CE 315: Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics

Laboratory xxx
Lab Date: September 4th, 2024
Lab Submission Date: September 11th, 2024

Abrar Rahman, ASR660

Donald Okonkwo, DKO940
Runo Onoruvwe, MVN513
Table of Contents
2. Introduction & Objectives.................................................................................................................... 3
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Objectives ...................................................................................................................................... 3
3. Theory................................................................................................................................................. 4
3.1 Experiment 1: Flow Patterns around Some Commonly Shaped Objects .......................................... 5
3.2 Experiment 2: Wind Tunnel Experiments for Drag ......................................................................... 5
4. Experimental Setup & Experiments ..................................................................................................... 7
4.1 Experiment 1: Flow Patterns around Some Commonly Shaped Objects .......................................... 7
4.2 Experiment 2: Wind Tunnel Experiments for Drag ......................................................................... 8
5. Results and Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 10
5.1 Results......................................................................................................................................... 10
5.1.1 Experiment 1: Flow Patterns around Some Commonly Shaped Objects ................................. 10
5.1.2 Experiment 2: Wind Tunnel Experiments for Drag ................................................................ 12
5.2 Discussion ................................................................................................................................... 12
5.2.1 Experiment 1: Flow Patterns around Some Commonly Shaped Objects ................................. 12
5.2.2 Experiment 2: Wind Tunnel Experiments for Drag ................................................................ 14
6. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 16
7. References ......................................................................................................................................... 17
8. Appendices........................................................................................................................................ 18
8.1 Appendix A: Lab Handout ........................................................................................................... 18
8.2 Appendix B: Sample Calculations ................................................................................................ 25
8.2 Appendix C: Raw Data ................................................................................................................ 26
2. Introduction & Objectives
2.1 Introduction
When an object is fully immersed within a flowing liquid, or the fluid moves around an
object, a force known as “drag is established to work against the object. This drag force is
utilized in the design of airplane wings to ensure that the plane is propelled both forwards and
upwards. A phenomenon known as “lift” occurs due to low-pressure zones above the wing and
high-pressure zones below. The wings are designed in a way to reduce the low-pressure zones to
avoid generating drag against the plane. Objects designed to reduce drag are classified as
streamlined objects.
This lab studies the effect of wakes and drag on various three-dimensional shapes
through experiments designed to generate experimental drag values. A visual analysis of flows
acting on common two-dimensional shapes will also be observed in this lab. The experiments
within this lab help establish clear connections and relationships between wakes, drag, and the
influence that geometry of shapes have on fluid flow. The theory behind these experiments,
experimental procedures and experimental data are all reported below.

2.2 Objectives
The objectives of this lab are summarized as;
• To study the two-dimensional flow patterns around objects of different shapes.
• To determine the drag coefficients for bluff and streamlined objects in comparison to
standard values.
• To assess how and why the drag coefficient varies from body to body in fluid flow.
3. Theory
This lab focuses on the concept of drag on a body submerged by water. The total drag on
a body submerged by water has two major components that are influenced by skin friction and
pressure differences acting on the body. These components are known as skin friction and form
drag. Skin friction occurs when a body encounters resistance caused by fluid particles as it flows
over its surface. This resistance creates friction at the boundary layer of the fluid as the velocity
goes from 0 to a free stream velocity further away. This change in velocity results in shear
stresses which is known as friction.
Form drag, also known as pressure drag, is the result of pressure differences created
around an object as fluid flows over it. This type of drag originates from the object’s shape and
dimensions, especially its frontal area. Displacement of the surrounding fluid as the object cuts
through creates pressure differentials between its front and rear surfaces. The fluid tends to move
around the object at a faster speed, leading to a high-pressure zone at the front, where velocity
reaches close to zero, and a low-pressure wake at the rear, where velocity accelerates to a higher
speed as shown in figure 1. This sudden pressure difference results in a net force that acts in the
opposite direction of motion of the fluid, creating drag. As expected, the shape of the object has a
significant impact on the amount of form drag it experiences. The more streamlined an object,
the less drag it is expected to experience.

