TRAINING

NOTES
LEVEL-2
ULTRASONIC TESTING
ThecontentsoftheseTrainingNotesareinaccordancewithNCNDTDocument“Requirements for
Qualification and Certification of NDT Personnel (PCP-11A Rev: 0)” which specifies the
syllabi based on IAEA Tech Doc-628, and ASNT-CP-105.
 CONTENTS

1. GENERALKNOWLEDGE.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 1

1.1. BASICPRINCIPLESOFNON-DESTRUCTIVETESTING(NDT)... 1
1.2. MATERIALS.. . .. . . ... . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. 15
1.3 PRIMARYPROCESSESANDRELATEDDISCONTINUITIES... 21
1.4 MANUFACTURING PROCESSES AND RELATED 27
DISCONTINUITIES........................................
1.5 MATERIALSINSERVICE................................... 42
1.6 QUALITY ANDSTANDARDIZATION.. ........ ..... .... .... . 47

2. TERMINOLOGY, PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES AND FUNDAMENTALS 51

OFULTRASONICS . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .
2.1 THENATUREOFULTRASONIC WAVES.. .... .... ... .... ... . 51
2.2 CHARACTERISTICSOFWAVEPROPAGATION. ..... .... .... . 54
2.3 TYPESOFULTRASONICWAVESANDTHEIRAPPLICATIONS.. 57
2.4 BEHAVIOUROFULTRASONICWAVES.. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . 61
2.5 THECHARACTERISTICSOFTHE ULTRASONICBEAM........ 69
2.6 SCATTERINGOFULTRASONICWAVES..................... 74
2.7 ABSORPTIONOFULTRASONICWAVES.................... 74
2.8 DIFFRACTION.. . .. . ... . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. 74
2.9 OVERALLEFFECTOFATTENUATION...................... 75

3. BASIC ULTRASONIC TESTING TECHNIQUES AND THEIR 76

LIMITATIONS..................................................
3.1 BASICULTRASONICTESTMETHODS...... ................. 76
3.2 TECHNIQUES.. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. . 80
3.3 PHASEDARRAY. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . 84
3.4 TIMEOFFLIGHTDIFFRACTION......... ......... .......... 87

4. ULTRASONICEQUIPMENTANDACCESSORIES .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . . 89

4.1 CONSTRUCTIONANDMODEOFOPERATIONOFULTRASONIC 89
EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 CHARACTERISTICSOFEQUIPMENT ANDSYSTEMCONTROLS 98
4.3 SIGNALPRESENTATION. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . 100
4.4 RECORDINGINSTRUMENTS. ............... ............... 102
4.5 SENSORS. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

5. CALIBRATIONOFTHETESTINGSYSTEM...................... 110

5.1 PURPOSEOFCALIBRATION................................. 110

5.2 STANDARDTESTBLOCKS.................................. 111
5.3 EQUIPMENTCHARACTERISTICS............................. 120
C-41(May13)

5.4 CALIBRATIONWITHNORMALPROBES....................... 124

5.5 CALIBRATIONWITHANGLEPROBES......................... 127
5.6 CALIBRATIONINCURVEDWORKPIECES..................... 131
 5.7 CONSTRUCTIONOFDACUSINGREFERENCEBLOCKS.......... 132
5.8 COUPLINGMEDIUM....................................... 133

6. SPECIFICAPPLICATIONS........................................ 134

6.1 METHODSOFEXAMINATION............................... 134

6.2 WELDEDWORKPIECES.................................... 150
6.3 EXAMINATIONOFT-WELDS................................ 159
6.4 EXAMINATIONOFNOZZLEWELDS.......................... 161

7 CODES,STANDARDS,SPECIFICATIONSANDPROCEDURES...... 164

7.1 CODES, STANDARDS, SPECIFICATIONS RELATED TO

ULTRASONICTESTING.................................... 164
7.2 EXAAMINATION,TESTINGANDINSPECTION............... 164
7.3 STANDARDS,CODES,SPECIFICATIONSANDPROCEDURES. 164
7.4 PROTOCOLS,REPORTSANDRECORDS...................... 165
7.5 STANDARDIZATIONORGANIZATIONS....................... 165
7.6 TYPESOFSTANDARDS . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . 166
7.7 ASMEBOILERANDPRESSUREVESSELCODE.. .. ... .. ... .. . 170

8. RECORDINGANDEVALUATIONOFTESTRESULTS... ......... . 175

8.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF DEFECTS AND NEED FOR PROPER 175

EVALUATIONOFRESULTS............... ..................
8.2 RECORDIBILITYOFDEFECTS.. . .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. . . 175
8.3 DATATOBERECORDEDINUTDURINGFABRICATION....... 176
8.4 DEFECTCHARACTERIZATION............ .................. 177
8.5 DETERMINATIONOFNATUREOFDEFECTS................. 181
 1. GENERALKNOWLEDGE

BASICPRINCIPLESOFNON-DESTRUCTIVETESTING(NDT)

DefinitionandMethodologyofApplicationsofBasicNDT Methods

Non-destructivetestingis theuseofphysical methods which will test materials, components and

assemblies for flaws in their structure without damaging their future usefulness. NDT is
concerned with revealing flaws in the structure of a product. It, however, cannot predict where
flaws will develop due to the design itself. All NDT methods have the following common
characteristics:
a) Theapplicationofatestingmediumto theproduct tobetested.

b) Thechanges inthetestingmedium dueto thedefects inthestructureoftheproduct.

c) Ameans bywhichit detects thesechanges.

d) Interpretation of these changes to obtain information about the flaws in the structure of the
product.

ImportanceofNDT

NDT plays an important rolein thequalitycontrol ofaproduct. It is used duringall thestages of

manufacturing of a product. It is used to monitor the quality of the:
a) Rawmaterialswhichareusedintheconstructionofthe product.

b) Fabricationprocesseswhichareusedtomanufacturethe product.

c) Finishedproductbeforeitis putinto service.

UseofNDTduring allstagesofmanufacturingresultsinthefollowingbenefits:

a) It increases thesafetyand reliabilityoftheproduct duringoperation.

b) It decreases the cost of the product by reducing scrap and conserving materials, labour and
energy.

c) Itenhancesthereputation ofthemanufacturerasproducerofqualitygoods.
All of the above factors boost the sales of the product which bring more economical benefits to
themanufacturer. NDTis also used widelyfor routineorperiodicdetermination ofqualityofthe
plants and structures during service. This not only increases the safety of operation but also
eliminates any forced shut down of the plants.

NDT methods

Themethods ofNDT rangefrom thesimpleto thecomplicated. Visual inspection is thesimplest of

all. Surface imperfections invisible to the eye may be revealed by penetrant or magnetic
methods. If really serious surface defects are found, there is often little point in proceeding to
more complicated examinations of the interior by Ultrasonics or radiography. NDT methodsmay
be divided into groups for the purposes of these notes: conventional and non-conventional.

1
 To the first group may belong the methods which are commonly used and include visual or
optical inspection, liquid penetrant testing, magnetic particle testing, eddy current testing,
radiographic testing and ultrasonic testing. The second group of NDT methods are those used
only for specialized applications and consequently are limited in use. Some of these methods
which are beingmentioned here merelyas a curiosityfor the reader include neutron radiography,
acoustic emission, thermal and infrared testing, strain sensing, microwave techniques, leak
testing, holography etc. It must also be remembered that no one of these methods can give us
solutions to all the possible problems, i.e. they are not optional alternatives but rather
complementary to each other. The basic principles, typical applications, advantages and
limitations of the methods of group one will now be briefly described.
Visualtesting (VT)
Often overlooked in any listing of NDT methods, visual inspection is one of the most common
and most powerful means of non-destructive testing. Visual testing requires adequateillumination
of the test surface and proper eye-sight of the tester. To be most effective visual inspection does
however, merit special attention because it requires training (knowledge of product and process,
anticipated service conditions, acceptance criteria, record keeping, for example) and it has its
own range of equipment and instrumentation. It is also a fact that all defects found by other NDT
methods ultimately must be substantiated by visual inspection. Visual testing can be classified as
direct visual testing, remote visual testing and translucent visual testing. The most common NDT
methods MT and PT are indeed simplyscientific ways of enhancingtheindication
tomakeitmorevisible. OftentheequipmentneededissimpleFig.1.1 a portable light, a mirror on
stem, a 2x or 4x hand lens, one illuminated magnifier with magnification 5x or 10x. For internal
inspection, light lens systems such as borescopes allow remote surfaces to be examined. More
sophisticated devices of this nature using fibre optics permit the introduction of the device into
very small access holes and channels. Most of these systems provide for the attachment of a
camera to permit permanent recording.

FIG.1.1.Variousopticalaidsusedinvisual inspection.
(a)Mirroronstem(b)Handmagnifyingglass(c) Illuminatedmagnifier
(d)Inspection glass(e)Borescopeor intrascope

2
Theapplicationsofvisualtestinginclude:

a) Checkingofthesurfaceconditionofthetest specimen.

b) Checkingofalignmentofmatingsurfaces.

c) Checkingofshapeofthecomponent.

d) Checkingforevidenceofleaking.

e) Checkingforinternalside defects.

Liquidpenetranttesting(PT)
This is a method which can be employed for the detection of open-to-surface discontinuities in
anyindustrialproductwhichismade from anon-porousmaterial. Thismethodiswidelyused for
testing of non-magnetic materials. In this method a liquid penetrant is applied to the surface of
the product for a certain predetermined time, after which the excess penetrant is removed from
the surface. The surface is then dried and a developer is applied to it. The penetrant which
remains in the discontinuity is absorbed by the developer to indicate the presence as well as the
location, size and nature of the discontinuity. The process is illustrated in Fig. 1.2.

Penetrants used are either visible dye penetrant or fluorescent dye penetrant. The inspection for
the presence of visible dye indications is made under white light while inspection of presence of
indications byfluorescent dyepenetrant is madeunderultraviolet (orblack)light underdarkened
conditions. The liquid penetrant processes are further sub-divided according to the method of
washingofthespecimen. Thepenetrantscanbe:(i)water-washable,(ii)post-emulsifiable,i.e.an
emulsifierisaddedto the excesspenetranton surface ofthespecimentomakeit water-washable, and
(iii) solvent removable, i.e. the excess penetrant is needed to be dissolved in a solvent to remove
it from the test specimen surface.

