Analog and Digital Data Transmission-

Analog and Digital Data Transmission are two fundamental methods of transmitting
data over communication channels, each with its distinct characteristics and applications.
Here's a breakdown of both:
Analog Data Transmission:
Analog transmission involves the transfer of data using continuous signals. These signals
vary smoothly over a range and can represent any value within that range. Human voice,
video and music are all examples of analog signals, which vary in amplitude (volume)
and frequency (pitch). Human voice generates an analog (continuously varying) signal
containing multiple frequencies that is transmitted as an analog signal over the medium.
This type of transmission was the traditional method for telephone systems, radio, and
older TV system.
 Key Characteristics of Analog Data Transmission:
a. Signal Type: The signal is continuous, meaning it can take any value within a
specified range, unlike the discrete binary signals in digital transmission.
b. Data Representation: Analog data is represented by variations in physical
quantities, such as voltage, current, or frequency.
c. Noise Sensitivity: Analog signals are more prone to degradation due to noise,
interference, or attenuation over long distances. The quality of the signal
reduces as it travels.
d. Bandwidth Usage: Analog systems can be less efficient in terms of
bandwidth because signals are continuous and carry more information in the
form of waveforms that might not be easy to filter.
Digital Data Transmission:
Digital transmission involves the transfer of data in binary form, meaning it is represented
as discrete signals (usually 0s and 1s, or "on" and "off"). Computers are digital machines
because at their most basic level they can distinguish between just two values, 0 and 1, or
off and on. This form of transmission is used in modern communication systems, such as
the internet, digital telephony, and cellular data networks (4G, 5G).
 Key Characteristics of Digital Data Transmission:
a. Signal Type: The signal is typically a series of discrete pulses representing
binary data.
b. Data Representation: Data is transmitted as binary numbers (1s and 0s),
often through electrical pulses or light (e.g., fiber optics).
c. Speed and Accuracy: Digital data transmission can support higher speeds
and more accurate transmission, as errors can be detected and corrected
easily.
d. Bandwidth Efficiency: Digital systems are often more bandwidth-efficient
and can carry more data in a given frequency range than analog systems.
e. Noise Resistance: Digital signals are more resistant to noise and distortion
because, unlike analog signals, they can be regenerated and corrected at
intervals (via repeaters or error-correcting codes).
Comparison of Digital and Analog Data Transmission
Feature Digital Transmission Analog Transmission
Signal Type Discrete (binary 0s and 1s) Continuous signal (varying in
amplitude/frequency)
Noise Resistance High (can regenerate signals, Low (quality degrades over distance)
error correction)
Bandwidth Efficiency More efficient, allows high data Less efficient, limited by signal quality
rates
Error Detection Yes, via error detection and No, errors can’t be easily corrected
correction codes
Complexity More complex and expensive to Simpler and cheaper in certain cases
implement
Applications Internet, digital audio, digital TV Radio, traditional TV, analog
telephony

Computers generated data is digital whereas the telephones line used for data communication
in computer networks are usually meant for carrying analog signals. When digital data are to
be sent over an analog facility, the digital signals must be converted to analog form. The
techniques by which a digital signal is converted to its analog form is known as Modulation.
The reverse process, that is the conversion of analog signal to its digital form, at a destination
device is called Demodulation.
Modulation:
Modulation is the process of modifying a carrier signal to encode the information (data) that
needs to be transmitted. The carrier signal is typically a continuous wave, and the process of
modulation involves altering one or more of its characteristics (amplitude, frequency, or
phase) in response to the input signal (the data to be transmitted).
Demodulation:
Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation. It involves extracting the original
message signal from the modulated carrier signal. The demodulator is responsible for
"decoding" the transmitted signal, filtering out the carrier, and recovering the original
information (such as voice, video, or digital data).
Types of Modulation:
There are several types of modulation, categorized based on which aspect of the carrier
signal is altered. Below are the most common types of modulation:
Amplitude Modulation (AM):
Amplitude modulation is an increase or decrease of the carrier voltage (Ec) that varied
in proportion to the amplitude (strength or height) of the message signal (which is
typically an audio or video signal). in other words, the carrier's frequency and phase
remain constant, but its amplitude varies based on the message signal.

