ROUTING AND SWITCHING CONCEPTS

AIM

To explore the principles of switch and router configurations so

that participants develop a basic understanding of how
switches and routers can be programmed to work for various
network requirements.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the course, delegates should be able to:

1. Discuss the functions of LAN switches and the types of

switching mechanisms that they employ
2. Configure basic switch settings
3. Examine the principles of Virtual Local Area Networks
(VLANs)
4. Configure VLANs on a switch
5. Outline the basic internal structure of a router and explain
their functions.
6. Distinguish Static from Dynamic Routing and Distance
Vector from Link State Routing

7. Explore routing protocols found in routers (RIP, OSPF, IS-

IS, …) and examine their routing metrics
8. Configure basic settings on a router
9. Configure static routing on a router
10. Configure dynamic routing on a router (Routing
Information Protocol(RIP) and Open Shortest Path First
(OSPF))
11. Verify network connectivity and network status using
 relevant commands

ASSUMED KNOWLEDGE

 Data communication principles (Data, Protocols, Addressing,

Acknowledgements, Flow Control, Error Detection, Error
Correction)
 Networking, including OSI Seven-Layer Reference Model and
the movement of data up or down the layers, Layer Headers
 Inter-networking (Internet Layers, Internet Protocol,
Transmission Control Protocol and other Upper Layer Protocols
and Applications)
 Network Devices, especially Network Switch and Router
(functions)
 THE LAN SWITCH

 Functions
 Internal Architecture
 Basic Switch Configurations
  Virtual Local Area Networks (VLANs)
 Basic VLAN configurations

THE ROUTER

A router is a device that selects a path and forwards data packets across
computer networks. Routers perform the data "traffic directing" functions
on the Internet. A router is a microprocessor-controlled device that is
connected to two or more data lines from different networks (serial
ports). When a data packet comes in on one of the lines, the router reads
the address information on the packet to determine its ultimate
destination (destination network address). Then, using information in its
routing table (which maintains a record of the routes to various network
destinations) it directs the packet to the next network on its journey. A
data packet is typically passed from router to router through the networks
of the Internet until it gets to its destination computer. Routers also
perform other tasks such as translating the data transmission protocol of
the packet to the appropriate protocol of the next network, and
preventing unauthorized access to a network by the use of a firewall.

ROUTER CLASSIFICATION

Access Routers
Access routers are small office/home models located at customer
premises and typically optimized for low cost.

Distribution Routers

Distribution routers aggregate traffic from multiple access routers, either

at the same site, or to collect the data streams from multiple sites to a
major enterprise location. Distribution routers are often responsible for
enforcing quality of service across a WAN so they may have considerable
memory installed, multiple WAN interface connections, and substantial
onboard data processing routines. They may also provide connectivity to
groups of file servers or other external networks.

Core Routers

These interconnect the distribution tier routers from multiple buildings of

a campus, or large enterprise locations. They are usually optimized for
high bandwidth.

ROUTER INTERFACES

The interfaces on a router provide network connectivity to the router. The

console and auxiliary ports are used for managing the router. Routers also
have ports for LAN and WAN connectivity.

The LAN interfaces usually include Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Fibre

Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), or Token Ring. The AUI port is
used to provide LAN connectivity. You can use a converter to attach your
LAN to the router. Some higher-end routers have separate interfaces for
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) as well.
Synchronous and Asynchronous serial interfaces are used for WAN
connectivity. ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) interfaces are
used to provide the ISDN connectivity. Using ISDN, you can transmit both
voice and data.

ROUTER COMPONENTS

Flash Memory

Flash memory is an erasable, reprogrammable ROM that holds the system

image and the microcode. Flash memory gets its name from the fact that
sections of its memory cells are erased in a single action or flash. Flash
memory is commonly called Flash.

Flash is a variation of Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only

Memory (EEPROM). EEPROM is erased and rewritten at the byte level. The
process of erasing and rewriting in EEPROM is slow, whereas Flash is
erased and rewritten faster.

Flash memory can be erased and reprogrammed in units of memory

called blocks. Flash can be upgraded without having to remove or replace
chips on the motherboard. Information in Flash is retained even when the
router is switched off.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

The ROM in a router contains the bootstrap program that searches for a
suitable system image when the router is switched on. When the router is
switched on, the ROM performs a Power-on self-test (POST) to check the
hardware. The ROM also provides a monitor mode that can be used for
recovering from a crisis. The information present in the ROM cannot be
erased.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM, which is much faster to read from and write to than other kinds of
storage, provides caching, buffers network packets, and stores routing
table information. RAM contains the running configuration file, which is
the current configuration file. All configuration changes are saved to this
file unless you explicitly save the changes to the NVRAM. Information in
RAM requires a constant power source to be sustained. When the router is
powered down, or there is a power cycle, data stored in RAM ceases to
exist.

