CHAPTER 1

MATHEMETICAL TOOLS
Section 1: Vectors
Electric and fields are described using the language of vectors.
We will now embark on a study of vectors. This will include basic definition of vectors, vector
algebra (such as adding, subtracting and multiplying), vector differentiation and integration.

1.1 Vectors in rectangular coordinates

Recall from high school physics that a vector is physical quantity that has magnitude and a
direction. Example of vectors are velocity, acceleration, force to name a few. A vector can be
represented geometrically as an arrow, where the length of the arrow represents the magnitude
and direction of the arrow gives the direction of the physical quantity.

We can add vectors, say A and B, geometrically by placing the tail of vector B at the head of
vector A and the resultant will be the vector from the tail of the first vector A to the head of the
second vector B, as shown below. The drawing must be done to scale for this to be correct.

B
A B A
+ =
R

If we place a system of axes, such as a x-y axes, in the above diagrams, then we can break up
each vector into its x component and y component as shown below for vector A.
 A

Then we can also represent vector A using a pair of number (Ax, Ay).
The idea of using pairs of numbers to locate points in the plane was first spelled out in mid
seventeen hundreds. It was recognised that is associated with vector in 2 dimensional
planes and is associated vector in dimensional plane. The number of
component of a vector represents the vector space of that vector and is indicated by symbol
for vector in two dimensional spaces and for the vector having components.

In three dimension we need three axes; x, y and z axes and three coordinates are used to
represent vectors in 3D. The diagram below shows the position of a particle or object in 3D
The position vector in vector space can be denoted as follows:

Where is the vector along the x axis of length x, etc.

Vectors can also be denoted as row matrices or column matrices. The position vector r can be
denoted as

or

NB symbolically vectors will be denoted with an arrow or a bar over the symbol, alternatively
bold face letters are used in printed text. Leaving out the arrow or bar means the symbol
represents a scalar quantity.

1.1.1 The magnitude of a vector

The size of a vector is also known as the length or the norm of a vector. For vector
in space

and for any vector in the magnitude is given by

1.1.2 Unit vector

A unit vector is vector of magnitude one. A unit vector that lies along the coordinates axes are
given special names (see diagram below).
 is a unit vector that lies along the x axis.
is a unit vector that lies along the y axis.
is a unit vector that lies along the z axis.
We will also use the following notation for unit vectors
is a unit vector that lies along the x axis.
is a unit vector that lies along the y axis.
is a unit vector that lies along the z axis.

Or in cylindrical coordinates

is a unit vector in th direction.

is a unit vector in the z direction.

In spherical coordinates
is a unit vector in the r direction.

is a unit vector direction.

is a unit vector that lies along the vector

Please note that the text for electromagnetism uses the symbol bold face a with a suitable
subscript to denote unit vectors as follows:
is a unit vector that lies along the x axis.
is a unit vector that lies along the y axis.
is a unit vector that lies along the z axis.
is a unit vector that lies along the vector
The subscript denotes along which direction the unit vector points.

In hand written text you are required to insert an upside down V on all unit vectors to clearly
distinguish them from other vectors.

Then the position vector can be represented as:

Unit vector along an arbitrary vector can be formed by dividing that vector by its magnitude.

Example:
If , the unit vector along vector is given by

1.1.3 Operation on vectors

If then:
i.
ii.
iii.

1.1.5 Vector between two points

Vector having the initial point at and terminal point at is denoted as
 z

x y

From the figure points and represent vectors

respectively. And the vector between the two
points is

3.1.6 Angle between a vector and coordinate axis

Since the coordinate axis is a adjacent side if each angle is determined by the cosine ratio. Let
are angles between the vector and the coordinates axis
respectively, then

Exercises 3.1

1. What are the position vectors for the point .

2. The position vectors of point are given by

. Determine and its magnitude.