Figure 1: Photograph of flow pattern around a cylinder (Photograph reproduced from Van Dyke
(1982)/ Used from "CE 315 - Lab 2 - Wakes and Drag" from H. Reitenbach (2024))
3.1 Experiment 1: Flow Patterns around Some Commonly Shaped
Objects
To visualize these components of drag, a flow visualization table is used. This table
consists of a flat table on which a thin layer of fluid is allowed to flow from one side of the table
to the other side of the table. This table, with the help of vegetable dye, helps to visualize the
streamlines of fluid over a range of flow rates and Reynolds numbers. This experiment allows for
the visualization of the high- and low-pressure zones of flow on varying shapes of objects as well
as the velocity gradients. A relationship between the extent of the wake of an object is known to
help determine the level or strength of drag experienced by an object. The smaller the extent of a
wake is, the smaller the form drag on the body. Knowing the Reynold’s number is critical to
calculation accuracy and the effects that the Reynolds number has on the flow over an object.
The Reynolds number is defined as:
𝜌𝑈𝑜2 𝑑
[1] 𝑅= 𝜇

Where μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid. Diameter “d” is the characteristic
dimension of length of the body, so “d” is an arbitrary variable of length. U is the initial velocity
of fluid

3.2 Experiment 2: Wind Tunnel Experiments for Drag

Experiment 2 consists of an Aerolab wind tunnel used to conduct tests to determine the
drag coefficients of specific objects used. The tunnel converges to a 12-inch diameter section
where the test is conducted and is illustrated below in figure 2. A fan drives air through the
tunnel section at 40 mph (64.4 km/h) and out of the exhaust.
Figure 2: Aerolab wind tunnel (Photograph produced from "CE 315 - Lab 2 - Wakes and Drag"
(H. Reitenbach, 2024))

Once turned on, the object experiences a drag force that is recorded, and based on its
shape, a varied wake size. The equation for the drag force acting on the objects is as such:
2
𝐶𝐷 𝑈𝑂
[2] 𝐹𝐷 = 𝐴
2

Where Cd is the drag coefficient; ρ is the density of the fluid; Uo is the velocity of the
flow approaching the body; A is the area of the object that is perpendicular to the direction of
flow (projected area). To calculate the drag coefficient accurately, it is important to account for
sources of errors. Such sources of errors include the blocking of flow by the body itself.
Velocities that are measured are lower than the velocities experienced around the body, thus a
blocking correction factor is needed to account for the blocking of flow. This correction factor, K
is expressed as:
1
[3] 𝐾= 2
1
[1+0.25( −1)]
𝑑 2
1−( 𝑏 )
𝑑𝑡

Where db is the diameter of the object, test model, or its wake; whichever is larger, and d t
is the diameter of the wind tunnel test section. The calculated value is then used to adjust the
drag coefficient.
4. Experimental Setup & Experiments
4.1 Experiment 1: Flow Patterns around Some Commonly Shaped
Objects

Figure 3: Idle Flow Visualization table with parts labeled.

In this experiment the flow visualization table was used to study flow at several different
Reynolds numbers and flow rates. It consists of a flat table with a transparent and removable
glass pane that allows for proper visuals of flow around certain objects. It is connected to a pipe
that supplies a constant flow of water at a constant rate that can be adjusted if needed. Dye
injectors are connected to the table and disperse a certain rate of dye that can also be adjusted if
needed. On the other side of the table is an exhaust/ drainage system that allows water to be
disposed of without affecting the experiment.
The dimensions of this table were 605mm in width, the length of distance from the glass
pane to the water was 13.4mm while the thickness of the glass pane itself was 9.8mm. Using
some mathematics, the thickness of the sheet of water flowing between the glass and the table is
calculated to be 3.57mm.
The experiment consisted of running water at a fairly high flow rate and allowing it to reach
a steady flow rate, injecting the vegetable dye solution into the water then inserting a specifically
shaped object and observing the flow patterns as they interact with the object via the dye. A total
of 6 shapes are used, while a total of 7 trials are conducted. The shapes being used are:
• A circle
• A circle with a roughened surface
• A square at 45 and 90 degrees
• A crescent moon
• A rectangle
• A streamlined body

Once the interactions have been discussed, pictures or sketches are to be taken in which they
will be used to conduct the report. A measurement of the Reynolds number is not required.