Non-Volatile RAM (NVRAM)

Non-volatile Random Access Memory information is retained in storage

when the router is switched off or rebooted. NVRAM contains the start-up
configuration file of the router, which is not erased if power is switched
off. The router looks for the configuration information in the NVRAM unless
the router is configured to load the configuration file from some other
source.
LAB EXERCISES

Basic Router Configurations

 ROUTING ALGORITHMS

An algorithm is a procedure for accomplishing a certain task, starting at a

given initial state and terminating in a defined end state. Different routing
protocols use different routing algorithms to install routes in the routing
table, send updates to neighbours and make path determination
decisions. The algorithms for routing protocols define the following
processes:

Mechanism for sending and receiving routing information

Mechanism for calculating the best paths and installing routes in the
routing table
Mechanism for detecting and reacting to topology changes

STATIC ROUTING

This is one way of configuring path selection in routers characterized by

the absence of communication between routers regarding the current
topology of the network. This is achieved by manually adding routes to
the routing table. The opposite of static routing is dynamic routing.

In these systems, routes through a data network are described by fixed

paths (statically). These routes are usually entered into the router by the
system administrator. An entire network can be configured using static
routes, but this type of configuration is not fault tolerant. When there is a
change in the network or a failure occurs between two statically defined
nodes, traffic will not be re-routed. This means that data that wishes to
take an affected path will either have to wait for the failure to be repaired
or the static route to be updated by the administrator before restarting its
journey. Most requests will time out (ultimately failing) before these
repairs can be made. There are, however, times when static routes can
improve the performance of a network. Some of these include stub
networks and default routes.
LAB EXERCISES: CONFIGURING STATIC ROUTES

DYNAMIC ROUTING

DYNAMIC ROUTING PROTOCOLS

Dynamic routing protocols help the administrator overcome the laborious

and time-consuming chore of configuring routes in routers. Routing
protocols can be compared based on the following characteristics:

 Time to convergence (how quickly network information is shared to

reach a state of consistency)
 Scalability (How large the network can become)
 Classless or Classful (inclusion or exclusion of subnet mask in
routing updates)
 Resource Usage (Memory space, CPU utilization, link bandwidth
utilization)
 Implementation and Maintenance (knowledge required to
implement and maintain the network based on the routing protocol
deployed).

ROUTING METRICS

Routers use various metrics and calculations to determine the best route
for a packet to reach its final network destination. Each routing protocol
uses its own algorithm with varying weights to determine the best
possible path.

The algorithm determines the metric for routes throughout the network
and in most instances, the smaller the metric value the better the route is
likely to be. Smaller metrics indicate faster, better and more trustworthy
routes. Higher metrics are the opposite and reflect routes that are not
positive for any of the 3 attributes listed above.

The following are metrics used in determining the best path for a routing
protocol:
  Bandwidth – Throughput speed in bits per second

 Cost – An arbitrary value assigned by an administrator for the

intersecting of networks

 Delay – Network latency caused by such factors as distance or

congestion

 Hop Count – The number of routers (hops) a packets passes

through to its destination

 Load – Measurement of traffic that flows through a router

 MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit) – The largest unit size

allowed to be transmitted on all routes from source to destination

 Reliability – Represents the amount of network downtime, that

is, how reliable a network path is)

 Ticks – Measurement of delay, where is tick is 1/18 of a second. A

tick is used as part of the routing protocol IPX RIP

 Administrative Distance – Administrative Distance (AD) is a value

that routers use in order to select the best path when there are
two or more different routes to the same destination from
two different routing protocols. Administrative Distance counts
the reliability of a routing protocol. Administrative Distance is a
numeric value which can range from 0 to 255. A smaller
Administrative Distance is more trusted by a router, therefore
the best Administrative Distance is 0 and the worst, 255.
Distance Vector Routing

Distance Vector means that Routers are advertised as vector of distance

and direction. 'Direction' is simply the next hop router or exit interface,
whereas 'Distance' uses metrics such as hop count. Routers using
distance vector protocols use:

1. Direction in which or interface to which a packet should be

forwarded.
2. Distance to the destination (number of hops away).

Distance vector routing protocols broadcast (using broadcast address

255.255.255.255) Entire Routing Table Updates at periodic intervals,
even if there is no change to the network topology. The recipient
processes the update to look for any new information and then discards.
Distance Vector Routing Protocols also recognise Neighbours, which are
routers that share a link and are configured to use the same routing
protocol. The router is only aware of the network addresses of its own
interfaces and the remote networks that can be reached through its
neighbours. Routers using distance vector routing protocols are not aware
of the network topology.
Examples of distance-vector routing protocols include Routing Information
Protocol Version 1 & 2, (RIPv1 and RIPv2) and Interior Gateway Routing
Protocol (IGRP).