In order of decreasing sensitivityand decreasingcost, the liquid penetrant processes can be listed
as:

a) Postemulsifiablefluorescentdyepenetrant.
b) Solventremovablefluorescentdyepenetrant.
c) Waterwashablefluorescentdyepenetrant.
d) Postemulsifiablevisibledye penetrant.
e) Solventremovablevisibledye penetrant.
f) Waterwashablevisibledye penetrant.

Theadvantagesofliquidpenetranttestingareas follows:
a) Relativelylowcost.
b) Highlyportable NDT method.
c) Highlysensitiveto fine,tight discontinuities.
d) Fairlysimple method.
e) Can beused onavarietyof materials.
Allsurfacediscontinuitiesopentothesurfacearedetectedinoneoperation,regardlessof orientation.
3
Thelimitationsofliquidpenetranttestingareas follows:

a) Testsurfacemustbefree ofallcontaminants(dirt,oil,grease,paint,rust,etc.).
b) Detectssurfacediscontinuitiesonly.
c) Cannotbeused onporous specimensandis difficultto useon veryrough surfaces.
d) Removalofallpenetrantmaterials,followingthetest,isoftenrequired.
e) Thereis noeasymethodtoproducepermanent record.

FIG.1.2.Differentstagesofliquidpenetrantprocess.

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Magneticparticletesting(MT)
Magneticparticletestingisusedforthetestingof materialswhichcanbe easilymagnetized.This method
is capable of detecting open to surface and just below the surface flaws. In this method the test
specimen is first magnetized either by using a permanent or an electromagnet or by passing
electric current through or around the specimen. The magnetic field thus introduced into the
specimen is composed of magnetic lines of force. Whenever there is a flaw which interrupts the
flow of magnetic lines of force, some of these lines must exit and re-enter the specimen. These
points of exit and re-entry form opposite magnetic poles. Whenever minute magnetic particles
are sprinkled onto the surface of such a specimen, these particles are attracted by these magnetic
poles. Whenever minute magnetic particles are sprinkled onto the surface of such a specimen,
these particles are attached by these magnetic poles to create a visual indication approximating
the size and shape of the flaw. Fig. 1.3 illustrates the basic principles of this method.

FIG.1.3.Basicprinciple ofmagneticparticle testing.

Depending on the application, there are different magnetization techniques used in magnetic
particle testing. These techniques can be grouped into the following two categories:
a) Direct current techniques: These are the techniques in which the current flows through the
test specimen and the magnetic field produced by this flow of current is used for the
detection of defects. These techniques are shown in Fig 1.4 (a, b & c).
b) Magnetic flux flow techniques: In these techniques magnetic flux is induced into the
specimen either by the use of a permanent magnet or by flowing current through a coil or a
conductor. These techniques are shown in Fig 1.4 (d–g).

5
Advantagesofmagnetic particletestingincludethe following:

a) Itdoesnotneed verystringentpre-cleaningoperation.
b) Bestmethodforthedetectionoffine,shallowsurface cracksinferromagnetic material.
c) FastandrelativelysimpleNDTmethod.
d) Generallyinexpensive.
e) Willworkthroughthincoating.
f) Fewlimitationsregardingthesize/shapeoftestspecimens.
g) Highlyportable NDT method.
h) Itis quicker.

FIG1.4.Differentmagnetizationsusedinmagneticparticle testing.
6
Thelimitationsofmagneticparticletestingincludethe following:

a) Materialmustbe ferromagnetic.
b) Orientationandstrength ofmagneticfieldiscritical.
c) Detectssurfaceandnear-to-surfacediscontinuities only.
d) Largecurrentssometimes required.
e) “Burning”oftestpartsisapossibility.
f) Partsmustoften bedemagnetized,which maybedifficult.

Eddycurrent testing(ET)
This method is widely used to detect surface flaws, to sort materials, to measure thin walls from
one surface only, to measure thin coatings and in some applications to measure case depth. This
method is applicable to electrically conductive materials only. In the method eddy currents are
produced in the product by bringing it close to an alternating current carrying coil. The
alternatingmagnetic fieldofthe coilismodified bythe magnetic fieldsof theeddycurrents. This
modification, which depends on the condition of the part near to the coil, is then shown as ameter
readingor cathode raytube presentation. Fig. 1.5 gives the basic principles of eddycurrent testing.

There are three types of probes Fig. 1.6 used in eddy current testing. Internal probes are usually
used for the in-service testing of heat exchanger tubes. Encircling probes are commonly used for
the testing of rods and tubes during manufacturing. The uses of surface probes include the
location of cracks, sorting of materials, measurement of wall and coating thickness, and case
depth measurement.

This method maybeusedfor:

a) Forthedetectionofdefectsin tubings.
b) Forsortingmaterials.
c) Formeasurementofthinwallthickness’fromone surface only.
d) Formeasuringthin coatings.
e) Formeasuringcasedepth.

Theadvantagesofeddycurrenttestinginclude:

a) Doesnotrequirecouplant.
b) Itgivesinstantaneous response.
c) Hasuncomplicatedsteps duringset-up.
d) Is extremelysensitivetoflaws.
e) Is veryrepeatable.
f) Highscanningspeedscanbeused.
g) Isveryaccuratefordimensionalanalysisofflawsorcoatingthickness.

7
Thelimitations ofeddycurrent testingincludethefollowing:

a) Thetheoryrequiresagoodacademicbackgroundinelectricalprinciplesandin mathematics.
b) Extremelysensitivetosurfacevariationsandthereforerequiresa goodsurface.
c) Itisapplicabletoconductormaterialsonly.
d) Can be used on non-magnetic and magnetic material but is not reliable on carbon steel for
the detection of subsurface flaws.
e) Itsdepthofpenetrationislimited.
f) Crack tightness and orientation of eddy current flow to a crack or linear discontinuity will
affect detectability.

FIG1.5.(a)Generationofeddycurrents inthetest specimen.

(b)Distortionof eddycurrents dueto defect.

8
 FIG1.6.Typesofprobesusedineddycurrent testing.
(a) InternalCoil
(b) EncirclingCoil
(c) Surface Probe

Radiographictestingmethod(RT)
The radiographic testing method is used for the detection of internal flaws in many different
materials and configurations. An appropriate radiographic film is placed behind the testspecimen
Fig. 1.7 and is exposed by passing either X-rays or gamma rays (Co-60 & Ir-192 radioisotopes)
through it. The intensity of the X-rays or gamma rays while passing through the
productismodified accordingtotheinternalstructureofthespecimen and thustheexposedfilm, after
processing, reveals the shadow picture, known as a radiograph, of the product. It is then
interpreted to obtain data about the flaws present in the specimen. This method is used on wide
variety of products such as forgings, castings and weldments.

FIG1.7.Arrangementforradiographictesting method.

9
Theadvantages ofradiographictestinginclude:

a) Itcanbeusedtoinspectlargeareasatonetime.
b) Itisusefulonwidevarietyofmaterials.
c) Itcanbeusedfor checkinginternalmalstructure,misassemblyor misalignment.
d) Itprovidespermanent record.
e) Nocalibrationneededon thejobsite.
f) Devicesforcheckingthequalityofradiographareavailable.
g) Interpretationofradiographscanbedoneincomfortable conditions.

Someofthelimitations ofthismethod are:

a) X-raysandgammaraysarehazardoustohumanhealth.TheAgency’sRadiationSafety Series are

referred for personal safety and radiation protection.
b) Itcannotdetectplanardefectsreadily.
c) Accesstobothsidesofthespecimenis required.
d) Thicknessrangethatcan beinspectedislimited.
e) Certainareasinmanyitemscannotberadiographedbecauseofthegeometric consideration.
f) Sensitivityofinspectiondecreaseswith thicknessofthetest specimen.
g) Itismore costly.
h) Itcannotbeeasilyautomated.
i) Itrequires considerableskillfortheinterpretationofthe radiographs.
j) Depth ofdiscontinuitynotindicated.

Ultrasonictesting(UT)
Ultrasonic inspection is a non-destructive method in which high frequency sound waves are
introduced into the material being inspected. Most ultrasonic inspection is done at frequencies
between 0.5 and 20 MHz, well above the range of human hearing which is about 20 Hz to 20
kHz. The sound waves travel through the material with some loss of energy (attenuation) due to
material characteristics. The intensity of sound waves is either measured, after reflection (pulse
echo) at interfaces (or flaw) or is measured at the opposite surface of the specimen (pulse
transmission). The reflected beam is detected and analysed to define the presence and location of
flaws. The degree of reflection depends largely on the physical state of matter on the opposite
side of the interface, and to a lesser extent on specific physical properties of that matter, for
instance, sound waves are almost completely reflected at metal-gas interfaces. Partial reflection
occurs at metal-liquid or metal-solid interfaces. Ultrasonic testing has a superior penetrating
power than radiography and can detect flaws deep in the test specimen (say up to about 6 to 7
metre of steel). It is quite sensitive to small flaws and allows the precise determination of the
location and size of the flaws. The basic principle of ultrasonic testing is illustrated in Fig. 1.8.
Theultrasonictestingmethod is:
a) Mostlyused fordetection offlaws in materials.
b) Widelyusedfor thicknessmeasurement.

10
c) Usedforthedeterminationofmechanicalpropertiesandgrainstructureof materials.
d) Usedforthe evaluationofprocessingvariablesonmaterials.

(a) (b)
FIG1.8.Basiccomponentsofanultrasonicflawdetection system.
(a)Pulseechomethod(top). (b)Throughtransmissionmethod(bottom).

Someoftheadvantagesofultrasonictesting are:

a) Ithashighsensitivitywhichpermitsdetectionof minutedefects.
b) Ithashighpenetratingpower(oftheorderof6to7metresinsteel)whichallows examination of
extremely thick sections.
c) Ithasahighaccuracyof measurementof flawpositionand size.
d) Ithasfastresponsewhichpermitsrapidandautomatic inspection.
e) It needs access to onlyonesurfaceofthe specimen.