4.2 Experiment 2: Wind Tunnel Experiments for Drag

Figure 4: Various shapes put through the wind tunnel

The second portion of the lab focuses on calculating the drag coefficient of distinctly shaped
objects similar to the shapes of the first experiment. Those are:
• A smooth sphere
• A sphere with a small ridge
• A streamlined body
• A circular disk
• A hemispherical cup
• A cube at 45 and 90°
 The median in which the experiment is conducted is a wind tunnel that creates a uniform
velocity profile. The tunnel converges into a 12-inch diameter test section where the experiments
are to be conducted. A ½ hp powered propeller is position at the outlet end of the tunnel as
displayed in figure 2. The airspeed through the section of the wind tunnel where the objects are
positioned is read by an “alcohol under air” manometer. The afore-mentioned objects are to be
placed on a spindle connected to a spring in the test section that reads the values of drag
experienced by the objects on a scale. When conducting the experiment, the wind tunnel is to be
set at a velocity of 40 mph and the drag values measured recorded. The next object is then placed
in the test area and the previous object’s projected diameter measured, in which the next trial will
begin until drag values have been measured for all the shapes. Air temp. is then measured and
recorded as it is needed to find the viscosity of air at that given temperature and later, the
Reynolds number.
5. Results and Discussion
5.1 Results
5.1.1 Experiment 1: Flow Patterns around Some Commonly Shaped Objects
The table below shows the flow patterns of various 2D objects and the observations that
were made about each shape’s flow. the location where the wake seems to begin (i.e., the point
of separation) is labelled by the blue arrows and the extent of the wake region across the body
are labeled with the red lines.
Shapes Observations
Smooth Circle The point of separation starts just at the
front of the circle as the wake region
flows wider than the size of it too. You
can also the flow tries to curve into the
shape again towards the middle but
ultimately can’t.

Rough Circle The flows attaches itself more tightly to

the edges of the circle (front half)
resulting in a smaller wake than that of
the smooth circle.

Crescent Moon oriented towards flow Separation points are at the two horns of
the crescent with the wake being very
large having a long-lasting effect of the
flow behind. Also worth mentioning the
large buildup of fluid at the middle.
Crescent Moon oriented away from flow Tighter flow separation than previous
orientation making wake smaller and
wake region being smaller too. Point of
separation appear behind it as suppose to
in front of it as well as the wake region
being smaller.

Sqaure at 90̊ Point of separation on both corners of the

square as flow is trying to get closer to
the shape. Wake region is largely around
the square but most of it is behind.

Sqaure at 45̊ Very large wake region at the back of the

shape. It appears to be wider than the
previous orientation but it’s just due that
the height is larger in general. Point of
separation is just at the highest and
lowest corners and does not come back.

Rectangle The separation point appears at the front

corners of the rectangle. Wake region
expands larger than the shape with a
long-lasting effect.
 No (to very miniscule) separation points
around shape. Flow goes smoothly
around the shape with no wake region
besides a little one at the end tip.