3. If r1 2x y z , r2 x 3 y 2 z, r3 2x y 3z and r4 3x 2 y 5 z .
Find the scalars such that .

4. Find the unit vector parallel to the resultant (sum) of vectors

.
 5. Prove that the vectors
can form side of triangle.

6. Show that where are angles between the

vector makes with the positive coordinate axis

7. Given the scalar field defined by . Find

a. b. c. .

1.2 Vector products

3.2.1 The dot or scalar product.

If and then
the dot product of two vectors and , denoted by is define by

It can also be calculated using

The dot product obeys the following rules:

i.
ii.
iii. where m is a scalar number
vi.

v. If and and are not zero then

3.2.2. Cross or vector products

If and then the cross product is represented by the
symbol and is given by:

The result of the cross product is another vector. The magnitude of the cross is given by
where is the smaller angle between A and B with the tails of A
and B touching.
The magnitude of is the same as the area of a parallelogram with side .

From the diagram above: Area=

Note that the area of any triangle is

The following laws are valid for cross product:

i.

ii.

iii. where is a scalar

iv.

3.2.3. Triple products

If , , and then

The value is a scalar and it represents the volume of triangular pipe having as edges.

If A B C 0 , implies that and are not edge of the triangular pipe.

In short form

and
The product is also a vector.

1.2.4 Projection of a vector on a vector

This is a product of a vector and the unit vector of vector.

Example:
To find the projection vector of vector on the vector
, we need to calculate the unit vector in the direction of vector i.e

then find the dot product of which represent the projection of vector on

vector .
Exercises 3.2

1. If : i. ii. iii. iv.

v. .

2. Find the acute angle between:

i.
ii. .

3. For which values of are the following vectors perpendicular to each other.

i.
ii. .

4. Show that the vectors:

form a right angled triangle.

5. Find the angle which the vector makes with the coordinate axis.

6. If
determine i. A B ii.

iii. .

7. If
find:
i. ii. iii.
iv. v. vii.
 8. Prove that the area of a parallelogram with sides is

9. Find the project of on the vector ,

3.3. Vector differentiation

The ordinary derivatives and partial derivatives of vector follow the rules of elementary
calculus. For example:

3.3.1. Differentiation formula

i.

ii.

iii.

iv.

v.

vi.

where are the vector functions of scalar and is a scalar function of

3.3.2 Partial differentiation formula

If are vector functions depending on more than one scalar variable say
.

i.

ii.

iii.

iv. , ,

v.

Examples:
1. If and find a.
b.
Solutions

a.

b.

2. If

find i. ii iii. iv. v. vi.

Solutions:

i.

ii.

iii.

iv.

v.

vi.
Exercises 3.3

1. If find a) b) c) d)

at .

2. If and find a)

b) . c) d) at .

4. If find a) b) c) d)

e) .
2
5. If and , find AX B at .
x y

6. If and are constant vectors and is a constant scalar, show that

satisfies the partial differential equation .

3.4 Gradient, divergence, curl and laplacian

3.4.1 Gradient

It is a vector differential operator, which is denoted by and is define by following

equation: .

Examples:
a. If is a scalar field, then the gradient of in vector form is given by

Example 1 (Scalar field)

If , find at point
Solution:
 3.4.2 Divergence

It is the dot product of differential operator and a vector.

Examples:
a. If is a vector then the divergence of V is given by:

7.4.2 Curl

It is a cross product of differential operator and the vector or complex function.

Examples:
a. If is a vector, then the curl or rotation of is given by

3.4.3 Laplacian

It is the dot product of two differential operators (

Exercises 3.4

1. Find if i) ii) .

2. Show that .

3. If and determine the angle between and

at point .
6. lf A = xz3 i - 2x2 yzi + 2yz4 2 find
i. Y. A ii. Y xi at the point (1,-f1).