Someofthelimitations ofthismethod are:

a) Unfavourable geometryofthetestspecimencausesproblemsduringinspection.
b) Inspectionofmaterialshavingundesirableinternalstructureisdifficult.
c) Itrequirestheuseofacouplant.
d) Theprobemust be properlycoupled during scanning.
e) Defectorientationaffectsdefect detectability.
f) Equipmentisquiteexpensive.
g) Highlyskilled manpoweris required.
h) Referencestandardsand calibrationare required.
i) Roughsurfacescanbeaproblemandsurfacepreparationisnecessary.

11
1. Fieldsofapplicationofcommonmethods

Thesehavebeengiven underrespectiveNDTmethodsinSection 1.1.1.

2. Rangeandlimitationsofcommonmethods

Thesehavebeengiven underrespectiveNDTmethodsinSection 1.1.1.

3. NewdevelopmentsinNDT

SomerecentdevelopmentsintheindividualareasofNDTarebrieflyreviewed below:

4. AcousticEmission(AE)
Acoustic Emission (AE) is another technique finding increased applications. It is commonly
defined as generation of transient elastic waves within a material caused by the release of
localized stress energy which can be caused by sources not involving material failure including
friction, active corrosion, leakage, cavitation and impact. Additionally, events can also come
quite rapidlywhen materials begin to fail, in which case AE activity rates are studied as opposed
to individual events. AE events that are commonly studied among material failure processes
include the extension of a fatigue crack, or fibre breakage in composite materials.

AE tools have been designed for monitoring acoustic emissions produced within the material
during failure and part failure can be documented during unattended monitoring. The monitoring
of the level of AE activity during multiple load cycles forms the basis for many AE safety
inspection methods that allow the parts undergoing inspection to remain in service. In materials
under active stress, such as some components of an airplane during flight, transducers mountedin
an area can detect the formation of a crack at the moment it begins propagating. A group of
transducers can be used to record signals and then locate the precise area of their origin by
measuring the time for the sound to reach different transducers. The technique is also valuablefor
detecting cracks forming in pipelines transporting liquids under high pressures.

5. UltrasonicGuidedWaves
Use of ultrasonic guided waves is a suitable method for inspection of pipes over long distance
and can be efficiently used instead of conventional ultrasonic methods which are based on point
bypoint inspection. It offers manyadvantages such as high speed inspection over longdistances,
in service inspection of underwater or buried gas and oil pipelines, inspection of heat exchanger
tubes and bends and the possibility of inspecting parts and joining with complex geometry.

6. Thermalnon-destructivetesting(TNDT)
Thermal non-destructive testing (TNDT) is a particular application area of IR Thermography
(IRT) in condition monitoring and predictive maintenance.Applications of IRT include predictive
maintenance especially in aerospace, condition monitoring, several aspects of night vision,
inspection of electrical installations and building envelopes, inspection of welds for defects as
well components for fatigue cracks. Further development of TNDT has beenmotivated by the
introduction of composites and surface-protected metals in aerospace, power production and
some other fields of cutting-edge technologies. TNDT allows the detection of such defects in the
above-mentioned materials which can be difficult to detect using other NDT techniques. TNDT
allows for the rapid inspection of relatively large areas.

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7. NDTofConcreteStructuresandotherCeramic Materials
Concrete structures including buildings, bridges, roads and pavements etc present another large
sector for applications of NDT technology and due attention has been given to it during therecent
years. Because of special physical and mechanical properties of such structures the conventional
methods of NDT had to undergo major modifications in order to be suitable for use in this area.
Building diagnosis using non-destructive test methods is a key contributing factor to the repair
needed. The objective of condition assessment in existing buildings is to detect concealed
damage and its extent. In new buildings non-destructive diagnosis methods are used for
qualityassurance. In the field of service life determination the current buildingconditions are
determined and the potential development is estimated. Being able to manage the service life of
buildings in this way is very cost effective.

Most of the conventional NDT methods have, with adequate modifications, been adapted for use
in this sector. These include Visual Testing (VT), Electrical Potential Method, Schmidt Rebound
Hammer Test, Windsor Probe Test, Electromagnetic Covermeters, Radiographic Testing (RT),
Ultrasonic Testing (UT), Infra-red Thermography, Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR),
Radioisotope Thickness, Density and Moisture Gauges. Special bridge scanners using a
combination of several non-destructive test methods which enable testing and imaging of bridge
surfaces of several square meters have been developed along with a non-destructive method for
fixing the scanners to the structure. Portable equipment has been developed for the measurement
of damaging salts (e.g. chlorides and sulphates). The analysis uses the LIBS-method (Laser
Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy). The equipment represents an alternative to conventional
chemical analysis of building material samples, because the results are directly available on site.
Its use is intended both for damage assessment and quality assurance.

13
ResponsibilitiesofLevel-2 Certified
Commonlyusedstandardsforqualificationandcertificationofpersonneldefinethe responsibilities of
certified persons as follows.
Level-2
An individual certified to Level-2 has demonstrated competence to perform non-destructive
testing according to established procedures. Within the scope of the competence defined on the
certificate, Level-2 personnel may be authorized by the employer to:
a) SelecttheNDTtechniqueforthetestmethod tobeused;

b) Definethelimitationsofapplicationofthetestingmethod;

c) TranslateNDTcodes,standards,specificationsandproceduresintopracticaltesting instructions
adapted to the actual working conditions;

d) Set up and verifyequipment settings;

e) Performandsupervise tests;

f) Interpretandevaluateresultsaccordingtoapplicablecodes,standardsor specifications;

g) PreparewrittenNDTinstructions;

h) Carryoutand superviseall tasksatorbelow Level2;

i) Provideguidanceforpersonnelatorbelow Level2,and

j) Organizeandreporttheresultsofnon-destructive tests.

14
 MATERIALS

Structuresofmetalsand alloys
The properties of metals can be explained in terms of the manner in which the atoms of a metal
arebonded together. In this bond, called the"metallicbond", formed amongsimilarmetal atoms,
some electrons in the valence shell separate from their atom and exist in a cloud surrounding all
the positively charged atoms. These positively charged atoms arrange themselves in a very
orderly pattern. The atoms are held together because of their mutual attraction for the negative
electron cloud Fig. 1.9).

FIG.1.9.Schematicillustrationofametallicbond.

Crystalstructure

The mechanical properties of metals, then derive from their crystalline structure. That is, the
atoms in the solid state of a metal are arranged in definite three dimensional geometric patternsto
form crystals or grains of the metal. The network formed by joining the centre of the atoms ina
crystal is called the 'space lattice' or 'crystal lattice' of the metal. The smallest volume in aspace
lattice which properly represents the position of the atoms with respect to each other is known as
the unit cell. There are fourteen types of unit cells but the structures of most of the common and
commerciallyimportant metals in the solid state are constructed from the following three types of
unit cells:

i) Body-centeredcubic (BCC)
The body-centered cubic cell is made up of nine atoms. Eight are located on the corners of the
cube with the ninth positioned centrally between them Fig.. 1.10 a).

ii) Face-centeredcubic(FCC)
Face-centered cubic cells consist of fourteen atoms with eight at the corners and the other six
centered in thecube faces Fig. 1.10 b. Iron, which is body-centered cubicat room temperature, is
also of the face-centered structure in the temperature range from about 910 oC to 1400oC and is
called gamma iron or austenite.

15
 FIG.1.10.Crystaltypes
(a) Body-centredcubic(BCC)
(b) Face-centredcubic(FCC)
(c) Hexagonalclose-packed(HCP)
iii) Hexagonalclose-packed(HCP)
Seventeen atoms combineto makethehexagonal close-packed unit cell. Seven atoms arelocated
ineachhexagonal facewithoneateachcornerandtheseventhinthecentre.Thethreeremaining
atomstakeupatriangularpositioninthecentreofthecellequidistantfromthetwofacesFig.
1.10 c.

Grains(crystals)and grainboundaries

When a metal is cooled from the liquid state to the solid state, because cooling cannot be exactly
the same for everyatom, certain atoms will be attracted to each other to form a unit cell ahead of
others. This unit cell becomes the nucleus for crystal formation. As the cooling continues other
atoms will take up their positions alongside this nucleus and the crystals, or as it is usually
referred to for metals, the grain, will grow in size. This orderly growth of the grain continues in
all directions until it runs into interference from other grains that are forming simultaneously
about other nuclei. Fig. 1.11 illustrates the process of the formation of grains and grain
boundaries.
Although with some metals with special treatment it is possible to grow single crystals several
inches in diameter, in most metals at the usual cooling rates, a great number of crystals are
nucleated and grow at one time with different orientations. If two grains that have the same
orientation meet, they will join to form a larger grain, but if they are forming about differentaxes,
the last atoms to solidify between the growing grains will be attracted to each and must assume
compromise positions in an attempt to satisfy a double desire to join with each. These misplaced
atoms are in layers about the grains and are known as grain boundaries.

FIG.1.11. Growthof crystalsand grainsduring solidification.

16
Structureof alloys

An alloy is a substance that has metallic properties and is composed of two or more chemical
elements, of which at least one is a metal. Most commercially used metallic materials are notpure
metals but alloys which consist of more than one element. Some of them may be non-
metallicelements.Fundamentally,threemodesof arrangementofatomsorphasesexistinalloys. These
three modes (phases) are pure metal, solid solution and inter-metallic compound.

1.2.2 Physicalandmechanicalpropertiesofmaterials

Mechanical properties are defined as the properties of a material that reveal its elastic and
inelastic (plastic) behavior when force is applied, therebyindicatingits suitabilityfor mechanical
applications, for example, modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, elongation, hardness, and
fatigue limit. Other mechanical properties, not mentioned specifically above, are yield strength,
yield point, impact strength, and reduction of area, to mention a few of the more common terms.
In general, any property relating to the strength characteristics of materials is considered to be a
mechanical property. Physical properties relate to the physics of a metal such as density,
electrical properties, thermal properties, magnetic properties and the like. These and other
properties will be described here in slightly more detail.