Streamlined Body

5.1.2 Experiment 2: Wind Tunnel Experiments for Drag

Total Drag Experimental Reynolds Theoretical
Shape (lbs) Cd number Cd % difference
Circular disc 0.28 1.46 88036 1.10 28.1%
Hemispherical cup 0.26 1.59 82208 1.42 11.3%
Smooth sphere 0.08 0.46 82541 0.42 9.10%
Rough sphere 0.04 0.24 82875 0.28 15.4%
Streamlined 0.01 0.10 64677 0.07 35.3%
Cube at 90̊ 0.27 1.08 90356 1.05 2.82%
Cube at 45̊ 0.10 1.00 90356 0.80 22.2%
Table 1. Theoretical and Experimental Drag Coefficients

Table 1 shows a comparison between theoretical and experimentally determined (and

adjusted with the correction factor, ‘K’) drag coefficients for each 3D shape. The net-drag
experienced by each shape is also noted for discussion.

5.2 Discussion
5.2.1 Experiment 1: Flow Patterns around Some Commonly Shaped Objects
It is important to remember that bodies with smaller wakes typically have less form drag,
and subsequently less drag overall. Each of the shapes tested and visualized in this lab
experiment has their own unique wake region associated with them.
For the streamlined body, the resistance of flow is minimal as this shape is specifically
made to have very minimal to no drag. The wake region is substantially less than every other
shape meaning it likely has the least drag out of all the shapes.
 For the circular shapes (rough and smooth circle), there is visibly more resistance present
than the streamlined shape. Because the shapes are blunter than the streamlined body, they both
experience wakes. Both circles experience different separation points with the rough circle
separating at the back, and the smooth circle separating at the front. This could be explained by
the roughness element (40̊ tips) where the separation points break on the smooth circle, thus
allowing for the boundary layer to continue along the shape for the rough circle. It’s assumed
that this is due to the high pressure along the boundary, making the fluid hold closer to the rough
circle for a longer period.
The 90̊ and 45̊ squares showed similar results to that of the circles, but this had a bigger
wake region. The 45̊ square has its point of separation along the four top and bottom corners
while the 90̊ square’s separation points occur in the two highest corners, thus resulting in
different wake regions. The 45̊ square’s wake region is slightly larger due to the size, the wake
region for the 90̊ square encompasses nearly the whole surface that meets the fluid (excluding
the front.) It’s expected that the drag experienced on the 45̊ square (of similar dimensions to the
90̊ square) will be larger, but the drag coefficient will likely be smaller as a result considering it
visibly resists separation slightly better.
The crescent moon shape facing away from the flow shows similar results to the circle
with no roughness but shows separation more visibly in the rear section. The wake region is
similarly large to the circle. It’s expected that this shape will experience similar drag to the
circle, potentially less due to the sharp tips oriented at the top and bottom of the crescent
affecting separation slightly. The crescent moon shape oriented towards the flow showed the
highest amount of resistance/disturbance to the streamline flow. Theoretically this shape will
experience the most drag due to the larger amount of fluid that stagnates in front of the shape,
accompanied by large wake sizes like the circle.
Finally, the rectangle experienced a large wake with separation points forming at the top
and bottom corners, like that of the square. The shape likely experienced a large amount of drag
due to both flow stagnation and wake size, drag force will likely be smaller than that of the
crescent moon opening towards the flow.
In terms of potential sources of errors, neglecting to clean air bubbles may cause
problems with representing turbulently flowing water. One observation made from the flow table
is the tendency for fluid to flow over-top (in the z-axis) the flat shapes, potentially skewing the
observation of wakes and separation points. Additionally, as more and more experiments were
conducted, less visualization dye was available meaning observations for shapes performed later
may be less than observations performed with excess dye.