Different coordinate systems

Rectangular or Cartesian coordinate system
So far we have been using the rectangular or Cartesian coordinate system. This system is
characterised by three axes which are orthogonal ( or at right angles) to each other and has unit
vectors i, jt and 2 directed along the x, y and z axes, respectively.
The position vector in this system is denoted by
i=xi+yy+22

An elemental area in Cartesian system is dA = dxdy in the xy-plane or dA = dxdz in the xz-
plane etc.

,, JA = d*)') z )h )o )z

{ t.rg d, J-

l
l.)I H
); d*
{
L

An elemental volume element is given by dV = dxdydz

dV= d,.dt d-

q
)
Cylindrical coordinates
Consider a point P which has rectangular coordinates (x,y,z) as shown below.

rl

3
----+
o
I
The point P has position vector Cartesian coordinates given by
7=xi+1$t+22
From the diagram the point P can also be represented by (p,0,r) and we can use a set of unit
vectors as follows:
pis aunit vector in the direction of perpendicular line from the z axis to P, along p
$ i, aunit vector in the direction perpendicular to the line labelled p andpoints in the
direction of increasingangle Q
2 is a unit vector in the direction of the z axis

Thus in cylindrical coordinates the position vector for the point P is

7:pp+22
Note that the unit vector directions will change as we move to different points.
Wecanalsoexpresstheunitvectors p, $and 2intermsoftheunitvectors i, iand 2 as
follows:
b=cosfr+sin4lt
0=*sinfu+cosS,
And 2 stays the same.

If we keep p constant but vary z and / by small amounts we get the elemental area as shown
and dA= dMz
 dA= 9dda-
gr){

Or if we keep Qconstant but vary p and /by small amounts we get the elemental area as
shown and dA= dNz

J1 dt = dY d'

Y(,
I

,/
A volume element is
dr = NNMz (a:)dd.
d,t,
)3
ils,.

gdo
 Plane Polar coordinates

A special case of cylindrical coordinates is the plane polar coordinates in the xy-plane
From the diagram the point P can also be represented by (r,0) and we can use a set of unit
vectors as follows:
i is a unit vector in the direction of the vector /
0 it uunit vector in the direction perpendicular to the vector y'
and points in the direction of increasing angle 0 AI
r

7 =ri
An elemental area is
dA dre rdrd9
.drdE
5

d(
Spherical coordinates
Consider a point P which has rectangular coordinates (x,y,z) as shown below'
z
2
(n c.si
!+ ;
\ C$fitno ---+---*- 2
.g ZF\y' 4rn g
g,^d 3vg
Co, &
- 2*.
Ld 4
- 5rn9
i 2c

f
The point P has position vector Cartesian coordinates given by
7=xi+y)+22
From the diagram the point P can also be represented by (r,0,Q) and we can use a set of unit
vectors as follows:
I is a unit vector in the direction of perpendicular line from the z axis to P, along p
0 it uunit vector in the direction perpendicular I and points in the direction of increasing
angled', r",'""s'nt"t rJtl-ol' -"i c' 'i i'e tl rv'(

$ ,t uunit vector in the direction perpendicular i and points in the direction of

increasing
angle /, measured with respect to the {axis

Thus in cylindrical coordinates the position vector for the point P is

r =rr
Note that the unit vector directions will change as we move to different points.
Wecanalsoexpresstheunitvectors i,7and f irt..-toftheunitvectors i, i and 2 as

follows:
+ ( aso z-1
r= $nO Co5'PL + Srno 8,n4 {
g,nOQ
@: ae5 g Co) fa- t Lt>$e E'" {t -
t_
Y. -1rn$ a + co<+ t
A surface element on the surface of radius r is dA = r'd%d

fJe
,/ d A' ,28,n g- c) I d I

de
f,r'
(
g rl

r ltn& I

rg,"gl/

A volume element is
dV = 12 sin*drd%Q
Digression
Consider a function / (x) which depends only on one variable. Let f have a value ./'(x) at a
point x, and we examine the change in.f, denote bV d|, as we increment x by a small amount
dx.