Elasticityandplasticity

When stress or force is applied to a metal, it changes shape. For example a metal under a
compressive stress will shorten and metal in tension willlengthen. This change in shape is called
strain.Theabilityofmetaltostrainunderload andthenreturn toitsoriginalsizeandshape when
unloaded is called elasticity. The elastic limit (proportional limit) is the greatest load a material
can withstand and still spring back into its original shape when the load is removed. Within the
elastic range stress is proportional to strain and this is known as Hooke’s law. The relationship
betweenappliedstressorloadandtheconsequentstrainorchangeinlengthisshowninFIG
1.12. The end of the straight line portion is known as the elastic limit. A point on the curve
slightly higher than the elastic limit is known as the yield point or yield strength. The allowable
or safe load for a metal in service should be well below the elastic limit. If higher loads are
applied, however, the range of elasticity or elastic deformation is exceeded and the metal is now
permanently deformed. Now it will not return to its original dimensions even when the load is
removed. For this reason, the area of the stress strain curve beyond the elastic limit is called the
plastic range. It is this property that makes metals so useful. When enough force is applied by
rolling, pressingorhammerblows, metals can beformed, when hot orcold, into useful shapes. If
the application of load is increased in the plastic region a stage comes when the materialfractures.

A very important feature of the stress-strain curve must be pointed out. The straight-line orelastic
part of the stress-strain curve of a given metal has a constant slope. That is, it cannot be changed
by changing the microstructure or heat treatment. This slope, called the modulus of elasticity,
measures the stiffness of the metal in the elastic range. Changing the hardness or strength does
not change the stiffness of the metal. There is only one condition that changes the stiffness of
anygiven metal. That is temperature. The stiffness of anymetal varies inverselywith its
temperature; that is, as temperature increases, stiffness decreases, and vice versa.

17
 FIG1.12.Stress-straincurveshowingelasticandplasticportionsofatypical curve.

Strength

The strength of a metal is its ability to resist change in shape or size when external forces are
applied. There are three basic types of stresses namelytensile, compressive, and shear. When we
consider strength, the type of stress to which the material will be subjected must be known. Steel
has equal compressive and tensile strength, but cast iron has low tensile strength and high
compressive strength. Shear strength is less than tensile strength in virtually all metals.

The tensile strength of a material can be determined by dividing the maximum load by the
original cross-sectional area before testing. Thus:

Tensilestrength=(Maximumload)/(Originalcross-sectionalarea) (1.1)

Metals are “pulled” on a machine called a tensile tester. A specimen of known dimensions is
placed in the tensile testing machine and loaded slowly until it breaks. Instruments aresometimes
used to make a continuous record of the load and the amount of strain (proportional change in
length). This information is put on a graph called a stress-strain diagram. A stress- strain diagram
can be made for any metal.

Hardness

The hardness of a metal is its abilityto resist being permanently deformed. There are three ways
that hardness is measured; resistance to penetration, elastic hardness, and resistance to abrasion.
Hardness varies considerably from material to material. This variation can be illustrated by
making an indentation in a soft metal such as aluminium and then in a hard metal such as alloy
tool steel. The indentation could be made with an ordinary centre punch and a hammer, giving a
light blow of equal force on each of the two specimens. In this case just by visual observationone
can tell which specimen is harder. Of course, this is not a reliable method of hardnesstesting, but
it does show one of the principles of hardness testers; measuring penetration of the specimen by
an indenter or penetrator, such as a steel ball or diamond point.

Rockwell, Vicker and Brinell hardness testers are the most commonly used types of hardness
testers for industrial and metallurgical purposes. Heat treaters, inspectors, and many others in
industry often use these machines. The Rockwell hardness test is made by applying two loads toa
specimen and measuring the difference in depth of penetration in the specimen between the
minor load and the major load.

18
The Brinell hardness test is made by forcing a steel ball, usually 10 millimetres (mm) indiameter,
into the test specimen byusing a known load weight and measuringthe diameter of the resulting
impression. A small microscope is used to measure the diameter of the impressions. Various
loads are used for testing different materials, for example, 500 kilograms (kg) for soft materials
such as copper and aluminium and 3000 kg for steels and cast irons. Generally the harder the
material is, the greater its tensile strength will be, that is, its ability to resist deformation and
rupture, when a load is applied.

Ductility

The property that allows a metal to deform permanently when loaded in tension is called
ductility. Any metal that can be drawn into a wire is ductile. Steel, aluminium, gold, silver, and
nickel are examples of ductile metals.

The tensile test is used to measure ductility. Tensile specimens are measured for area and length
between gauge marks before and after they are pulled. The per cent of elongation (increase in
length) and the per cent of reduction in area (decrease of area at the narrowest point) are
measures of ductility. A high per cent elongation (about 40%) and reduction in area (about 70per
cent) indicates a high ductility. A metal showing less than 20 per cent elongation would have low
ductility.

Malleability

The ability of a metal to deform permanently when loaded in compression is called malleability.
Metals that can be hammered or rolled into sheets are malleable. Most ductile metals are also
malleable, but some very malleable metals such as lead are not veryductile and cannot be drawn
into wireeasily. Metals with lowductility, such as lead, can beextruded orpushed out ofadieto
form wire and other shapes. Some very malleable metals are lead, tin, gold, silver, iron and
copper.

Brittleness

A material that will not deform plastically under load is said to be brittle. Excessive coldworking
causes brittleness and loss of ductility. Cast iron does not deform plastically under a breaking
load and is therefore brittle.

A very sharp “notch” that concentrates the load in a small area can also reduce plasticity.Notches
are common causes of premature failure in parts. Weld undercut, sharp shoulders on machined
shafts, and sharp angles on forgings and castings are examples of unwanted notches (stress
raisers).
Notch toughness
Notch toughness (impact strength) is the ability of a metal to resist rupture from impact loading
when there is a notch or stress raiser present. A metal may show high ductility or strength when
tensile tested or be hard or soft when hardness tested, but often the behaviour of metals under
shock loads is not seemingly related to those properties. Of course, as a rule, a brittle metal such
as grey cast iron will fail under low shock loads; that is, its shock resistance is low, and soft
wrought iron or mild steel has a high shock resistance. But soft, coarse-grained metals will have
lower shock resistance than fine-grained metals. A notch or groove in a part will lower the shock
resistance of a metal, so a specific notch shape and dimension is machined on the test specimenin
order to give uniform results.

19
In general the tensile strength of a metal is changed in proportional to hardness. However, this
relationship does not always hold true at high hardness levels or with brittle materials because
these materials are more sensitive to stress concentrations, or notches, and may fracture
prematurely when stressed in tension.

Conductivity
Conductivity is a measure of the ability of a material to conduct electric current. It is the
reciprocal ofresistivity. Conductivityis commonlyexpressed as mhos per metresincetheunit of
resistivity is the ohm. The conductivity of metallic elements varies inversely with absolute
temperatureoverthenormalrangeoftemperaturesbutattemperaturesapproachingabsolutezero the
imperfections and impurities in the lattice structure of a material make the relationship more
complicated. Metals and materials exhibit a wide range of conductivity. Between the most
conductive substances (silver and copper) and the most resistive (polystyrene for example) the
difference amounts to 23 orders of magnitude.

Discontinuities,DefectsandIndications

Whenever there is a change in the homogeneity and uniformity of properties within a material, it
can invariably be attributed to the presence of discontinuities or imperfections (lack of material)
within the material. The discontinuities can take various shapes and forms such as gas inclusions
(microporosity, porosity, blowholes, pipes, voids), cracks, metallic inclusions, lack of
penetration, lack of fusion, shrinkage, laps and seams, etc.

Discontinuities should be characterized not only by their nature, but also by their shape. Planar
type discontinuities, such as cracks, laminations, incomplete fusion, and inadequate joint
penetration, create serious notch effects. Three-dimensional discontinuities create almost no
notcheffect,butamplifystressesbyreducingthe weldmentarea.Therefore,thecharacteristicsof
discontinuities which should always be considered include the size, acuity or sharpness,
orientation with respect to the principal working stress and residual stress, location with respect
to theexteriorsurfaces and thecritical sections of thestructure. Based on theseconsiderations all
discontinuitiesfoundduringNDTtestsshould be evaluated inthelightofapplicablestandardsor
procedures. If the discontinuities turn out to be rejectable accordingthe criteria specified in these
applicable documents then these are termed as 'defects'.

Inherited,ProcessingandserviceDiscontinuities
Discontinuitiescanbedividedintothreegeneralcategoriesinherent,processing,andservice.
a) Inherentdiscontinuitiesareusuallyformedwhenthemetalismolten.Therearetwofurther
subclassifications.Inherentwroughtdiscontinuitiesrelatetothemeltingandsolidification of
the original ingot before it is formed into slabs, blooms, and billets. Inherent cast
discontinuitiesrelatetothemelting,castingandsolidificationofacastarticle.

b) Processingdiscontinuitiesareusuallyrelatedto thevarious manufacturingprocessessuch as

machining, forming, extruding, rolling, welding, heat treating, and plating. During the
manufacturingprocess,manydiscontinuitiesthatweresubsurfacewillbemadeopentothe
surface by machining, grinding, etc.

c) Service discontinuities are related to the various service conditions, such as stress,
corrosion, fatigue and erosion. The discontinuities may alter the local stress distribution
and,inaddition,mayaffectthemechanicalorchemical(corrosionresistance)properties.
Alltheabovediscontinuities aredescribedundertheindividualprocessesinbelowSections.
20
PRIMARYPROCESSESANDRELATEDDISCONTINUITIES

Casting

Ingotandrelated discontinuities
A casting suitable for working or remelting is called ingot. The moulds into which molten metal
is poured to form ingots are made of grey cast iron, meehanite with large graphite flakes, and
anodized aluminium alloys. The inside surface of the mould is frequently coated with suitable
materials to help form a smooth ingot surface. Ingots are rolled initially into blooms, slabs or
billets Fig. 1.13. Blooms are square and rectangular shapes, width is less than the twicethickness.
Billets are round and square form, the cross sectional area is less than or equal to 36 inch². Slabs
are rectangular shapes, width is greater than the twice thickness, minimum T=1 ½ inch . Typical
discontinuities found in ingot Fig. 1.14 are non-metallic inclusions, porosity and pipe. Most of
these discontinuities are in the upper portion and can be easily eliminated by cropping off the top
of the ingot.

FIG.1.13:Typicalprimarymaterialprocesses.

FIG.1.14:Typicaldefectsinaningot.