5.2.2 Experiment 2: Wind Tunnel Experiments for Drag

From Table 1 it is observed that the Reynold’s number for the objects compared varies
between 64677 to 126619, with the variation likely occurring from the variation in flow
velocities due to the presence of the object in the wind tunnel. The Reynold’s numbers high
range (> 105) was expected since the air flow is ran at a high speed to create a turbulent flow.
The shapes are to be categorized as follows: hemispherical disk, circular disk, cube at 90̊, cube at
45̊, smooth sphere, rough sphere and streamlined body, this is from order of highest drag force to
lowest drag force respectively.
Of all the shapes in this experiment, the cube at 90-degrees to wind had the closest
experimental drag coefficient to its respective theoretical coefficient with a difference of 2.82%.
Additionally, the second closest was the smooth sphere with a difference of 9.10%. The
streamlined body had the furthest experimental drag coefficient to the expected theoretical value
with a difference of 35.5%. A reason this difference is so high might be because of the tool used
in measuring this, with some calculations it is shown that the streamlined body varies linearly to
the Reynolds number. If this is true then that means the higher our Reynolds number was (i.e
increasing the speed, Uo of the fan) would reduce our drag coefficient, Cd more making it close to
that of the theoretical.
This provides us insight into the testing method used as both shapes with close theoretical
and experimental results are blunt objects of a relatively large thickness. It’s believed the
thickness of the object may affect the experimental drag coefficient values as the flat disk was a
significantly less accurate to textbook values (28.1% difference) than the other primarily blunt
objects of larger thickness.
The drag coefficient values calculated in this experiment are consistent with the
observations in experiment 1. The blunter shapes (disc, hemispherical cup, and cubes) that
offered more resistance to the flow and had larger wake regions also had large drag coefficient
values and drag forces. The relatively more streamlined shapes (smooth and rough sphere,
streamlined body) that had less resistance to the flow and smaller wake regions experienced less
drag, and as a result, have lower drag coefficient values.
 With the wind tunnel experiment, mechanically differentiating lift and drag may be
difficult to do with the internal spring system, meaning that it is possible some of the drag force
may correspond to the non-recorded lift, and vice versa. Additionally, because of the level of
accuracy of the speed manometer, the exact flow velocity may differ from values reported
potentially skewing calculated Reynold values and drag coefficients. Finally, zeroing the
machine may have cause issues due to the precise nature of the spring system. If the spindle was
too tight, drag values would have been under recorded, and if the spindle was too loose, drag will
be overrepresented on the scale.
6. Conclusion
Experiment 1 provided a clear visual representation of form drag and skin friction
behaviour of fluids on differently shaped objects. The dye injected into the table was critical in
really observing the behaviour of flow around objects as the stagnation and reattachment points
were clearly visible and able to be observed and discussed about. The streamlines seen were
consistent with what was expected to happen when flow interacted with different bodies
submerged in water. Being able to observe this proved helpful in visualizing concepts talked
about in class which in turn deepens the understanding of said concepts.
Experiment 2 focused on calculating the form drag experienced by similarly shaped
objects in a wind tunnel with uniform velocity. Certain disparities were observed in the
calculations such as the Reynolds numbers and the drag coefficients. The calculated Reynolds
numbers ranged greatly over 64677 to 90356 which was interesting and were attributed to a
couple different reasons explained in the discussion. Overall, the results were not far from
expectations as it was displayed that the objects with larger wakes behind them also provided
larger drag coefficient values as well as larger drag forces acting on them, while the smoother
surfaced objects displayed a lower coefficient of drag.
Overall, these observations proved helpful in solidifying our understanding of the
relationships with the shape of an object and the forces acting on it when submerged in fluid.
7. References
Reitenbach, H. Laboratory 1: Wakes and Drag (2024) [Lab Handout]
University of Saskatchewan: Department of Civil Geological and Environmental
Engineering.

Reitenbach, H. CE315 Lab 2 – Pre-Lab Exp Slides. 2024. [PowerPoint Presentation]

University of Saskatchewan: Department of Civil Geological and Environmental
Engineering.

Table 7.3: White, F.M. (2008) Fluid mechanics. 6th edn. Boston: McGraw-Hill
Higher Education (McGraw-Hill series in mechanical engineering)

Munson, B.R., Young, D.F., Okiishi, T.H., Huebsch, W.W. Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics,
6th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey.

