UNIT-1

1Q. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of GSM compared to other cellular technologies (e.g., CDMA, LTE).
Advantages of GSM:

1. Global Standard:

o GSM is widely adopted worldwide, making it easy to use internationally with roaming agreements.

2. SIM Card Flexibility:

o Uses SIM cards, allowing users to easily switch devices without changing numbers.

3. Better Coverage:

o GSM networks have broader coverage, especially in rural and remote areas.

4. Cost-Effective:

o Lower infrastructure costs due to widespread adoption and mature technology.

5. Supports Multiple Services:

o Offers voice, SMS, and basic data services (GPRS/EDGE).

6. Interference Handling:

o Uses TDMA and FDMA, which are less susceptible to interference compared to CDMA.

Disadvantages of GSM:

1. Lower Data Speeds:

o GSM data speeds (GPRS/EDGE) are slower compared to CDMA and LTE.

2. Limited Capacity:

o TDMA-based GSM has a fixed number of time slots, limiting the number of users.

3. Security Issues:

o GSM encryption is weaker compared to CDMA and LTE, making it more vulnerable to hacking.

4. Inefficient Spectrum Use:

o Less efficient than CDMA in terms of spectrum utilization.

5. No Native Support for Advanced Features:

o Lacks native support for advanced features like VoLTE (Voice over LTE) and high-speed data.

6. Older Technology:

o GSM is older and less advanced compared to LTE and 5G technologies.

2Q. Describe the evolution of GSM standards (GSM, GPRS, EDGE, UMTS) and their key features

1. GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications):

• Introduced: Early 1990s.
• Key Features:
o First digital cellular standard.
o Supports voice calls and SMS.
o Uses TDMA/FDMA for multiple access.
o Data speed: Up to 14.4 kbps.
• Purpose: Replaced analog systems (1G) with digital technology for better voice quality and security.

2. GPRS (General Packet Radio Service):

• Introduced: Late 1990s.
• Key Features:
o Added packet-switched data to GSM.
o Enables basic internet services like email and web browsing.
o Data speed: Up to 114 kbps.
• Purpose: Introduced "2.5G" by adding data capabilities to GSM.

3. EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution):

• Introduced: Early 2000s.
• Key Features:
o Improved data speeds over GPRS.
o Uses advanced modulation techniques (8PSK).
o Data speed: Up to 384 kbps.
• Purpose: Known as "2.75G," it bridged the gap between 2G and 3G.

4. UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System):

• Introduced: Early 2000s.
• Key Features:
o First 3G standard based on GSM.
o Uses WCDMA (Wideband CDMA) for multiple access.
o Supports video calls, mobile TV, and high-speed internet.
o Data speed: Up to 2 Mbps.
• Purpose: Marked the transition to 3G, enabling multimedia services.

Standard Generation Key Features Data Speed

GSM 2G Digital voice, SMS, TDMA/FDMA. Up to 14.4 kbps
GPRS 2.5G Packet-switched data, basic internet. Up to 114 kbps
EDGE 2.75G Faster data, advanced modulation (8PSK). Up to 384 kbps
UMTS 3G Video calls, mobile TV, WCDMA. Up to 2 Mbps
 UNIT-2

1Q.Discuss the trade-offs between efficiency and fairness in MAC protocols.

Trade-offs Between Efficiency and Fairness in MAC Protocols

1. Efficiency:

o Means using the channel to send as much data as possible with minimal delays.

o Example: Letting one device send a lot of data quickly.

o Problem: Other devices may have to wait too long, which is unfair.

2. Fairness:

o Means giving all devices an equal chance to use the channel.

o Example: Giving each device a small, fixed time slot.

o Problem: This can waste time if some devices have little or no data to send, reducing efficiency.

3. Trade-offs:

o Too much efficiency: Fast but unfair (some devices dominate).

o Too much fairness: Equal but slow (wastes time).

4. Example:

o Imagine a classroom where students share a microphone:

▪ Efficient but unfair: One student talks for a long time, others wait.

▪ Fair but inefficient: Each student gets 10 seconds, even if they don’t need it.