21
 CastingProcesses
A commonly used method of forming metal objects of complex shapes is by pouring molten
metal into a mould in which it sets to the required shape. The mould is then broken away to
exposethecastingorthedesign ofthemould is such that it can beseparated without damageand re-
used. The moulds are usually formed from patterns which can be used many times over, if
necessary, and their design is critical in that `feed' and `vent' holes must be carefully positionedin
the mould to permit the metal to flow freely into all parts.

Problems that can occur are interaction on cooling. It is also unlikely that the crystal structure ofa
casting will be optimum in all parts so that its strength may be less than with other methods of
fabrication. Various casting processes include sand casting, permanent mould casting, diecasting,
centrifugal casting and shell mould casting etc.

i) Sandcasting
In this case a sand mould is used for casting the desired shape of the required alloy. A sandmould
Fig 1.15 maybe defined as a preformed sand container into which molten metal is poured and
allowed to solidify. In general sand moulds are destroyed as the casting is removed from them.
Sand moulds makeit possibleto cast complex shapes that might not bepossibleotherwise.

Different types of sand moulds can be made for making different castings. Green sand mouldsare
made from moist sand and are used for practically all ferrous and non-ferrous castings. They
have the disadvantage of not being very strong as well as requiring moisture during manufacture
which may cause certain defects in the casting. Green sand moulds may be provided with a dry
sand on the surface to give `skin-dry moulds'. Purely `dry-sand moulds' can also be made by
adding to the sand a binder instead of moisture.

FIG.1.15:StepsinSandCasting

22
 Methods of preparing sand moulds include `bench moulding', `machine moulding', floor
moulding and pit moulding.

ii) Permanentmould casting

A casting made by pouring molten metal into a mould made of some metallic alloy or other
material of permanence is known as a permanent mould casting. Grey cast iron, meehanite with
large graphite flakes and anodized aluminium alloys are the most commonly used materials inthe
construction of permanent moulds. This common use is partly due to the ease with whichthey
may be machined. They have excellent refractory properties.

iii) Die casting

Die casting may be defined as the use of a permanent mould (die) into which molten metal is
introduced by means of pressure. This pressure is obtained by application of compressed air orby
pneumatically or hydraulically operated pistons. This process of casting can be subdivided in two
types.

FIG.1.16:HotChamberdie casting FIG.1.17:Coldchamberdiecasting

iv) Centrifugalcasting

Any process, in which molten metal is poured and allowed to solidify while the mould is
revolving, is a centrifugal casting process. There are three recognized centrifugal processes
namely`truecentrifugalcasting'(hallowproduct),semicentrifugalcasting'(solidproduct)and
`centrifugecasting'(multipleproduct)and areshowninFig.1.18.

`True centrifugal casting' is that in which castings are made in a hollow, cylindrical mouldrotated
about an axis common to both casting and mould. Cast-iron pipe is commonly made by this
method. In this process the axis of spin may be horizontal, inclined, or vertical. In the true
centrifugal casting process the inside circumference is always circular. Semi centrifugal castingis
similar to the true centrifugal method, except that a central core is used to form the inner surface
or surfaces. The casting is not dependent upon centrifugal force for its shape. A good example of
semi centrifugal work is a cast wheel-like casting. The axis of spin in the semi centrifugal
process is always vertical.

23
 FIG.1.18:Centrifugalcasting.
Centrifugecastingis applied fornon-symmetrical castings. Themould cavityis not rotated about its
own axis but about the axis of a central down sprue common to the axis of spin, which feeds
metal into the mould cavity under centrifugal force. This process of centrifuging can be doneonly
about a vertical axis.

v) Investmentcasting
This process involves making a one-piece mould from which the pattern is removed by a
procedure which melts the pattern. The moulds used in this process are single purpose moulds.

Since the pattern is removed by melting or burning out, casting precision is increased through
eliminating draft, rapping, and shifts. It is also called `precision investment casting', `precision
casting'orthe`lost-wax process'andisshownin Fig.1.19.Thiscastingislimitedtosmallcasting usually
not over 5 Lb.

FIG.1.19:Stepsforinvestmentcasting.

vi) Shellmould casting

This process involves making a mould that has two or more thin, shell-like parts consisting of
thermosetting resin-bonded sand. These shells are single purpose in application and are hard and
easily handled and stored. Shells are made so that matching parts fit together easily, held with
clamps or adhesives and poured in either a vertical or horizontal position. These moulds may be
supported in racks or in a mass of bulky permeable material like sand, steel shots or gravel.

24
vii) Continuous casting
Although only a small tonnage of castings are produced by continuous casting, it is possible to
produce two dimensional shapes in an elongated bar by drawing solidified metal from a water-
cooled mould. As shown schematically in Fig. 1.20 molten metal enters one end of the mould,
and solid metal is drawn from the other. Exclusion of contact with oxygen, while molten and
during solidification produces high quality metal.

FIG.1.20:Schematicdiagramofcontinuouscastingprocess.

Castingdiscontinuities
Someofthediscontinuitieswhichusuallyoccurincastingsare givenhereunder:

i) Porosity
Gas holes are spherical holes of varying size, with bright walls, usually fairly evenly distributed
and formed by gas in the metal. The larger holes tend to be found in the heavier section (i.e. last
to solidify). If the metal is correct prior to casting, the pinhole type of porosityis probablydue to
absorption of hydrogen from steam in the mould. The gas in the molten metal is removed by a
gas scavenging technique and by keeping casting ladles and moulds dry.

ii) Blowholes
Blowholes aremainlyfoundinthree forms: (i)elongated cavitieswithsmoothwalls, found onor just
below the surface of the topmost part of a casting. These are caused by entrapped air and
repetition can be avoided byventingthe mould and increasingits permeability. ii) rounded shape
cavities with smooth bright walls are caused by mould or core gases, coupled with insufficient
permeability, or venting. iii) small cavities immediately below the `skin’ of the casting surface
are formed by the reaction of the molten metal with moisture in the moulding sand.

iii) Piping
When this term is used in the foundry it refers to the gas inclusion defects encountered in risersor
within the casting proper.

25
iv) Inclusions
These are material discontinuities formed bythe inclusion of oxides, dross, and slag in a casting.
They are due to careless skimming and pouring, or the use of a dirtyladle, and to turbulence due
to improper gating methods when casting alloys, such as aluminum and bronze, that are subjectto
surface oxide-skin formation.

v) Sponginess
A discontinuity that occurs during the early stages of solidification of a casting and has the
appearance, as the name would imply, of a sponge; it may be local or general in extent. The
major cause is failure to obtain directional solidification of the casting towards the desired heat
centres, such as risers and ingates; insufficiently high pouring temperature and placing of ingates
adjacent to heavy sections.

vi) Shrinkage
A casting discontinuitythat occurs during the middle and later stages of solidification of the cast
metal. It has a branching formation, is readily distinguishable from that of sponginess, and is a
form of void Fig. 1.21. The discontinuity can be avoided by paying particular attention to the
direction of solidification and ensuring adequate risers, or other feeding aids, on the heavier
sections of a casting. Modification of casting design, i.e. to make cast sections more uniform for
the flow and solidification of the metal is helpful in avoiding shrinkage.

FIG.1.21:Formationofshrinkage defect.

vii) Hottears
These are discontinuities that result from stresses developed close to the solidification
temperature while the metal is still weak. Hot tears resemble ragged cracks. Theycan be avoided
bymakingcores andmouldsmorecollapsible,avoidingabrupt changesin sectionandpreventing the
formation of intense hot spots by designing with more uniform sections Fig. 1.22.

FIG.1.22:Hottears.

26
viii) Crack
Well defined and normallystraight, theyareformed afterthemetal has becomecompletelysolid. Bad
casting design coupled with restriction of contraction by the mould, core, or box bars contribute
to cracking, and avoidance of these, together with the easing of mould or cores assoon as
possible after solidification, will help to prevent build-up of stresses.

ix) Cold shuts

These are discontinuities (a form of lack of fusion) caused by the failure of a stream of molten
metaltounitewithanotherstreamofmetal,orwithasolidmetalsectionsuchasachapletFig.
1.23. They are linear in appearance, with perhaps a curling effect at the ends. Cold shuts can
often be avoided by raising the pouring temperature or pouring rate or both and reviewing the
position, size, and number of ingates and the arrangements for venting the mould.

FIG.1.23:TypeofColdShut

x) Unfusedchaplet
A chaplet is often used to support a section of a mould or a core within a mould and when the
molten metal is poured in, the chaplets should fuse into the casting. When unfused the chaplet
will cause a discontinuity in the casting.

xi) Segregation
Segregation is a condition resulting from the local concentration of any of the constituents of an
alloy. The segregation can be `general’ extending over a considerable part of a casting, `local’
when onlythe shrinkage voids or hot tears are whollyor partiallyfilled with a constituent of low
melting point or `banded’ which is mainly associated with centrifugal castings but can also
occasionally occur in static castings.

MANUFACTURINGPROCESSESANDRELATEDDISCONTINUITIES

Weldingprocesses

Weldingcan bedefined as themetallurgical method ofjoining, applied to the general problem of

construction and fabrication. It consists of joining two pieces of metal by establishing a
metallurgical atom-to-atom bond, as distinguished from a joint held together by friction or
mechanical interlocking. This metallurgical atom-to-atom bond is achieved bythe application of
heat and sometimes pressure. Typical welding joints are shown in Fig 1.24.

27
 FIG1.24:TypesofWeldingjoints;

(a)squarebuttjoint (b)single-vbuttjoint (c)double-vbuttjoint

(d)single-ubuttjoint, (e)double-ubuttjoint (f)square-tjoint
(g)single-bevelt-joint (h)double-bevelt-joint (i)single-ut-joint
(j)double-ut-joint (k)single-beadlapjoint (l)double-beadlapjoint.

All welds that are encountered in actual construction, except groove welds in pipe, are classified
as being flat, horizontal, vertical, or overhead. Groove welds in pipe are classified as horizontal
rolled,horizontalfixed,vertical,orinclinedfixed.These positionsareillustratedinFig.1.25and
1.26andexplained below:

(i) Flat position (1G) The test plates are placed in an approximately horizontal plane and the
weld metal deposited from the upper side Fig. 1.25 A.