Reitenbach, H. CE315 Lab 2 – Wakes and Drags Pre Exp-Slides. 2023. [PowerPoint
Presentation] University of Saskatchewan: Department of Civil Geological and
Environmental Engineering.
8. Appendices
8.1 Appendix A: Lab Handout
CE 315 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics
Department of Civil, Geological, and Environmental Engineering
University of Saskatchewan
LABORATORY 2: Wakes and Drag (2024)
___________________________________________________________________________

Laboratory Safety for Lab 2

• Be careful with respect to the electrical fan located within the one end of the wind
tunnel (do not insert any foreign objects into the tunnel).
• Exercise caution if the floor becomes wet and therefore slippery.

Introduction
In this laboratory, students will study the flow patterns around objects immersed within a flow field and
the drag that is exerted on those objects. The lab is composed of two experiments:

• Experiment 1: Flow patterns around some commonly shaped objects

• Experiment 2: Wind tunnel experiments for drag

Objectives
The objectives of this lab are as follows:

• To study the two-dimensional flow pattern around objects of various shapes;

• To determine the drag coefficient for certain bluff and streamlined bodies in comparison to standard
textbook values; and
• To assess how the drag coefficient varies from one body shape to another and why.

Theory
When a body is submerged in a fluid flow, the force exerted on the body in the direction of flow is called
drag. The total drag on a body is made up of two components: skin friction and form drag. Skin friction is
due to the shear stresses acting on the surface of the body. On the surface of the body the “fluid sticks”
(i.e., there is “no slip” between the fluid and the surface of the body) which creates a velocity gradient
near the boundary (i.e., a variation of the velocity with distance from the surface of the body). A velocity
gradient in a flow results in shear stresses or “friction”.

Form drag results from pressure differences between a body's upstream and downstream sides when there
is flow around the body. Such pressure differences occur when a wake forms behind a body; a wake is a
low-pressure zone with counter-rotating vortices. Figure 1 shows a body with a wake. A wake is created
when the flow separates from a body's surface; this will occur on the back side of a body where a strong
adverse pressure gradient exists (i.e., pressure that increases in the direction of flow). A body with a wake
is called a "blunt body".

Points of Separation Wake

Extent of Wake

Figure 1. Photograph of the flow pattern around a cylinder for a Reynolds

number of R = 26 showing the wake region behind the body (photograph
reproduced from Van Dyke (1982)).

For a body with a wake, flow stagnates at the front of the body (i.e., the velocity goes to zero). The flow
stagnation creates a large pressure there. At the back of the body in the wake, pressure is low. This results
in a pressure difference on the front and back of the body. This imbalance in pressure forces causes the
body to be pushed in the direction of flow, which contributes to the total drag on the body. The smaller
the wake's extent across the body, the smaller the form drag on the body. If no wake forms behind a
body, the body is called "streamlined". A streamlined body will only have skin friction contributing to the
total drag force on the body.

The total drag force due to flow around a submerged object is typically given the symbol FD and is
calculated using the following equation:

2
𝐶𝐷 𝑈𝑂
[1] 𝐹𝐷 = 2
𝐴

where Cd is the drag coefficient; ρ is the density of the fluid; Uo is the velocity of the flow approaching
the body (or “free stream” velocity); and A is the projected area of the body (its area perpendicular to the
direction of flow). The drag coefficient depends on the shape of the body, the flow Reynolds number, and
the body’s surface roughness. However, for blunt bodies the dependence of the flow on the Reynolds
number is often neglected.
The Reynolds number is expressed in different ways for different shapes, so one must be alert to how the
Reynolds number is defined for a particular body. For example, for a cylinder of diameter d the Reynolds
number R is defined as:
𝜌𝑈𝑜2𝑑
[2] 𝑅= 𝜇

where µ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid. Typically, the “d” in the Reynolds number for other shapes
is some characteristic dimension of the body (e.g., the diameter of a sphere, the chord length for an
airplane wing, and width of the plate for a rectangular plate).

The skin friction component of the total drag force mostly depends on the surface area of the body and
the flow Reynolds number, but the roughness of the body also has an influence. The form drag
component of the overall drag force depends on projected area of the body, the roughness of the body for
some shapes such as spheres, and the Reynolds number.