{4

)t ia4
fd*
I

From the drawing. assuming tl-re c/x is very small. then u'e can approximate the cun'e
between r and x iclx b1, a straight line and the change in / using Pvtl-ragarus is
d/ = srudientxdx

=( {\u'
\a./
Norv lve can generalize the above fbr a function of trvo variables / (x.l') as encluire holi-
does./ change rvhen lve increment x and l, by small amounts

dt ::(L\r,.(41)r,
\rlrl \Ay)"
Norv the position vector in rectangular coordinates is
i=.ri+1,i+22
And a srnall change in the position vector is then given b1,
/ u'',-\ / ,-\
!L\d, l;,'* [ lLl,t
(,/.r/ *l\,1:)'\,1--J
Ji ==[
And using the product and sum rules lbr difl'erentiation u,e get.
dr= d.r.i + d;i + d:i
We rvill be needing this rvher-r u,e do r,'ector integration.

Similar in c,vlindrical coordinates

7:pp+22

And a small charrge in the position vector is

/ -\ / .- \
ttr ==[ !_];,t,, *l Llaa *[ !L\,t=
\,lp)' \,bQ)'\,1:)-
,li = rlpi"+ pl +
( ,ta.t
l,lrlt + tlzu substituting tbr p: cosd + sinfr'
\rtQ )
tti = ttpi't + p(- singlr + cos4t1')a$ + az|
 tti =rlpb+ gtg$+dzi

In a similar fashion we can show that in spherical coordinates

7=ri
And
di = rlri + rd00 + r sin&\Q$

Double aqd triple Integration

Double integral in Cartesian coordinates are of the form

t sat = ll sa.at
Where g may be a function of one, two or three variables, and dA is anelemental area.

Consider the familiar single integral'i FfnO*. We know that this gives the area under the
xl

curve.f(x) between xt and xz Let's evaluate the area under the curve between xr and x2 using a
different approach by using a double integral.

Let's divide the x axis in N segments Ar = "' -,*'wide. Consider the vertical strip of width
t/
Ax M segments Ay wide and consider an
at some x. Similarly let's divide the y axis in
elemental arca M = LxLy as shown. If we make N and M extremely large the A,v becomes dx
and Ay becomes dy and the incremental area becomes dA:dxdy. Then the area of the vertical
strip located at x is
.r'= l (,r )

1,1r,1*
-'/ ---'
J
0

where we integrate from y:0 to some value y=f(x).

And then we integrate the above from xr to xz
I -l '
er. rt=/(t)
dvdx
J.r, Jo
This is a double integral but with the function g:l

Let's apply the above to two cases: consider./[x):a, which a constant, and xr:0 and xz:b as
shown below.

la
It+ld*
El [d:
l1
x_
Then clearly fiom basic geometry the area under the curve rs area:ab. Let's do it using the
double integral above

lJ:="
or* = l{!;=" ory- = l,'(rtiW =l,o,oa* =axll= 66
We get the correct answer fbr the area.

As a second example consider the function shown below.

{= /o
h
,/

k^ ,Uy

--+
: L r undthe
Here l (x),h area under the curve from x:0 to x:b is

='"'=l' =i'rr)r,
L'f ,rr*= [ (f = f [, ri')r,, :1,i,,'l-r-:lr'tr,,= lnn
Which is the area of the triangle. .

Double integrals in other coordinates is similar except instead of dx dy we will have rdrd9 tn
plane polaror dpdz or NNf etc in other coordinates etc. and the integration limits will be in
terms of the variables used in each case.
So, tbr example. lets rvork out the area o{ a circle of radius R using plane polar coordinates.

lrde /^

Wi R r

5
ln plane polar the element area is
dA: rdrd9 and r runs from 0 to R. and 0 runs from 0 to 2n. Thus
Triple integrals
These are volume integral of the form
in rectangular coordinates,

in cylindrical

in cylindrical

We evaluate these in a similar fashion as we did for double integrals.

