characteristics of adhoc network are as follows:

 Dynamic topologies: nodes are free to move arbitrarily; thus the network
topology may be changed randomly and unpredictably and primarily consists of
bidirectional links. In some cases where the transmission power of two nodes is
different, a unidirectional link may exist.
 Bandwidth-constrained and variable capacity links: wireless links continue to
have significantly lower capacity than infrastructure networks.
 Energy-constrained operation: some or all of the MSs in a MANET may rely on
batteries or other exhaustible means for their energy. For these nodes or devices,
the most important system design optimization criteria may be energy
conservation.
 Limited physical security: MANETs are generally more prone to physical security
threats than wire line networks. The increased possibility of eavesdropping,
spoofing, and denial of services (DoS) attacks should be considered carefully. To
reduce security threats, many existing link security techniques are often applied
within wireless networks.

Applications of MANET
Some specific applications of ad hoc networks include industrial and commercial
applications involving cooperative mobile data exchange. There are many existing and
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future military networking requirements for robust, IP-compliant data services within
mobile wireless communication networks, with many of these networks consist of
highly dynamic autonomous topology segments. Advanced features of Mobile ad hoc
networks, including data rates compatible with multimedia applications global roaming
capability, and coordination with other network structures are enabling new
applications.

 Defense applications: Many defense applications require on the fly

communications set-up, and ad hoc/sensor networks are excellent candidates for
use in battlefield management.
 Crisis management applications: These arise, for example, as a result of natural
disasters in which the entire communication infrastructure is in disarray.
Restoring communications quickly is essential.
 Telemedicine: The paramedic assisting the victim of a traffic accident in a remote
location must access medical records (e.g. X-rays) and may need video
conference assistance from a surgeon for an emergency intervention. In fact, the
paramedic may need to instantaneously relay back to the hospital the victim's X-
rays and other diagnostic tests from the site of the accident.
 Tele-geoprocessing application: The combination of GPS, GIS (Geographical
Information Systems), and high-capacity wireless mobile systems enables a new
type of application referred to as tele- geo processing.
 Virtual Navigation: A remote database contains the graphical representation of
building, streets, and physical characteristics of a large metropolis. They may also
"virtually" see the internal layout of buildings, including an emergency rescue
plan, or find possible points of interest.
 Education via the internet: Educational opportunities available on the internet
or remote areas because of the economic infeasibility of providing expensive
last-mile wire line internet access in these areas to all subscribers.
 Vehicular area network: This a growing and very useful application of adhoc
network in providing emergency services and other information. This is equally
effective in both urban and rural setup. The basic and exchange necessary data
that is beneficial in a given situation.

WIRELESS LAN SECURITY

Wireless Network provides various comfort to end users but actually they are very
complex in their working. There are many protocols and technologies working behind
to provide a stable connection to users. Data packets traveling through wire provide a
sense of security to users as data traveling through wire probably not heard by
eavesdroppers.
To secure the wireless connection, we should focus on the following areas –

 Identify endpoint of wireless network and end-users i.e., Authentication.

 Protecting wireless data packets from middleman i.e., Privacy.
 Keeping the wireless data packets intact i.e., Integrity.

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We know that wireless clients form an association with Access Points (AP) and transmit
data back and forth over the air. As long as all wireless devices follow 802.11 standards,
they all coexist. But all wireless devices are not friendly and trustworthy, some rogue
devices may be a threat to wireless security. Rogue devices can steal our important data
or can cause the unavailability of the network.
Wireless security is ensured by following methods-

 Authentication
 Privacy and Integrity
There are broadly two types of Authentication process: Wired Equivalent Privacy
(WEP), and Extensible Authentication Protocol (802.1x/EAP).
These are explained as following below.
a) Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)
For wireless data transmitting over the air, open authentication provides no security.
WEP uses the RC4 cipher algorithm for making every frame encrypted. The RC4 cipher
also encrypts data at the sender side and decrypt data at the receiving site, using a string
of bits as key called WEP key.
WEP key can be used as an authentication method or encryption tool. A client can
associate with AP only if it has the correct WEP key. AP tests the knowledge of the WEP
key by using a challenge phrase. The client encrypts the phrase with his own key and
send back to AP. AP compares the received encrypted frame with his own encrypted
phrase. If both matches, access to the association is granted.