Frequency Modulation (FM):

It involves varying the frequency of the carrier signal in accordance with the amplitude
of the message signal. In FM, the amplitude and phase remain constant, but the
frequency changes based on the instantaneous value of the message signal. The
frequency of the carrier signal is increased or decreased based on the amplitude of the
input message signal. The greater the amplitude of the message signal, the more the
carrier's frequency shifts.

Phase Modulation (PM):

It involves varying the phase of the carrier signal in accordance with the amplitude of
the message signal. Like FM, PM alters the carrier's waveform, but it specifically
affects the phase (the timing or position of the wave). As the message signal changes,
the carrier's phase shifts in discrete steps.
Switching Techniques-
In a network having multiple devices, we are interested to know how to connect the
sender and receiver so that one-to-one communication is possible. One solution is to
make a dedicated connection between each pair of devices (mesh topology) or between a
central device and every other device (a star topology). However, we know that such
methods are costly in case of large networks. An alternative to this is switching whereby
data is routed through various nodes in a network. This switching process forms a
temporary route for the data to be transmitted.
There is several different switching techniques used in both analog and digital
communication systems, each with its own methods for forwarding data packets and
managing network traffic. The three primary switching techniques are Circuit
Switching, Message Switching and Packet Switching.
Circuit Switching:
Circuit switching is a communication method where a dedicated communication path
(or circuit) is established between the sender and receiver for the duration of the
conversation. This path remains active for the entire duration of the communication,
ensuring a constant and exclusive connection. For example, when a call is made (e.g.,
in traditional telephone systems), a dedicated path is reserved between the calling party
and the receiving party. The data (or voice) travels through this dedicated circuit, and
no other data can use that circuit until the call is terminated. Circuit switching is
commonly used for continuous, real-time communication where low latency and
consistent quality are important (e.g., voice calls).
Packet Switching:
In packet switching, each information or message to be transmitted between sender
and receiver is broken down into smaller pieces, called packets. These packets are then
transmitted independently through the network. Different packets of the same message
may take different routes depending on availability. Each packet has two parts — a
header containing the address of the destination and other information, and the main
message part. When all the packets reach the destination, they are reassembled and the
complete message is received by the receiver. For example, internet (all data sent over
the internet uses packet switching), Wi-Fi, mobile data (3G, 4G, 5G) networks.
Unlike circuit switching, a channel is occupied in packet switching only during the
transmission of the packet. On completion of the transmission, the channel is available
for transfer of packets from other communicating parties.
Message Switching:
It involves the transmission of entire messages from the sender to the receiver. The
message is stored in its entirety at an intermediate node (store-and-forward), and once
the transmission path becomes available, the message is forwarded to the next node or
the destination. Here, the sender sends the entire message to a switching node
(intermediate device), which stores the message. Once the node has the bandwidth and
capacity available, the message is forwarded to the next node, which stores it again and
 then forwards it to the final destination. This process continues until the message
reaches its destination. The message is not split into smaller packets, as in packet
switching; instead, it is treated as a whole unit. For example, Early telegraph systems,
Email systems (where a message may be stored temporarily on mail servers before
being forwarded).

Comparison of Switching Techniques

Feature Circuit Switching Packet Switching Message Switching
Connection Type Dedicated path for the No dedicated path; Entire message stored
entire communication packets are routed and forwarded at each
session independently node
Best Suited For Real-time, continuous Data communication Sending large messages
communication (e.g., with bursty traffic (e.g., email, text
voice calls) (e.g., the internet) messaging)

Bandwidth Inefficient (wastes Efficient (multiple Inefficient (entire

Utilization bandwidth during idle users share the same message held in storage
time) network) until forwarded)
Latency Low, constant (once Variable (depends on High (messages are
established) network load and stored and forwarded
path selection) sequentially)
Fault Tolerance Low (if the path is High (packets can be Moderate (if a node is
broken, the rerouted if needed) unavailable, the message
communication is may be delayed)
interrupted)
Cost High (requires Low (resources Moderate (requires
dedicated resources for shared across storage and forwarding
each session) multiple users) capacity)
Scalability Low (difficult to High (easily handles Moderate (storage and
handle large numbers many users and forwarding can become
of simultaneous varying traffic) a bottleneck)
connections)
Examples Traditional telephone The Internet, Wi-Fi, Email systems, early
systems (PSTN) cellular networks telegraph networks

Transmission Media:
A transmission medium can be anything that can carry signals or data between the
source (transmitter) and destination (receiver). For example, as we switch on a ceiling
fan or a light bulb, the electric wire is the medium that carries electric current from
switch to the fan or bulb. In data communication, transmission media are the links that
carry messages between two or more communicating devices. Transmission can be
classified as guided or unguided.
 In guided transmission, there is a physical link made of wire/cable through
which data in terms of signals are propagated between the nodes. These are usually
metallic cable, fiber-optic cable, etc. They are also known as wired media.
In unguided transmission, data travels in air in terms of electromagnetic
waves using an antenna. They are also known as wireless media.