(ii) Horizontalposition(2G)Thetestplatesareplacedinanapproximatelyverticalplanewith the

welding groove approximately horizontal Fig. 1.25 B.

(iii) Verticalposition(3G)Thetestplatesareplacedinanapproximatelyverticalplanewiththe
welding groove approximately vertical Fig. 1.25C.

(iv) Overheadposition(4G)Thetestplatesareplacedinanapproximatelyhorizontalplaneand the

weld metal deposited from the underside Fig.1.25D.

(v) Horizontalrolled(1G)thepipeisplacedwithitsaxisinanapproximatelyhorizontalplane with

the welding groove in an approximately vertical plane and the pipe is rolled during
welding Fig.1.25 A.

(vi) Vertical(2G)Thepipeisplacedwithitsaxisinanapproximatelyverticalpositionwiththe
welding groovein an approximatelyhorizontal plane Fig. 1.25 B.

(vii) Horizontal fixed(5G)the pipeisplacedwithits axisinanapproximatelyhorizontalplane

withtheweldinggrooveinanapproximatelyverticalplaneandthepipeisnottoberolled or turned
during welding Fig. 1.25 E.

(viii) Inclinedfixed(6G)thepipeisinclinedfixed(45o5o)andnotrotatingduringweldingFig.
1.25F.

28
 [

(C)TESTPOSITION3G(D)TESTPOSITIONING4G (E)TESTPOSITION5G (F)TESTPOSITION6G

FIG.1.25:Positionsofplatesandpipesforgrooveweld.

Forfilletweldsinplates,differentpositionsaredefinedasbelow:

(i) Flatposition(1F)thetestplatesaresoplacedthateachfilletweldisdepositedwithitsaxis
approximatelyhorizontal anditsthroatapproximatelyvertical Fig.1.26A.

(ii) Horizontalposition(2F)thetestplatesaresoplacedthateachfilletweldisdepositedonthe
uppersideofthehorizontalsurfaceandagainsttheverticalsurfaceFig.1.26B.

(iii) Verticalposition(3F)eachfilletweldismadeverticallyFig.1.26 C.

(iv) Overheadposition(4F)thetestplatesaresoplacedthateachfilletweldisdepositedonthe
undersideofthehorizontalsurfaceandagainsttheverticalsurfaceFig.1.26D.

(A) Flatposition (B)Horizontalposition

29
 (C)Verticalposition (D)Overheadposition

FIG.1.26:Positionsofplatesforfilletwelds.

Shieldedmetalarcwelding(SMAW)
Shielded metal arc welding is an early arc welding process. It is one of the simple and versatile
processes for welding ferrous and several non-ferrous base metals. Basically, it is a manual
welding process in which the heat for welding is generated by an arc established between a flux
covered consumable electrode and the work. The electrode tip, welded puddle, arc and adjacent
areas of the work piece are protected from atmospheric contamination by a gaseous shield
obtained from the combustion and decomposition of the flux covering. The process is illustrated
in Fig. 1.27.

FIG.1.27:Shieldedmetalarcweldingprocess.

Submergedarcwelding(SAW)
In submerged arc welding the arc and molten metal are shielded by an envelope of molten flux
and a layer of unfused granular flux particles as shown in Fig. 1.28. When the arc is struck, the
tip of the continuously fed electrode is submerged in the flux and the arc is therefore not visible.
TheSAWprocessisusedinbothmechanizedandsemiautomaticoperations,althoughtheformer is by
far more common. High welding currents can be employed to produce high metaldeposition rates
at substantial cost savings. Welds can only be made in the flat and horizontal positions.

FIG.1.28:Submergedarcweldingprocess.

30
 Gasmetalarcandfluxcored arcwelding(GMAW & FCAW)

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW/ or MIG/MAG) and flux cored arc welding (FCAW) are two
distinct processes, but they have many similarities in application and equipment. Both processes
usea continuous solid wireor tubular electrodeto providefiller metal, and both use gas to shield
the arc and weld metal. In GMAW, the electrode is solid, and all of the shielding gas is (argon,
helium, CO2 or mixtures of these gases) supplied by an external source, as shown in Fig. 1.29.

FIG.1.29:Gasmetalarcweldingprocess.

Gastungsten arcwelding(GTAW)

Gastungstenarcweldingusesanon-consumabletungstenelectrodewhich mustbeshieldedwith an
inert gas. Thearcis initiated between thetip oftheelectrodeand work to melt themetal being
welded, as well as the filler metal, when used. A gas shield protects the electrode and the molten
weld pool, and provides the required arc characteristics. This process is illustrated in Fig. 1.30
and is also called TIG welding.

FIG.1.30:Gastungstenarcwelding.

Electro-slagwelding(ESW)

Electroslag welding is s specialized adaptation of submerged arc welding and it is used for
joining thick materials in the vertical position. This process is illustrated in Fig. 1.31. Strictly
speaking it is not an arc welding process at all, because it actually depends on the electrical
resistivityof a molten flux bath to produce the heat necessary to melt the filler and base metal.

31
 FIG.1.31:Electroslagweldingprocess.

Plasmaarcwelding(PAW)
The plasmaarcweldingprocessprovidesaverystableheatsourceforweldingmostmetalsfrom
0.001 to 0.25 in. (0.02 to 6 mm). This process has advantages over other open arc welding
processes, such as SMAW, GMAW, and GTAW, because it has greater energy concentration,
improved arc stability, higher heat content, and higher welding speeds. As a result, PAW has
greater penetration capabilities.The basic elements of the plasma arc torch, illustrated in Fig.
1.32, are the tungsten electrode and the orifice.

FIG.1.32:Plasmaarcwelding.

Resistancewelding (RW)
Resistance welding incorporates a group of processes in which the heat for welding is generated
by the resistance to the flow of electrical current through the parts being joined. It is most
commonly used to weld two overlapping sheets or plates which may have different thicknesses.
A pair of electrodes conducts electrical current to the joint. Resistance to the flow of currentheats
the faying surfaces, forming a weld.

The main process variables are welding current, welding time, electrode force, and electrode
material and design. High welding currents are required to resistance heat and melt the basemetal
in a very short time. There are four major resistance welding processes, namely, spot welding
(RSW), projection welding (RPW), flash welding (RFW), and seam welding (RSEW). These
processes are illustrated in Fig. 1.33.

32
 FIG.1.33: Basicresistanceweldingmethods.

Brazingprocess
Brazing is a metal joining process where the base metal is heated to a temperature of about
425oC. Non-ferrous filler metals, such as brass or silver alloys, are melted bythe heat of the base
metal and flow by capillary attraction between the closely fitted surfaces of the joint. Heat for
brazing is usually applied by flame torches, furnaces, electric induction, electric resistance or
dropping the work into a hot salt bath. Filler and flux are either applied manuallyor are replaced
in the form of powder, metallic rings or strips. The main disadvantage of the brazing is that the
strength of the brazing is lower than the other welding processes.

Miscellaneousweldingprocesses
There are number of other welding processes. Some of the important ones of these processes are
Electron beam and laser welding, Friction welding (FW), and Ultrasonic welding (USW)

Weldingdiscontinuities

During the process of welding, discontinuities of various types may occur. These may be
classified under the headings of procedure and process, design, and metallurgical behaviour.
Discontinuities related to process, procedure, and design is, for the most part, those that alter
stresses in a weld or heat-affected zone. Metallurgical discontinuities may also alter the local
stress distribution, and in addition, may affect the mechanical or chemical (corrosion resistance)
properties of the weld and heat-affected zone.
i) Porosity
Moltenweldmetalhasa considerablecapacityfordissolvinggaseswhich comeintocontactwith it,
such as hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. As the metal cools its ability to retain the gases
diminishes. For instance, in steel the oxygen reacts with the carbon to form carbon monoxide,
which is given off as a gas. The type of porosity within a weld is usually designated by the
amount and distribution of the pores. Some of the types are classified as follows: Fig. 1.34.

(a)

33
 (b)

(c)

FIG.1.34:Threetypesofweldporosity.

ii) Pipeorwormholes
Some gas inclusions have an elongated form known as pipes or wormholes. They are usually
almost perpendicular to the weld surface. They can result from the use of wet powdered flux or
frominadequateweldingcurrent.Anothertypicalformofpipehasappearanceofabranchofatree Fig.
1.35.

FIG.1.35:Pipinginweld.

iii) Non-metallicinclusions
These maybe the result of weld-metal contamination bysubstances on the surface of the joint or
bythe atmosphere. But the usual source is the slag formed bythe electrode covering or flux used
in theweldingprocess. Someslagmaybetrapped in thedepositedmetal duringits solidification,
particularly if the metal fails to remain molten for a sufficient period to permit the slag to rise to
its surface. In multi-pass welding, insufficient cleaning between weld passes can leave a portion
oftheslagcoatinginplacetobe coveredbysubsequentpasses. Aparticularcharacteristicofslag
inclusions is the `slag line', intermittent or continuous. Such slag lines are often accompanied bya
pronounced lack of fusion to the base metal.
iv) Tungsteninclusions
Tungsten inclusions are particles of metallic tungsten embedded in the weld metal which
originate from the tungsten electrode used in tungsten arc welding.

Tungsten inclusions frequentlyoccur at the start of welds when the electrode maybe cold. Small
globular and widely scattered tungsten inclusions are sometimes permissible, but sharp edged
inclusions are dangerous.

34
v) Lackof fusion
This is due to the lack of union in a weld between the weld metal and parent metal or between
parent metal and parent metal or between weld metal and weld metal. Consequently the lack of
fusion can be of three types namely lack of side fusion, lack of root fusion and lack of inter-run
fusion. The discontinuity results mainly from the presence of slag, oxides, scale, or other non-
metallic substances, too low a welding current or incorrect edge preparation.

vi) Incompleterootpenetration(LOP)
In butt welding, a root opening is usually left at the bottom of the groove (in one-side welding)or
at the centre of the weld (in two-side welding). If the opening between the two plates is narrow, it
is difficult to achievecompletepenetration and fusion at theroot oftheweld Fig. 1.36.