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 b) Extensible Authentication Protocol (802.1x/EAP)
In WEP authentication, authentication of the wireless clients takes place locally at
AP. But Scenario gets changed with 802.1x. A dedicated authentication server is
added to the infrastructure. There is the participation of three devices;
 Supplicant –
Device requesting access.
 Authenticator –
Device that provides access to network usually a Wlan controller (WLC).
 Authentication Server –
Device that takes client credentials and deny or grant access.

EAP is further of four types with some amendments over each other –
 LEAP
 EAP-FAST
 PEAP
 EAP-TLS

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WIFI AND 3G TECHNOLOGY

Both WiFi and 3G technology are wireless technologies that are widely used to send
and receive data wirelessly. WiFi is for high-speed Internet access that connects nearby
devices with each other and share the Internet via hotspots, whereas 3G technology is
a set of standards for wireless mobile communication systems.
Go through this article to find out more about the features of WiFi and 3G technology
and how they are different from each other.

Features of WiFi
WiFi is used in Local Area Networks (LAN). Here are some of its important features −

 WiFi transmits the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz radio frequencies data, which is more
secure and bigger than the 3G networks.
 WiFi technology is not so expensive.
 You can easily install WiFi on any computer or any other electronic device by
introducing LAN on any computer with a wireless adapter.
 WiFi can also be used to connect gaming consoles, printers, laptops, and other
such devices.
 WiFi networks have signal reach for about 300+ feet; therefore, they are best
for indoor use.

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Features of 3G Technology
 3G systems comply with the International Mobile Telecommunications-2000
(IMT-2000).
 It provides high-speed transmission having data transfer rate more than 0.2
Mbps.
 Global roaming services are available for both voice and data.
 It offers advanced multimedia access like playing music, viewing videos,
television services, etc.
 It provides access to all advanced Internet services, for example, surfing
webpages with audio and video.
 3G technology paved the way for the increased usage of smartphones with wide
screens as they provided better viewing of mobile webpages, videos and mobile
televisions.
Difference Between Wifi & 3G Technology
The following table highlights the major differences between WiFi and 3G technology.

WIFI 3G TECHNOLOGY
The WiFi router supervises WiFi access. The service provider controls the 3G
network.
It delivers the speed from 11 Mbps to 3G delivers the speed from 40 kbps to
55 Mbps. 70 kbps.
It is less costly when it comes to 3G Technology is more expensive.
consumption than that of 3G
Technology.
It is for LAN-established applications. It is for WAN-established applications.
It transfers the data at 2.4 GHz and It transfers the data at low frequencies
5GHz radio frequencies. that are from 850 MHz to 1900 MHz.
WiFi frequencies are faster and secured.The frequencies of 3G networks are less
secured.
By fixing a wireless LAN on any The conveyor companies install the 3G
computer with a wireless clamp, WiFi is connection.
easily fixed.
It is less dependable than 3G. It is more dependable than WiFi.
Frequently you do not have to pay to You have to pay to enjoy the 3G
use the WiFi network. services.
The use of WiFi technology has been 4G networks have replaced the 3G
widely popular. networks at present.

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 INTERNETWORKING IN COMPUTER NETWORK
In real world scenario, networks under same administration are generally scattered
geographically. There may exist requirement of connecting two different networks of
same kind as well as of different kinds. Routing between two networks is called
internetworking.
Networks can be considered different based on various parameters such as, Protocol,
topology, Layer-2 network and addressing scheme.
In internetworking, routers have knowledge of each other’s address and addresses
beyond them. They can be statically configured go on different network or they can
learn by using internetworking routing protocol.

Routing protocols which are used within an organization or administration are called
Interior Gateway Protocols or IGP. RIP, OSPF are examples of IGP. Routing between
different organizations or administrations may have Exterior Gateway Protocol, and
there is only one EGP i.e. Border Gateway Protocol.