NB: It is important to note that sometimes the order of integration matters when the upper
and/or lower limits depends on other variables like for the case of integrating the linear
function in the double integral case.
Vector integration
In the remainder of these notes we will deal with vector integration in Cartesian coordinates.

3.5.1 Ordinary integration of vectors

We consider the standard integration of vector depending on a single variable (u). Let
is a vector on one variable and continuous in a specific
interval. Then
represents the indefinite integral of

where . The definite integral of between the

limit and is

Example 1

If find a. b.

Solution

a.

b.

Exercise 3.5.1

1. If , find a) b)

2. Evaluate,

3. If and , evaluate

a) b)

4. If A (t ) ti 3j 2tk ; and evaluate

a) b)

3.5.2 Line integral of vectors

Is the integration of the component of along
, which is the specific path (parametric equations, curve or line) between points and
 of the vector plane. The general integral formula is given by

where

Example 2
Find the work done in moving the electron in a force field given by
along the parametric form , and from
to .
Solution

Example 3
If evaluate from to follow the

path from to then to and to

Solution
Along the line:
i. From to
while varies from to then

ii. From to
while varies from to then

iii. From to
while varies from to then
Example 4

If evaluate where is the curve in the -plane, from

to .
Solution
Since the integration is performed in the -plane, and then

Let then and the point from to correspond to to

Exercise 3.5.2

Find if:

and is the curve .

2. and is the semicircle given by .

3. and is the curve

4. and is the curve

.

5. and is the curve

6. Find the work done by the force acting on a particle

that moves along the path .

3.5.3 Surface integrals of vector function

If the surface has a nonzero normal vector at a point , then there are two opposite
directed unit normal vectors at that point. These vectors are described by various names,
depending on the signs of their components ( ). For example, if the unit normal
vector has positive component, then points roughly in the upwards direction and is
called an upwards unit normal vector. If has a negative component, then points
roughly downwards and called a downward unit normal vector.
For example vector is normal to the surface , then is an upward
unit normal because it has a positive component, left unit normal because it has a negative
j , and a forward unit normal because it has positive .
To compute the unit normal to the surface , given by the equation , we first
rewrite the equation as which is level the surface for the function

is the normal to the surface .To obtain a unit normal vector, we must normalize the gradient

It follows that

is the unit vector to the surface at point , and is the upward unit normal because
is positive. To find the downward unit normal, we multiply the above equation by .
This yield the equation for the downward unit normal as

For the surface in the form of the unit normal vector are obtain by
normalizing the gradient of the function respectively.
3.5.3.1 The unit normalize functions

3.5.3.1.1 Equation of the surface

Upward unit normal

Downward unit normal

3.5.3.1.2 Equation for the surface

Right unit normal
Left unit normal

3.5.3.1.3 Equation of the surface

Forward unit normal

Backward unit normal

Example 5
Find the unit normal vector at point to

Solution

Make the subject of the formula for which we obtain

and

Since it is the forward unit normal

3.5.3.2. Surface integrals

Definition
If has continuous components on the oriented
surface , and if is the unit normal vector on the orientation at , then

is called the flux integral of F over or the surface integral of F over or the surface
integral of the normal component of F over .

Evaluating Surface Integrals

The following formulae are used:
a. Upward normal

b. Downward normal

c. Right normal

d. Left normal

e. Forward normal

f. Backward normal

where is the small area in the region of integration

Example 6
Let be the portion of the surface above the -plane oriented upward
normal,and let . Evaluate

Solution
The upward unit normal to surface is given by
 ; and

Therefore

where is the region in the figure above.

By using polar coordinates to evaluate the integral [ where and ]

where if .