5. Conclusion:

o A good MAC protocol balances efficiency (fast data transfer) and fairness (equal access) to work well
for everyone.
2Q. Compare and contrast the performance of CSMA protocols (e.g., CSMA/CA,CSMA/CD) in different wireless
environments.

Comparison of CSMA Protocols: CSMA/CA vs. CSMA/CD

1. CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance):

• Used in: Wireless environments (e.g., Wi-Fi).
• How it works:
o Devices listen to the channel before sending data.
o If the channel is busy, they wait for a random time before trying again.
o Uses ACK packets to confirm successful delivery.
• Advantages:
o Avoids collisions in wireless networks where detecting collisions is hard.
o Works well in environments with hidden terminal problems.
• Disadvantages:
o Adds overhead due to ACK packets and waiting times.
o Slower than CSMA/CD in wired environments.
2. CSMA/CD (Collision Detection):
• Used in: Wired environments (e.g., Ethernet).
• How it works:
o Devices listen to the channel while transmitting.
o If a collision is detected, they stop transmitting and retry after a random time.
• Advantages:
o Faster and more efficient in wired networks where collisions can be detected easily.
o No need for ACK packets, reducing overhead.
• Disadvantages:
o Cannot be used in wireless environments because collisions are hard to detect due to signal fading
and interference.

Performance in Different Environments:

Feature CSMA/CA (Wireless) CSMA/CD (Wired)

Collision Avoids collisions using ACK and random
Detects collisions and retries.
Handling waits.
Lower (no ACK, detects collisions
Overhead Higher (due to ACK and waiting).
directly).
Speed Slower due to avoidance mechanisms. Faster due to direct collision detection.
Works well in wireless (hidden terminal Works well in wired (clear collision
Environment
issue). detection).
Reliability More reliable in wireless. More reliable in wired.
3Q. How does FDMA allocate spectrum among different users?

How FDMA Allocates Spectrum

1. Basic Idea:

o FDMA divides the total available spectrum into smaller frequency bands.

o Each user is assigned a unique frequency band to communicate.

2. How It Works:

o The spectrum is split into multiple non-overlapping frequency channels.

o Each user gets a fixed frequency band for the entire duration of their communication.

o Example: Imagine a radio with multiple stations; each station uses a different frequency, so they
don’t interfere with each other.

3. Advantages:

o Simple to implement.

o No collisions between users since each has a separate frequency.

o Suitable for continuous transmission (e.g., radio, TV broadcasting).

4. Disadvantages:

o Wastes bandwidth if a user is not actively transmitting.

o Limited by the total number of available frequency bands.

o Requires guard bands between frequencies to prevent interference, which reduces overall efficiency.

5. Applications:

o Used in 1G cellular networks, FM radio, and satellite communication.

4Q. What are the advantages and disadvantages of TDMA

Advantages of TDMA:

1. Efficient Spectrum Use:

o Multiple users share the same frequency by dividing it into time slots, maximizing spectrum
utilization.

2. Supports Multiple Users:

o Many users can communicate on the same frequency without interference.

3. Flexible Data Rates:

o Users can be allocated more time slots for higher data rates if needed.

4. Low Power Consumption:

o Devices transmit only during their assigned time slots, saving battery life.

5. Compatibility with Digital Systems:

o Works well with digital voice and data transmission.

6. No Guard Bands Needed:

o Unlike FDMA, TDMA doesn’t require guard bands between frequencies, saving bandwidth.

Disadvantages of TDMA:

1. Synchronization Required:

o All devices must be synchronized to avoid overlapping time slots, adding complexity.

2. Transmission Delays:

o Users must wait for their turn to transmit, which can cause delays.

3. Limited Capacity:

o The number of time slots is fixed, limiting the number of users.

4. Susceptible to Interference:

o If synchronization fails, interference between users can occur.

5. Higher Costs:

o Requires advanced hardware and software for time slot management.

6. Inefficient for Low Traffic:

o Time slots are wasted if a user has no data to transmit.