Fundamentals of Call Processing

Call processing in internetworking networks involves several key components and steps
that ensure the successful initiation, management, and termination of communication
sessions. Here are the fundamental concepts and processes involved:
i. Call Signaling
Call signaling is the exchange of information between the network elements to establish,
control, and terminate a call. Common protocols used for call signaling include:

 SIP (Session Initiation Protocol): A widely used protocol for initiating,

maintaining, and terminating real-time sessions that involve video, voice,
messaging, and other communications applications and services.
 H.323: A protocol suite for voice, video, and data communications over packet-
switched networks.

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  SS7 (Signaling System No. 7): A set of telephony signaling protocols used to set
up and tear down telephone calls, manage mobile services, and perform billing.
ii. Call Routing
Call routing determines the path that a call will take through the network. It involves:

 Route selection: Based on criteria like the destination address, network policies,
and available resources.
 Number translation: Converting phone numbers into a format that the network
can understand and use for routing.
iii. Call Setup
Call setup involves the following steps:

 Call Initiation: The caller's device sends a call request to its network.
 Signal Exchange: Signaling messages are exchanged between the caller’s network
and the receiver’s network.
 Resource Allocation: Network resources (like bandwidth) are allocated to
handle the call.
 Alerting: The receiver’s device is alerted to the incoming call.
iv. Call Management
Call management includes maintaining the call state and quality during the session. It
involves:

 Quality of Service (QoS): Ensuring that the call meets certain quality parameters
like minimal delay, jitter, and packet loss.
 Session Control: Monitoring and managing the call session to handle events like
hold, transfer, or conference calls.
v. Call Termination
Call termination involves the steps needed to end a call. This includes:

 Signaling Exchange: Sending and receiving termination messages.

 Resource Release: Releasing the network resources allocated for the call.
 Call Logging: Recording details about the call for billing and analytics.
vi. Interworking
Interworking is the process that enables communication between different types of
networks, such as:

 PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network) and IP Networks: Converting

signals between traditional circuit-switched networks and packet-switched
networks.
 Different Protocols: Translating signaling and media streams between different
protocols like SIP, H.323, and SS7.

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 vii. Media Handling
Media handling involves the transmission and reception of the actual voice, video, or
data content. Key aspects include:

 Codec Selection: Choosing the appropriate codec for encoding and decoding
media streams.
 Media Transport: Using protocols like RTP (Real-Time Protocol) for delivering
media streams over the network.
viii. Security
Security measures ensure that the call and its data are protected from unauthorized
access and attacks. This includes:

 Encryption: Using protocols like SRTP (Secure Real-Time Protocol) to encrypt

media streams.
 Authentication and Authorization: Verifying the identities of the participants and
ensuring they have the right to make or receive the call.
ix. Billing and Charging
Billing and charging mechanisms track the usage of network resources and services to
generate invoices for users. This involves:

 Call Detail Records (CDRs): Collecting and processing data about each call for
billing purposes.
 Real-time Charging: Implementing real-time systems to handle prepaid services.

INTELLIGENT NETWORKS
The intelligent network (IN) is a networking standard (ITU-T Q.1200 series) developed
to attach with all types of mobile telecom systems. Several value-added services are
provisioned via the IN scheme in the end mobile devices by the mobile operators
around the world.
Main intelligence of the network lies on the mobile nodes located at the service layer.
Thus, is different than conventional network where mobile nodes are assigned at the
switching layer. The implied IN-based nodes are mainly owned and managed by the
mobile operators which is supported by the Signalling System #7 (SS7) protocol. SS&
protocol helps to integrated IN-based nodes to communicate with switching centers
that further talk with other mobile operator systems [255–258]. A number of services
may be provisioned with help from IN supported systems for example, call screening,
call queuing, mass calling, private number call facility, home area discount scheme, and
call distribution.

SIGNALLING SYSTEM #7 (SS7)

Signalling System #7 (SS7), also known as C7 in Europe, is a critical component of
modern telecommunications systems. Despite the upcoming migration to IP networks
and evolution to IP-centric architectures such as the IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS), it
remains the glue that binds all telecommunication networks together. It is a
communications protocol that provides signalling and control for various network
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services and capabilities. Being a layered protocol, SS7 provides various protocol levels
for connection oriented and connection less (database) signalling in fixed and mobile
networks.
SS7 is a specific protocol utilized for inter-system signalling. Stated differently, SS7
defines a set of parameters for messaging between telecommunications “nodes”. This
signalling process takes place over telecommunications facilities called “links”. The SS7
messages traverse the links between two or more nodes, enabling data communications
between and among the system.