Exercise 3.5.3.2
Evaluate if:

1. , is the portion of the surface above the

oriented by the upward normals.
2. , is the portion of the surface
in the first octant oriented by unit normals with positive
components.
3. , is the upper hemisphere z 1 x 2 y 2 oriented by the
upward unit normals.
4. , is the portion of the surface in the
first octant oriented by unit normal with positive component.
5. , is the upper hemisphere oriented by
the upward unit normal.
6. , is the portion of the cone below the
oriented by the upward unit normal.
7. , is the portion of the surface between
the plane and , oriented by the upward unit normals.
8. , is the portion of the paraboloid below the plane
oriented by the downward unit normal.
9. , is the portion of the paraboloid below the plane
oriented by the downward unit normal.
10. , is the portion of the cylinder between the
plane and , oriented by the outward unit normals.
11. , is the sphere oriented by the
outward unit normal.

3.5.3.3 The divergence theorem

We look at the integral involve the divergence of the vector force.
In real application: is called a flow field for the fluid motion
The velocity of the fluid does not vary with time (steady flow)
The density is constant throughout
is called the flux of across

Divergence theorem
Let be a solid with surface oriented on the outward unit normals. If
where have continuous first partial derivatives on some open set contain , then
.

Example 7
Let be the cube in the first octant as shown in figure below
and let be its surface. Use the divergence theorem to evaluate where

and is the outward unit normal.

Solution

Example 8
Let be the solid bounded above by the hemisphere and below by the
plane as shown in the figure below. Find where

, is the surface of , is the outward normal.

Solution
By using spherical coordinate and and

Exercise 3.5.3.3
Use the divergence theorem to evaluate , where is the outer unit normal.

1. , is a hemisphere above the x-y plane.

[Ans: ]
2. , is the surface of the cube bounded by the coordinate planes
and the plane . [Ans: 8]
3. , is the surface of the cylindrical solid
bounded by and z=0 and z=1. [Ans: ]
4. , is the surface of the solid bounded by the paraboloid

and the x-y plane. [Ans: ]

5. , is the surface of the cylindrical solid bounded by

6. , is the surface of the solid

bounded by and the plane.

7. , is the surface of the solid bounded by
.
We consider the integration involve the curl of the vector.

Let be an oriented surface, bounded by curve . If the component of

, have continuous first partial derivatives on
some open set containing , then

where the line integral is taken in the direction of .

Example 9

is the portion of the paraboloid for which

and

Solution

LHS
By using parametric equation

Or

Since , it follows that

Thus
RHS

By using polar coordinate where and

Therefore

Example 10
Let be the rectangle in the plane as shown in the figure below; and let
. Find

Solution
Exercise 3.5.3.4

1. , is the triangle in the plane with vertices

with counterclockwise orientation looking down the

positive
2. , is the intersection of the paraboloid and the
plane with a counterclockwise orientation looking down the positive

3. , is the triangle in the plane with vertices

with counterclockwise orientation looking from the first
octant toward the origin.
4. , is the circle in the
with counterclockwise orientation looking down the positive
5. , is the intersection of a sphere
and the cone with counter clockwise orientation
looking downward the positive .

6. , is the portion of a plane in the

first octant.
7. , is the portion of the cone below the
plane
8. , is the upper hemisphere .
9. , is the portion of the paraboloid
above the xy plane.

ANWERS

Exercise 3.1
1.

2.

3.

4.
7.

Exercise 3.2
1. i. 10, ii. iii. 6 iv. v. 14

2. i. ii.

3. i. (2 or 1) ii. 3

5.

6. i. ii. iii.

7. :i. ii. iii. iv.

v. vi.

9.
Exercise 3.3
1.

3.

4.

5.

Exercise 3.4

1. i) ii)

3.

4.

5.

6. ii

7. . i. (2 x 2) j ii.
8. or

9. a. 2 y 3x 2 y 2 i (2 x 2 xy 3 ) b.
c. d.

Exercise 3.5.1

1 (a) (b)

2.
3 (a) --------- (b)--------
4. (a) 0 (b)
Exercise 3.5.2
1. 1 2. 0 3.------ 4. 5. 6. ----------
Exercise 3.5.3.2
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

10. 11.
Exercise 3.5.3.3
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Exercise 3.5.3.4
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.