 UNIT-3

1Q. Explain the process of IP packet delivery to a mobile node in Mobile IP

Mobile IP is a communication protocol that allows a device (called a mobile node) to move between different
networks while maintaining the same IP address. It ensures seamless connectivity even when the device changes its
location.

Process of IP Packet Delivery in Mobile IP:

1. Home Agent (HA) Registration:

o Every mobile node has a permanent home address on its home network.

o A Home Agent (HA) on the home network keeps track of the mobile node’s current location.

2. Care-of Address (CoA) Assignment:

o When the mobile node moves to a foreign network, it obtains a temporary address called the Care-
of Address (CoA).

o The CoA can be provided by a Foreign Agent (FA) or through auto-configuration.

3. Binding Update:

o The mobile node informs its Home Agent about its new location by sending a binding
update message with its CoA.

o The HA stores this information in its binding cache.

4. Packet Tunneling:

o When a correspondent node sends packets to the mobile node’s home address, the HA intercepts
them.

o The HA encapsulates the packets in a new IP header with the CoA as the destination address. This
process is called tunneling.

5. Packet Delivery to Mobile Node:

o The encapsulated packets are sent to the Foreign Agent (or directly to the mobile node if it has a
CoA).

o The FA decapsulates the packets and delivers them to the mobile node.

6. Return Traffic:

o The mobile node sends reply packets directly to the correspondent node using its CoA.

o This avoids the need for tunneling in the reverse direction, improving efficiency.

Key Components:

• Home Agent (HA): Tracks the mobile node’s location and tunnels packets to its CoA.

• Foreign Agent (FA): Assists the mobile node in the foreign network and delivers packets.

• Care-of Address (CoA): Temporary address of the mobile node in the foreign network.
2Q. Discuss the triangle routing problem and how Mobile IP addresses it

What is Triangle Routing?

o In Mobile IP, when a correspondent node (CN) sends packets to a mobile node (MN), the packets
first go to the Home Agent (HA) on the home network.

o The HA then tunnels the packets to the mobile node’s Care-of Address (CoA) in the foreign network.

o This creates a triangular path:

▪ CN → HA → MN.

o The return traffic, however, goes directly from the MN to the CN (MN → CN).

Why is it a Problem?

o Inefficient Routing: The path taken by packets is longer than necessary, increasing latency and
network load.

o Increased Delay: Packets travel via the HA, even when the CN and MN are close to each other.

o Higher Load on HA: The HA becomes a bottleneck as all traffic passes through it.

How Mobile IP Addresses Triangle Routing:

1. Route Optimization:

o Mobile IP allows the correspondent node (CN) to learn the mobile node’s Care-of Address (CoA).

o Once the CN knows the CoA, it can send packets directly to the MN, bypassing the HA.

2. Binding Update to CN:

o The mobile node sends a binding update message to the CN, informing it of its current CoA.

o The CN stores this information in its binding cache.

3. Direct Communication:

o After receiving the binding update, the CN sends packets directly to the MN’s CoA.

o This eliminates the need for tunneling through the HA, reducing latency and network load.

4. Security Measures:

o Binding updates are secured using authentication to prevent attacks like spoofing.

Advantages of Solving Triangle Routing:

• Reduced Latency: Packets take the shortest path between CN and MN.

• Lower Network Load: Less traffic passes through the HA.

• Improved Efficiency: Direct communication saves bandwidth and resources.

 UNIT-4

1Q. How can snooping tcp be improved?

Snooping TCP is a technique used in wireless networks to improve TCP performance. A snooping agent (usually at the
base station) monitors TCP packets and handles retransmissions locally to reduce delays caused by wireless errors.

How to Improve Snooping TCP:

1. Better Buffer Management:

o Make the snooping agent’s buffer size flexible to avoid overflow and handle more data efficiently.

2. Retransmit Only Lost Packets:

o Instead of resending all packets, only retransmit the ones that are lost or corrupted. This saves time
and bandwidth.

3. Use Multiple Snooping Agents:

o Spread snooping agents across the network to handle more users and avoid overloading a single
agent.