Guided Media (Wired or Bound Media):

Any physical link that can carry data in the form of signals belongs to the category of
wired transmission media. Three commonly used guided/wired media for data
transmission are twisted pair, coaxial cable, and fiber optic cable. Twisted-pair and
coaxial cable carry the electric signals whereas the optical fiber cable carries the light
signals. These are typically more secure and stable because the data is confined to a
specific pathway.
Twisted Pair Cable:
Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each
other like a DNA helical structure. Both the copper wires are insulated with
plastic covers. Usually, a number of such pairs are combined together and
covered with a protective outer wrapping. Each of the twisted pair’s act as a
single communication link. The use of twisted configuration minimises the
effect of electrical interference from similar pairs close by. Twisted pairs are
less expensive and most commonly used in telephone lines and LANs. These
cables are of two types: Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) and shielded twisted-
pair (STP). A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission
media. Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable.
The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz. However, their
use is limited because they easily pick up noise signals which results high error
rates when the line length extends beyond 100 meters.

Coaxial Cable:
Coaxial cable is another type of data transmission medium. It is better shielded
and has more bandwidth than a twisted pair. It has a copper wire at the core of
the cable which is surrounded with insulating material. The insulator is further
surrounded with an outer conductor (usually a copper mesh). This outer
conductor is wrapped in a plastic cover. Coaxial cables are used Cable
television, broadband Internet. The key to success of coaxial cable is its
shielded design that allows the cable's copper core to transmit data quickly,
 without interference of environmental factors. These types of cables are used to
carry signals of higher frequencies to a longer distance. However, it is more
expensive as compared to twisted pair cable. And if any fault occurs in the
cable causes the failure in the entire network.

Fiber Optic Cable:

The optical fiber cable carries data as light, which travels inside a thin fiber of
glass. Optic fiber uses refraction to direct the light through the media. A thin
transparent strand of glass at the centre is covered with a layer of less dense
glass called cladding. This whole arrangement is covered with an outer jacket
made of PVC or Teflon. Such types of cables are usually used in internet
backbones, and high-speed data connections. These cables are of light weight
and have higher bandwidth which means higher data transfer rate. Signals can
travel longer distances and electromagnetic noise cannot affect the cable.
However, optic fibers are expensive and unidirectional. Two cables are required
for full duplex communication.

Unguided Media (Wireless Media):