FIG.1.36:Incompleterootpenetration.

vii) Cracks
Cracks are linear ruptures of metal under stress. Although sometimes wide, they are often very
narrow separations in the weld or adjacent base metal. Cracks can occur in a wide variety of
shapesandtypesandcanbelocatedinnumerouspositionsinandaroundaweldedjointFig.
1.37. Cracks associated with welding may be categorized according to whether they originate in
the weld itself or in the base metal.

Four types commonlyoccur in the weld metal, i.e. transverse, longitudinal, crater and hat cracks.
Base-metal cracks can be divided into four categories, namely, transverse cracks, lamellar
tearing, delaminations and fusion-line cracks.

FIG.1.37:Differenttypesofcrackslocatedinandaroundaweldedjoint.

35
viii) Undercut
During the final or cover pass the exposed upper edges of the beveled weld preparation tend to
melt and to run down into the deposited metal in the weld groove. The result is a groove which
may be either intermittent or continuous, with more or less sharp edges along the weld
reinforcement Fig. 1.38.

FIG.1.38: Undercut.
ix) Concavityat theroot oftheweld
A concave surface at the root of the weld can occur specially in pipe welding (without a cover
pass on the root side). Root concavity is commonly produced by the flux cored arc welding
(FCAW) process. In overhead welding this condition is a consequence of gravity which causes
themoltenmetaltosagawayfromtheinaccessibleupper surface ofthe weld. It can alsooccurin
downhand welding with a backing strip at the root of the weld groove if slag is trapped between
the molten metal and the backing strip Fig.1.39.

FIG.1.39:Rootconcavity.
x) Excessive penetration
In welds molten metal sometimes runs through the root of the weld groove producing an
excessive reinforcement at the back side of the weld. In general this is not continuous but has an
irregular shape with characteristic hanging drops of excess metal Fig.1.40.

FIG.1.40:Excessivepenetration.
xi) Overlap
Overlap is an imperfection at the toe or root of a weld caused by an overflow of weld metal onto
the surface of the parent metal, without fusing with the latter Fig.1.41. It is caused when the
welding rod has been used at an incorrect angle, the electrode has travelled too slowly, or the
current was too low.

FIG.1.41:Overlap.
36
xii) Lamellartearing
This is a phenomenon that occurs in T-joints where the web plate is welded on both sides with
usuallyfull penetration welds. The stresses developed bythis configuration result in a separation
thattakesplace inthebasemetalbetween the rootsofthe twoweldsextendingin aplaneparallel to the
surface of the base metal. Such a discontinuity is often associated with laminations orother
planes of weakness in the metal. Lamellar tearing can occur outside the heat affected zone 5-10
mm below the fusion face Fig. 1.42.

FIG.1.42:Lamellartearing.
xiii) Burnthrough
A burn through area is that portion of the weld bead where excessive penetration has caused the
weld pool to be blown into the pipe or vessel. It is caused by the factors, such as high current,
slow rod speed, incorrect rod manipulation, etc., that produce excessive heat in one area. It is
often accompanied by excessive drop through of the metal on the inside of the pipe (FIG. 1.43).

FIG.1.43:Burnthrough.

xiv) Rootpass oxidation

Oxidation is the result of insufficient protection of the weld and heat affected zone from the
atmosphere. Severe oxidation will occur on stainless steels, for example, reducing corrosion
resistance, if the joint is not purged with an inert gas.

Forgingprocesses

Forgingisthe workingofmetalintoa useful shapebyhammeringor pressingandisthe oldestof the

metal forming processes. Most forging operations are carried out hot, although some metals are
cold-forged. The hot working of metals in the forging process results in an improvement in the
mechanical properties. This method of shaping is therefore used in the manufacture of parts
requiring good mechanical properties. Improvement in the mechanical properties results from a
general consolidation of the metal and closing of gas and contraction cavities by means of
mechanical pressure, a refinement of the crystal structure and a destruction of the continuity of
intergranular concentrations of impurities and inclusions. Some of the forging operations are
given in Fig. 1.44.

37
 FIG.1.44: Forgingoperations;(a,b)edging;(c)fullering;(d)drawing,
(e)swaging,(f)backextruding;(g)punching.

Rollingprocesses

The flattening of metal between rollers is used for the production of strip, sheet, plate, bar and
sections. Since the metal is formed by a squeezing action, rolling can be considered as a
continuous forging process with the rolls acting as hammers and the metal being drawn down.

Rolling may be performed above the temperature of recrystallisation (hot rolling) or below the
temperature of recrystallisation (cold rolling). Hot rolling is always used for the initial rolling of
the cast ingot. Not only is it easier to break down the ingot to size quickly when it is hot and
plastic, but the hot-rolling process closes any casting discontinuities and forge welds their
surfaces together. This prevents anyfaults, which could lead to lamination,beingcarried forward
into subsequent rolling operations. Rolling mills are described according to the arrangement of
the rolls. Some of these are shown in Fig. 1.45 and Fig. 1.46. Rods and bars are drawn using
draw-benches Fig. 1.47, while the wires are drawn using bull block Fig. 1.48.

FIG.1.45:Typicalarrangementsofrollsforrollingmills;(a)Two-highpullover,(b)two- high
reversing, (c) three-high, (d) four-high, (e) cluster.

38
 FIG.1.46:Schematicdrawingofstriprollingonafour-standcontinuousmill.

FIG.1.47:Schematicdrawingofadrawbench.

FIG.1.48:Schematicwiredrawingequipment.
Extrusion processes
Another process which is similar to rolling is extrusion. In principle, extrusion is similar to
squeezing toothpaste from a toothpaste tube. The raw material is a heated cast billet of the
required metal. The pressure necessary to force the metal through the die is provided by the
hydraulic ram. Since the billet is reduced to the size of the finished section in one pass through
the die, extrusion is a highly productive process Fig. 1.49 a & b.

(a) (b)
FIG.1.49:Typesofextrusion

39
 The Mannesmann mills, plug rolling mills, three-roll piercing mills, and reeling mills are
also used for producing seamless pipe and tubing Fig. 1.50.

FIG.1.50(a)Mannesmannmill,(b)plugrollingmill,(c)three-rollpiercingmill,(d) reeling
mill.

FIG.1.51
ForgingandrollingDiscontinuities
Discontinuities in forgings may originate in the slab or billet and be modified by the rolling and
forging of the material, or may result from the forging process itself. Given below are some ofthe
more specific discontinuities.

i) Laminations
Large porosity, pipe and non-metallic inclusions in slabs or billets are flattened and spread out
during the rolling and forging processes. These flattened discontinuities are known as
laminations.

ii) Seams
Surfaceirregularities, such as cracks, on theslab orbillet arestretched out and lengthened during
rolling and are then called seams. Seams may also be caused by folding of the metal due to
improper rolling. Seams are surface discontinuities and on finished bars will appear as either
continuous or broken straight lines. On round bar stock they will appear as straight or slight ly
spiral lines, either continuous or broken.

40
iii) Forginglaps
Forging laps are the discontinuities caused by the folding of metal in a thin plate on the surfaceof
the forging. They are irregular in contour Fig.1.52.

iv) Centrebursts
Ruptures that occur in the central region of a forging are called centre bursts. They can arise
because of an incorrect forging procedure (e.g. too low a temperature or too drastic a reduction)
or from the presence of segregation or brittle phase in the metal being forged Fig. 1.52.

FIG.1.52:Forgingandrollingdefects.

v) Clinks(thermal cracks)
Clinks are cracks due to stresses arising from excessively high temperature gradients within the
material. Cracks formed during too rapid cooling originate at the surface and extend into
thebodyof the forging; those formed duringtoo rapid heatingoccur internallyand can be opened
up to become diamond-shaped cavities, during subsequent forging.

vi) Hairlinecracks (flakes)

Flakes are very fine internal cracks of circular shape that develop and extend with time and are
associated with the presence of hydrogen in steel. There is greater susceptibility in largerforgings
than in smaller and in certain grades of alloy steel than in carbon steel; they can be avoided by
correct treatment.

vii) Hottears
Surfacediscontinuities dueto metal beingruptured and pulled apart during forging. Theymaybe
associated with the presence of local segregation, seams, or brittle phases.

viii) Stringers
Non-metallic inclusions in slabs or billets, that are thinned and lengthened in the direction of
rolling by the rolling process are called stringers.

41
ix) Overheating
Normally identified by the facets seen on the fractured surfaces of a test-piece, but in extreme
cases can manifest itself as a severely broken-up surface.

x) Pipe
If there has been insufficient discard from the original ingot, remnant primarypipe will normally
show up axially. Secondary pipe that has never been exposed to the atmosphere will be welded-
up if there has been sufficient forging.

MATERIALSINSERVICE

Behaviorof materialsinservice

Materials have to operate and perform in widely varied environments and situations. The
requirements of safety and reliability demand that the materials and components should perform
well in their environments and situations without premature failure. There are a number offactors
and processes which can cause the failure of materials. As premature failure of critical
componentscan bedisastrousinmanysituationsapartfrombeinga causeforlostproductionand bad
reputation, it is essential to understand and control these causes of failure.

Conditionsleadingtodefectsand failures

Due to advances in technology and the understanding of materials and their design, and due to
sophisticated inspection and testing methods, such as the non-destructive testing methods, metal
failures occur only in an extremely low percentage of the millions of tons of metals fabricated
every year. Those that do occur fall mainly into three categories. Operational failures can be
causedbyoverload,wear,corrosion andstress-corrosion,brittlefractureandmetalfatigue. Inthe
second category fall the failures due to improper design. In this it is necessary to consider
whether sharp corners or high-stress areas exist in the design, has sufficient safety stress factor
been considered and whether the material selected is suitable for particular application. The third
type of failure is caused by thermal treatments such as forging, hardening, tempering and
welding, and by surface cracks caused by the heat of grinding. These aspects and especiallythose
related to operational or in-service conditions will be described here in more detail.

Corrosion

With the exception of some noble metals, all metals are subject to the deterioration caused by
ordinarycorrosion. Iron, for example, tends to revert back to its natural state of iron oxide. Other
metals revert to sulphides and oxides or carbonates. Buildings, ships, machines and automobiles
are all subject to attack bythe environment. The corrosion that results often renders them useless
andtheyhavetobescrapped.Billionsofdollarsayeararelostas aresultofcorrosion.Corrosion can also
cause dangerous conditions to prevail, such as on bridges, where the supporting structures have
been eaten away, or in aircraft in which an insidious corrosion called intergranular corrosion can
weaken the structural members of the aircraft and cause a sudden failure.