4. Combine with Other Techniques:

o Use methods like Explicit Loss Notification (ELN) to tell the difference between wireless errors and
network congestion.

5. Work with Lower Network Layers:

o Coordinate with the MAC layer to detect and fix errors faster.

6. Add Backup Agents:

o Use backup snooping agents to keep things running if the main agent fails.

7. Improve Security:

o Add encryption and authentication to protect snooping agents from hackers.

Why These Improvements Matter:

• Faster Recovery: Lost packets are retransmitted quickly, reducing delays.

• Better Performance: Handles more users and data without slowing down.

• No Single Point of Failure: Backup agents ensure the system keeps working.

• More Secure: Protects against attacks and keeps data safe.

Limitations of Snooping TCP:

1. Buffer Overflow: The snooping agent’s buffer may overflow, causing packet loss.

2. Scalability Issues: It becomes inefficient in large networks with many mobile nodes.

3. Single Point of Failure: If the snooping agent fails, performance degrades.

4. Limited to Wireless Links: It only addresses wireless errors, not end-to-end issues.
 UNIT-5

1Q. Explain the concepts of power-aware and Context-aware computing?

Power-Aware Computing:
1. Definition:
o Power-aware computing refers to designing systems that optimize energy consumption to improve
efficiency and extend battery life, especially in portable and IoT devices.
2. Key Concepts:
o Energy Efficiency: Designing hardware (e.g., low-power processors) and software (e.g., energy-
efficient algorithms) to minimize power usage.
o Dynamic Power Management: Adjusting power levels based on workload. For example, reducing
CPU speed or turning off unused components when idle.
o Low-Power Modes: Devices enter sleep or standby modes when not in use to save energy.
o Energy Harvesting: Using renewable energy sources like solar, thermal, or kinetic energy to power
devices.
3. Applications:
o Mobile Devices: Extending battery life in smartphones and laptops.
o IoT Devices: Enabling long-lasting sensors and wearable devices.
o Data Centers: Reducing energy consumption in servers and cooling systems.
4. Importance:
o Reduces energy costs and environmental impact.
o Enhances user experience by prolonging device usage.

Context-Aware Computing:
1. Definition:
o Context-aware computing involves systems that adapt their behavior based on the context of the
user or environment, such as location, time, or activity.
2. Key Concepts:
o Context: Information about the user (e.g., location, preferences) or environment (e.g., temperature,
lighting).
o Sensing: Using sensors (e.g., GPS, accelerometer, microphone) to collect context data.
o Adaptation: Changing system behavior based on context. For example, switching to dark mode at
night or adjusting volume in a noisy environment.
o Personalization: Tailoring services to the user’s preferences and needs.
3. Applications:
o Smartphones: Adjusting brightness, volume, or notifications based on user activity or environment.
o Navigation Apps: Suggesting routes based on real-time traffic and user preferences.
o Smart Homes: Automating tasks like turning on lights or adjusting thermostats based on user
presence.
4. Importance:
o Improves user experience by making systems more intuitive and responsive.
o Enhances efficiency by automating tasks based on context.

Comparison:
Aspect Power-Aware Computing Context-Aware Computing
Goal Save energy and extend battery life. Adapt behavior based on user/environment.
Focus Energy efficiency and power management. Sensing, adaptation, and personalization.
Applications Mobile devices, IoT, data centers. Smartphones, smart homes, navigation apps.
 SAQS
1) Define GSM
• GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communications.
• It is a 2G digital cellular standard used for voice calls, SMS, and basic data services.
• GSM uses TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) to allow multiple users to share the same frequency
channel.

2) What is Mobile IP?

• Mobile IP is a protocol that allows a device (called a mobile node) to move between networks while keeping
the same IP address.
• It uses a Home Agent (HA) and Care-of Address (CoA) to track and deliver packets to the mobile node.
• This ensures seamless connectivity even when the device changes its location.

3) What are the Benefits of Hoarding?

• Faster Access: Frequently used data is stored locally, reducing access time.
• Offline Availability: Users can access data even without an internet connection.
• Reduced Latency: Minimizes delays by avoiding repeated downloads of the same data.