SS7 ARCHITECTURE
There are four major types of telecommunications nodes important to SS7:
i. Service Switching Point (SSP)
A telecommunications switch that contains the control logic (software) necessary to
send/receive SS7 messages to other nodes in the network. Telecommunications switches
that cannot send/receive SS7 messages are referred to as a Switching Point (SP). An SP
must interface directly to an SSP (on a one-to-one relationship) in order to access SS7-
based services.
ii. Signal Transfer Point (STP
This is the “heart” of the SS7 network. Think of the STP as an electronic “post office”.
While all that the STP does is route messages from point A to point B in the network,
the network would be lost without it. The routing of messages follows a scheme that
we will discuss later in this section. STPs are ALWAYS provided in mated pairs. STPs
operate in what is called “load sharing mode”. This means that, at any given time, each
STP should be processing 40% of the total signal-processing load. In the event of an
STP and/or link(s) failure, the network is designed to change over to the remaining STP
so that it can continue to operate at 80% load.
iii. Service Control Point (SCP)
This is the “brain” of the SS7 network. The SCP is nothing more than a database.
However, utilization of an SCP offers profound enhancements for service delivery and
network control. Service logic may be placed in the SCP (rather than the switch),
creating the impetus for many improvements such as rapid feature deployment, mass
customization of features, and improved utilization of switch resources. SCPs are almost
always deployed in a “mated pair” configuration. This designed redundancy makes
allowance for a back-up SCP should the other go out of service for some reason. Some
non-call affecting, or otherwise non-critical, functions may be served by a single SCP.
iv. Service Node (SN):
Includes database functionality of the SCP along with additional capabilities such as
voice interaction and control of voice resources. Generally speaking, SCPs work well
with requirements that call for voluminous data transactions. SNs, on the other hand,
are typically not designed for high volume data processing. Instead, SNs are best suited
for special circumstance call processing involving voice resources and/or interaction.

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 TECHNOLOGIES AND INTERFACES OF IN
IN networks use various technologies and interfaces to offer services such as call
forwarding, toll-free numbers, prepaid calling, and more. Here are the key technologies
and interfaces involved in Intelligent Networks:

Interfaces
 INAP (Intelligent Network Application Protocol)
INAP is the primary protocol used in Intelligent Networks to facilitate communication
between SSPs and SCPs. It defines the messages and procedures for service control and
interaction.

 CAMEL (Customized Applications for Mobile network Enhanced Logic)

CAMEL is a standard for implementing IN services in mobile networks. It allows mobile
operators to offer advanced services such as prepaid roaming and personalized call
routing.

 MAP (Mobile Application Part)

MAP is part of the SS7 protocol suite and is used in mobile networks to enable services
such as roaming, SMS, and authentication. It supports communication between mobile
network elements and IN components.

 ISUP (ISDN User Part)

ISUP is a part of the SS7 protocol that deals with setting up, managing, and releasing
trunk circuits that carry voice and data calls in the PSTN. It is crucial for the integration
of IN services with traditional telephony.

Technologies Supporting IN
 Database Technologies
IN relies heavily on databases to store service logic, subscriber information, and call
records. Databases must be highly available and capable of handling large volumes of
transactions.

 Virtualization
Virtualization technologies allow multiple virtual instances of network elements like
SCPs and SSPs to run on shared physical hardware, improving resource utilization and
scalability.

 Cloud Computing
Cloud computing offers a flexible and scalable environment for deploying IN services.
It enables rapid service creation, deployment, and management while reducing
infrastructure costs.

 Web Services and APIs

Web services and APIs enable integration of IN services with other applications and
platforms, facilitating the creation of new and innovative services. RESTful and SOAP
APIs are commonly used for this purpose.

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  Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML)
AI and ML can be used to enhance IN services by providing advanced capabilities such
as predictive maintenance, customer behavior analysis, and automated service
personalization.

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