Form drag can be orders of magnitude larger than skin friction for a blunt body. Since form drag is so
much larger than skin friction drag, and since form drag is due to wake formation, drag reduction on a
body most often comes by reducing the size of or eliminating its wake. One of the means to reduce a
wake is to cause separation of the flow from the body to start farther back on the body. This is done using
a boundary layer trip, such as by creating a roughness on the front of the body using a wire. Boundary
layers and trips will be discussed in more detail in Section 3 of the course.

Experiment 1: Flow Patterns around Some Commonly Shaped Objects

The flow visualization table that will be used for the first set of experiments consists of a flat table over
which a thin sheet of water is allowed to flow from one side to the other (i.e., from the source to the
drain). The flow on the table will set at a relatively high flow rate so that a wake forms behind the test
body, if a wake does indeed form for that particular body.
In these experiments, simple body shapes are to be studied. These shapes include the following:

• A circle, which represents a two-dimensional approximation to the flow past a cylinder or sphere;
• A circle with a roughened surface;
• A square at 45 and 90˚ to the flow, which represents a two-dimensional approximation to flow past
a cube set at 45 and 90˚ to the flow;
• A crescent moon facing upstream and downstream, which represents a two-dimensional
approximation of flow past a cup facing upstream and downstream;
• A rectangle, which represents a two-dimensional version of the flow around a circular disk; and
• A streamlined body, which represents a two-dimensional approximation of flow past an airfoil (the
shape of an airplane wing).
In the experiments, a vegetable dye solution will be used to create streaklines (i.e., dye streaks) through
the width of flow. Streaklines can be thought of as a record of the path a fluid element in the flow takes
over a certain period. For steady flow, where the flow rate does not change with time, the streaklines
show the streamlines for the flow (they are equivalent). Along a streamline, the velocity vector is tangent
to the streamline at any point along its length. A group of streamlines shows the flow pattern around the
body.

In turn, the various shaped objects are to be placed on the table and the flow pattern observed and
sketched or photographed. Be sure to make sure the camera is looking vertically towards the table; the
pictures should be in plan view and not at an oblique angle to the table.

The Reynolds numbers of the flow around the various shapes for these visualization experiments do not
have to be measured.

Experiment 2: Wind Tunnel Experiments for Drag

An Aerolab wind tunnel (see Figure 2) will be used to carry out tests to determine the drag coefficients of
several differently shaped bodies:

• A smooth sphere;
• A sphere with a small ridge;
• A streamlined body;
• A circular disk;
• A hemispherical cup; and
• A cube at an angle to the main direction of flow (i.e., the angle of incidence) of 45 and 90˚.

The entrance to the wind tunnel is baffled to create a uniform velocity profile. The tunnel converges to a
12-inch (305 mm) diameter test section in which the experiments will be conducted. A propeller fan at
the outlet of the tunnel, which is powered by a 1/2 hp (0.373 kW) motor, drives the flow through the
tunnel. Drag forces on a body placed in the wind tunnel are measured directly using stainless steel
flexural springs.

The airspeed through the section of the wind tunnel where the test bodies are placed is read directly on an
inclined differential “alcohol under air” manometer (specific gravity = 0.812 at 70°F (21.1°C) for the
alcohol). The inclined leg of the manometer is connected to a manifold placed in the flow in the upstream
end of the test section. There are four equally spaced holes in the manifold. The other leg of the
manometer is connected to atmosphere. The pressure difference read by the manometer is related directly
to the flow velocity, and its the air speed that the manometer indicates on the wind tunnel.

Each body should be placed in the wind tunnel, and the drag force on the body measured. Please take
pictures of the body and make sure to measure the dimensions of each body using the digital callipers that
will be made available. The projected area of the body must be determined to calculate the drag
coefficient of the body.
 Figure 2. Aerolab wind tunnel to be used for the experiments.