ROUTING INFORMATION PROTOCOL (RIPv1)

RIP is a dynamic routing protocol used in local and wide area networks. I It
uses the distance-vector routing algorithm and was first defined in 1988.
RIP uses the Bellman-Ford algorithm and employs the hop count as its
only routing metric. It uses classful routing (does not includes subnet
mask in the updates and does not support Variable Length
Subnet Masking (VLSM)) and each RIP router sends routing updates as
broadcast messages every 30 seconds. RIP works with only 15 hop
counts (0-14).If there are more than 15 hops between two routers it fails
to send data packets to the destination address (Routes with hop counts
greater than 15 are unreachable).

LAB EXERCISES: CONFIGURING RIP

Link-state Routing

The basic concept of link-state routing is that every node constructs a

map of the connectivity to the network, in the form of a graph, showing
which nodes are connected to which other nodes. Each node then
independently calculates the next best logical path from it to every
possible destination in the network. The collection of best paths will then
form the node's routing table. To produce this, each node floods the entire

network with information about what other nodes it can connect to, and
each node then independently assembles this information into a map.
Using this map, each router then independently determines the least-cost
path from itself to every other node using a standard shortest paths
algorithm such as Dijkstra's algorithm. The result is a tree rooted at the
current node such that the path through the tree from the root to any
other node is the least-cost path to that node. This tree then serves to
construct the routing table, which specifies the best next hop to get from

the current node to any other node. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF),
Intermediate System-to-Intermediate (IS-IS) and Enhanced Interior
Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) are link-state routing protocols.

Comparison of routing algorithms

Distance-vector routing protocols are simple and efficient in small

networks and require little, if any, management. However, distance-vector
algorithms do not scale well, have poor convergence properties, and are
based on a 'hop count' metric rather than a 'link-state' metric. They thus
ignore bandwidth (a major drawback) when calculating the best path.

OPEN SHORTEST PATH FIRST (OSPF)

The Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) protocol is a link state protocol that
handles routing for IP traffic and is an open standard (not proprietary) and
it will run on most routers independent of make. Open Shortest Path First
(OSPF) uses the Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm, developed by Dijkstra,
to provide a loop-free topology. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) provides
fast convergence with triggered, incremental updates via Link State
Advertisements (LSAs). Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a classless
protocol (includes subnet mask in its routing updates and allows
for a hierarchical design with VLSM and route summarization).

The main disadvantages of Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) are that it
requires more memory to hold the adjacency (list of OSPF neighbours),
topology (a link state database containing all of the routers and their
routes), and routing tables, requires extra CPU processing to run the SPF
algorithm and is a complex routing protocol.

The two important concepts in case of OSPF are Autonomous Systems

and Areas. Areas are used to provide hierarchical routing, within an
Autonomous System. Areas are used to control when and how much
routing information is shared across a network. OSPF implements a two-
layer hierarchy: the backbone (Area 0) and areas off of the backbone
(Areas 1–65,535). Here the two different areas can summarize routing
information between them. Route summarization helps to compact the
routing tables. All areas should connect to Area 0 and all routers in an
Area will have the same topology table.

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) metric value

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) uses cost as the value of metric and uses
a reference bandwidth of 100 Mbps for cost calculation. The formula to
calculate the cost is reference bandwidth divided by interface bandwidth.
For example, in the case of Ethernet, it is 100 Mbps / 10 Mbps = 10.

Important Terms related with Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

Router ID
Each router in an OSPF network needs a unique ID. The ID is used to
provide a unique identity to the OSPF router. The Router ID is derived in
two ways:
• The highest IP address on its loopback interfaces (this is a logical
interface on a router) or
• The highest IP address on its active interfaces

Loopback Interface
A loopback interface is a logical, virtual interface on a router. By default,
the router doesn’t have any loopback interfaces, but they can easily be
created. These interfaces are treated as physical interfaces on a router
and can be assigned IP addresses to them in this way:

Router(Config)#int loopback 2
Router(Config-if)#ip address 200.0.0.10 255.255.255.0

Area border router (ABR)

An Area border router (ABR) is a router that connects one or more OSPF
areas to the main backbone network. It is considered a member of all
areas it is connected to.

Internal router
An Internal Router is a router that has only OSPF neighbour relationships
with routers in the same area.

Backbone router
Backbone Routers are part of the OSPF backbone. This includes all area
border routers and also routers connecting different areas.

Designated Router (DR) and Backup Designated Router (BDR)

A Designated Router (DR) is the router interface elected among all routers
on a network segment, and Backup designated (BDR) is a backup for the
Designated Router (DR). Designated Routers (DRs) are used for reducing
network traffic by providing a source for routing updates. The Designated
Router (DR) maintains a complete topology table of the network and
sends the updates to the other routers via multicast. All routers in an area
will form a slave/master relationship with the Designated Router (DR).

LAB EXERCISES: CONFIGURING OSPF