It refers to communication systems that use air or space as the transmission medium
instead of physical cables or wires. They are typically used in radio, microwave, and
satellite communication systems.
Radio Waves:
Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are sent in every one of the
headings of free space. Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., these waves can
move in all directions. The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3KHz
to 1 GHz. A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and
 many receivers. An FM radio, Wi-Fi, television, cordless phones are examples
of a radio wave.
Microwaves:
Microwaves are high-frequency radio waves that travel in straight lines and
require a clear line of sight between the transmitting and receiving antennas.
They are typically used in point-to-point communication or unicast
communication such as radar and wireless broadband. Electromagnetic waves
of frequency range 1GHz - 300GHz. Microwaves are Unidirectional, can move
in only one direction.
Satellite Microwave:
A satellite is an actual item that spins around the earth at a known tallness.
Satellite correspondence is more solid these days as it offers more adaptability
than link and fiber optic frameworks. We can speak with any point on the globe
by utilizing satellite correspondence. The satellite accepts the signal that is
transmitted from the earth station, and it amplifies the signal. The amplified
signal is retransmitted to another earth station. Satellite Microwave
communication is possible with most remote sites and with mobile devices as
no cables are required. Ships at sea and motor vehicles also use Satellite
Microwave communication. However, Satellite Microwave communication is
extremely expensive, as a result of which, organisations share the cost or they
purchase services from a commercial provider.
Protocol-
In communication, Protocol is a set of standard rules that the communicating parties —
the sender, the receiver, and all other intermediate devices need to follow. We know that
the sender and receiver can be parts of different networks, placed at different geographic
locations. Besides, the data transfer rates in different networks can vary, requiring data to
be sent in different formats.
Need for Protocols: We need protocols for different reasons such as flow control,
access control, addressing, etc. Flow control is required when the sender and receiver
have different speeds of sending and receiving the data. Computer A is sending data at
the speed of 1024 Mbps and computer B is receiving data at the speed of 512 Mbps. In
this case, Computer B must be able to inform computer A about the speed mismatch so
that computer A can adjust its data transmission rate. Otherwise, some data will be lost.
Protocols also define:
 how computers identify one another on a network.
 the form to which the data should be converted for transit.
 how to decide whether the data received is for that node or to be forwarded to
another node.
 how to rearrange the packets and process them at the destination.
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP):
HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol. It is the primary protocol used to
access the World Wide Web. Tim Berners-Lee led the development of HTTP at CERN
in 1989 in collaboration with Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the World
Wide Web Consortium (W3C). HTTP is a request-response (also called client server)
protocol that runs over TCP. The common use of HTTP is between a web browser
(client) and a web server (server). HTTP facilitates access of hypertext from the
World Wide Web by defining how information are formatted and transmitted, and
how the Web servers and browsers should respond to various commands. A web page
is written using a markup language like HTML and is stored on a web server for
access via its URL. Once a user opens a web browser and types in the URL of the
intended web page, a logical communication link between the user machine (client)
and the web server is created using HTTP.
For example, whenever we enter the URL http// www.ncert.nic.in in a
browser, it sends HTTP request to the web-server where ncert.nic.in is hosted. The
HTTP response from the web-server fetches and sends the requested Web-page, which
is displayed on your browser.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)-
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is the protocol used for transferring files from one
machine to another. Like HTTP, FTP also works on a client-server model. When a
user requests for a file transfer with another system, FTP sets up a connection between
the two nodes for accessing the file. Optionally, the user can authenticate using user
ID and password. The user then specifies the file name and location of the desired file.
After that, another connection sets up and the file transfer happens directly between
the two machines. However, some servers provide FTP logins without authentication
for accessing files.
Point to Point Protocol (PPP):
PPP is a communication protocol which establishes a dedicated and direct connection
between two communicating devices. This protocol defines how two devices will
authenticate each other and establish a direct link between them to exchange data. For
example, two routers with direct connection communicate using PPP. The Internet
users who connect their home computers to the server of an Internet Service Provider
(ISP) through a modem also use PPP. The communicating devices should have duplex
modes for using this protocol. This protocol maintains data integrity ensuring that the
packets arrive in order. It intimates the sender about damage or lost packets and asks
to resend it.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP):
SMTP is a protocol used for email services. It uses information written on the
message header (like an envelope on a letter sent by post), and is not concerned with
the content of the email message. Each email header contains email addresses of
recipients. The email containing header and body are entered into a queue of outgoing
mails. The SMTP sender program takes mails from the outgoing queue and transmits
them to the destination(s). When the SMTP sender successfully delivers a particular
mail to one or more destinations, it removes the corresponding receiver’s email
address from the mail’s destination list. When that mail is delivered to all the
recipients, it is removed from the outgoing queue. The SMTP receiver program
accepts each mail that has arrived and places it in the appropriate user mailbox.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)/ Internet Protocol (IP):
It is a set of standardised rules that uses a client-server model of communication in
which a user or machine (a client) requests a service by a server in the network. The
IP protocol ensures that each computer or node connected to the Internet is assigned
an IP address, which is used to identify each node independently. It can be considered
to be the adhesive that holds the whole Internet together. TCP ensures that the
message or data is broken into smaller chunks, called IP packets. Each of these
packets are routed (transmitted) through the Internet, along a path from one router to
the next, until it reaches the specified destination. TCP guarantees the delivery of
packets on the designated IP address. It is also responsible for ordering the packets so
that they are delivered in sequence. There are many redundant connection paths in the
Internet, with backbones and ISPs connecting to each other in multiple locations. So,
there are many possible paths between two hosts. Hence, two packets of the same
message can take two different routes depending on congestion and other factors in
different possible routes. When all the packets finally reach the destination machine,
they are reassembled into the original message at the receiver’s end.