For the tests, the wind tunnel should be set at a velocity of 40 mph (64.4 km/h). Start the wind tunnel and
close the ventilation slot until the airspeed is 40 mph. The slot opening and airspeed can be accurately
controlled by rotating the knob under the entrance cone. Read the drag scale and record this as the tare
drag of the balance spindle. Next, shut off the wind tunnel and lock the balance spindle with the clamp.
Attach another body to the adapter at the top of the balance spindle. The body should be mounted
upstream from the spindle as far ahead as possible. Unlock the spindle, zero the drag scale again, start the
wind tunnel, and read the drag force for 40 mph. Repeat the procedure for the other bodies. Remember to
clamp the balance spindle when models are being changed, otherwise the flexural unit may be damaged.

During the testing, please take the air temperature in the room. This is needed to find the air viscosity for
calculating the Reynolds number of the flow. Also record the diameter of the test section of the wind
tunnel, as this is needed for development of the wind tunnel correction factors.

Table 1 can be used to record your collected data from the experiments.

Wind Tunnel Corrections

Use of a wind tunnel causes test conditions that are somewhat different from if the body was in an
unconfined flow. Therefore, corrections are sometimes applied to wind tunnel drag measurements to
better simulate unconfined conditions.

First, the wind tunnel is essentially a pipe flow, and we know that there is a pressure drop created along
the flow that acts to drive the flow. This means then that there are different surrounding pressures at the
front of the back of the body. This induces a force in the direction of flow on the body called “horizontal
buoyancy," which would add to the measured drag force. However, horizontal buoyancy tends only to be
important when the test body is long and it is tested under high velocities. For the current experiments, no
horizontal buoyancy corrections need to be undertaken.
However, a blocking correction is needed for the velocity in the wind tunnel because the body blocks part
of the area within the wind tunnel. Measured velocities are lower than what actually exists around the
body in the wind tunnel. We know that velocities increase in a pipe with constriction in the flow based on
conservation of mass. This effect can be taken into account by using a correction factor to the drag
coefficient.
For your calculations in this lab, calculate the drag coefficient for each body tested in the wind tunnel
experiments directly from the measured force and velocity. Then, adjust the drag coefficient using the
correction factor to account for blocking. This drag coefficient correction factor is calculated using

[3]

where db is the diameter of the body or test model or its wake, whichever is larger, and d t is the diameter
of the wind tunnel test section.

Presentation, Analysis and Discussion of Results

In the report for this lab, for the results of Experiment 1, incorporate pictures of the flow patterns
observed for each of the test objects. For the case where a wake forms, the location where the wake
seems to begin (i.e., the point of separation), and the extent of the wake region across the body are to be
labeled in your pictures or sketches. Also, provide a discussion of how the flow features observed might
influence the drag created on the object. Tie these observations together with the results of Experiment 2.
The drag test measurements are to be recorded using Table 1; this table is to be included in an appendix
of your report.
Compare the drag coefficients that are measured to standard drag coefficients for the various
shapes found in textbooks. Drag coefficients for various bodies are given in the pre-lab slides. The
reference source is to be noted in your report.

You will need to make a series of calculations to find the drag coefficient and the Reynolds
number of the flow around each body. Include a sample calculation for one of the bodies in an appendix
to your report.

References
Van Dyke, M. (1982) An Album of Fluid Motion, The Parabolic Press: Stanford, California, USA, 176 pp.
Table 1. Data collection table for wind tunnel tests.

Shape Diameter/ Indicated Total Tare Net Measured

Dimensions Air Speed Drag (lbs) Drag Drag
(mm) (mph) (lbs) (lbs) Coefficient,
Cd
Circular Disc
 Hemispherical Cup
Facing Upstream

Smooth Sphere

Roughened Sphere

Streamlined Body

Cube at angle of
90˚ to wind

Cube at angle of
45˚ to wind

Room temperature (C): __________

Wind tunnel diameter (mm): __________

8.2 Appendix B: Sample Calculations
8.2 Appendix C: Raw Data