42
Corrosion in metals is the result of their desire to unite with oxygen in the atmosphere or in other
environmentstoreturnto amorestable compound,usuallycalledore. Iron ore,for example,isin
somecases simplyiron rust. Corrosion maybeclassified bythetwo different processes bywhich it
can take place; direct oxidation corrosion, which usually happens at high temperature, and
galvanic corrosion, which takes place at normal temperatures in the presence of moisture or an
electrolyte. Direct oxidation corrosion is often seen in the scaling that takes place when a pieceof
metal is left in a furnace for a length of time. The black scale is actually a form of iron oxide,
called magnetite (Fe3O4). Galvanic corrosion is essentially an electrochemical process that
causes a deterioration of metals bya veryslow but persistent action. In this process, part or all of
the metal becomes transformed from the metallic state to the ionic state and often forms a
chemical compound in the electrolyte. On the surface of some metals such as copper or
aluminium, the corrosion product sometimes exists as a thin film that resists further corrosion. In
other metals such as iron, the film of oxide that forms is so porous that it does not resist further
corrosive action, and corrosion continues until the whole piece has been converted to the oxide.

When cathodes and anodes are formed on a single piece of metal, their particular locations are
determined by, for example, the lack of homogeneity in the metal, surface imperfections,stresses,
inclusions in the metal, or anything that can form a crevice such as a washer.
Cathodic protection is often used to protect steel ships hulls and buried steel pipelines. This is
donebyusingzincand magnesiumsacrificialanodesthatareboltedtotheship'shullorburiedin the
ground at intervals and electrically connected to the metal to be protected. In the case of the ship,
the bronze propeller acts as a cathode, the steel hull as an anode and the seawater as an
electrolyte. Severe corrosion can occur on the hull as a result of galvanic action. The sacrificial
anodes are very near the anodic end of the galvanic series and have a large potential differences
between both the steel hull of the ship and the bronze propeller. Both the hull and propeller
become cathodic and consequently do not deteriorate. The zinc or magnesium anodes are
replaced from time to time.

Selection of materials is of foremost importance. Even though a material may be normally

resistant to corrosion, it may fail in a particular environment or if coupled with a more cathodic
metal. Coatings are extensively used to prevent corrosion. There are different types of such
coatings, for example; anodic coatings, cathodic coatings, organic and inorganic coatings,
inhibitive coatings, etc.

Fatigue

When metal parts are subjected to repeated loading and unloading over prolonged periods they
may fail at stresses far below their yield strength with no sign of plastic deformation. This is
called a fatigue failure. When designing machine parts that are subject to vibration or cyclic
loads, fatigue strength maybe more important than ultimate tensile or yield strength. Fatigue is a
universal phenomenon observed in most solids. Cyclic loading leads to a continuous
accumulation of damage which, as in the case of static fracture, eventually results in rupture.
Fatigue limit, or endurance limit, is the maximum load that can be applied an infinite number of
times without causing failure Fig. 1.53. But 10 million loading cycles are usually considered
enough to establish fatigue limits. The number of cycles leading to fracture at a given stress is
often referred to as the fatigue strength or endurance. This phenomenon of failure of a material
when subjected to a number of varying stress cycles is known as fatigue since it was oncethought
that fracture occurred due to the metal weakening or becoming tired.

43
 FIG.1.53:Typicalfatiguecurvesforferrousandnon-ferrousmetals.

Fractured surfaces of fatigued metals generally show a smooth and lustrous region due to the
polishing effects arising from attrition at fissures. The remaining parts of the fracture surface,
over which failure occurred through weakening of the specimen by the reduction of its load
bearing cross-section by surface cracks and fissures, may look duller and coarser, as it is
essentially caused by static fracture.

Fatigue cracks are service type discontinuities that are usually open to the surface where they
start from stress concentration points Fig. 1.54.

FIG.1.54Fatiguecracks.

Creep

The progressive deformation of a material at constant stress is called creep. To determine the
engineering creep curve of a metal, a constant load is applied to a tensile specimen maintained at
a constant temperature, and the strain(extension) of the specimen is determined as a function of
time. Although the measurement of creep resistance is quite simple in principle, in practice it
requires considerablelaboratoryequipment. The elapsed timeofsuch tests mayextend to several
months, while some tests have been run for more than 10 years.

Curve A in Fig. 1.55 illustrates the idealized shape of a creep curve. The slope of this curve
(d/dt) is referred to as the creep rate. Following an initial rapid elongation of the specimen, o,
the creep rate decreases with time, then reaches essentially a steady state in which the creep rate
changes little with time, and finally the creep rate increases rapidly with time until fracture
occurs. Thus, it is natural to discuss the creep curve in terms of its three stages. It should be
noted, however, that the degree to which these three stages are readily distinguishable depends
strongly on the applied stress and temperature.

44
 FIG.1.55.Typicalcreepcurveshowingthethreestepsofcreepcurve a,
constant-load test; curve B, constant-stress test.

The first stage of creep, known as primary creep, represents a region of decreasing creep rate.
Primary creep is a period of predominantly transient creep in which the creep resistance of the
material increases by virtue of its own deformation. For low temperatures and stresses, as in the
creep of lead at room temperature, primary creep is the predominant creep process.

The second stage of creep, known also as secondary creep, is a period of nearly constant creep
rate which results from a balance between the competing processes of strain hardening and
recovery. For this reason, secondary creep is usually referred to as steady-state creep. The
average value of the creep rate during secondary creep is called the minimum creep rate. Third-
stage or tertiary creep mainly occurs in constant-load creep tests at high stresses at high
temperatures. Tertiary creep occurs when there is an effective reduction in cross-sectional area
either because of necking or internal void formation. Third-stage creep is often associated with
metallurgical changes such as coarsening of precipitate particles, recrystallization, or diffusional
changes in the phases that are present.

Wear

Wear may be defined as undesired removal of material from contacting surfaces by mechanical
action. Excessive wear can be caused by continuous overload, but wear is ordinarily a slow
process that is related to the friction between two surfaces. Rapid wear can often be attributed to
lack of lubrication or the improper selection of material for the wear surface. Some wear is to be
expected, however, and could be called normal wear. Wear is one of the most frequent causes of
failure. We find normal wear in machine tooling such as carbide and high-speed tools that wear
and have to be replaced or re-sharpened. Parts of automobiles ultimately wear until an
overhaulisrequired.Machinesare
regularlyinspectedforwornparts,whichwhenfoundarereplaced;this is called preventive
maintenance. Often normal wear cannot be prevented; it is simply accepted, but it can be kept to
a minimum bythe proper use of lubricants. Rapid wear can occur if the load distribution is
concentrated in a small area because of the part design or shape. This can be altered by redesign
to offer more wear surface. Speeds that are too high can increase friction considerably and cause
rapid wear.

45
Different types of wear include abrasive wear, erosive wear, corrosive wear and surface fatigue.
In abrasive wear small particles are torn off the surfaces of the metal, creating friction. Friction
involving abrasive wear is sometimes used or even required in a mechanism such as on thebrakes
of an automobile. The materials are designed to minimize wear with the greatest amount of
friction in this case. Where friction is not desired, a lubricant is normally used to provide a
barrier between the two surfaces. This can be done by heavy lubricating films or lighterboundary
lubrication in which there is a residual film. Erosive wear is often found in areas that are
subjected to a flow of particles or gases that impinge on the metal at high velocities. Sand
blasting, which is sometimes used to clean parts, utilizes this principle. Corrosive wear takes
place as a result of an acid, caustic, or other corrosive medium in contact with metal parts. When
lubricants become contaminated with corrosive materials, pitting can occur in such areas as
machine bearings. Surface fatigue is often found on roll or ball bearing or sleeve bearings where
excessive side thrust has been applied to the bearing. It is seen as a fine crack or as small pieces
falling out of the surface.

Overload

Overload failures are usually attributed to faulty design, extra loads applied, or an unforeseen
machinemovement.Shockloadsorloads applied abovethe designlimitarequiteoftenthe cause of the
breakdown of machinery. Although mechanical engineers always plan for a high safety factor in
designs (for instance the 10 to 1 safetyfactor above the yield strength that is sometimes used in
fasteners), the operators of machinery often tend to use machines above their
designlimit.Ofcourse, thiskindofoverstress isdueto operatorerror. Inadequatedesign can
sometimes play a part in overload failures. Improper material selection in the design of the part
or improper heat treatment can cause some failures when overload is a factor. Often a machinist
or welder will select a metal bar or piece for a job based upon its ultimate tensile strength rather
than upon its yield point. In effect this is a design error and can ultimately result in breakdown.

Fracture will originate whenever the local stress, i.e. load per unit cross-sectional area, first
exceeds the local strength. This location will vary depending upon the strength of the metal and
the applied stress. When a shaft or similar shape is pulled by tensile force it becomes longer and
narrower. For ductile metals the shear strength is the weak link and these metals fail through the
shear mode. These metals fail when shear stress exceeds the shear strength. In the case of brittle
metals, these fail because the tensile stress exceeds the tensile strength. Brittle metals always
have a fracture that is perpendicular to the tensile stress and little or no deformation because
fracture takes place before the metal can deform plastically as ductile metals do.

Brittleandductile fracture

Fracture preceded by a significant amount of plastic deformation is known as ductile fracture,

otherwise it is brittle fracture. Brittle fracture occurs, when plastic flow is inhibited either by the
effective locking of atomic dislocations by precipitates or elements or by the pre-existence or
formation of cracks and imperfections acting as local stress raisers in the material. All materials
can be embrittled if the temperature is lowered sufficiently.

As has already been mentioned brittle metals always have a fracture that is perpendicular to the
tensile stress and have little or no deformation because fracture takes place before the metal can
deform plastically. Thus a tensile fracture of a brittle metal has a fracture plane that is essentially
straight across. It also usually has a characteristic bright sparkling appearance when freshly
fractured.

46
Small quantities of hydrogen have a great effect on the ductility of some metals. Hydrogen can
get into steels when they are heated in an atmosphere or material containing hydrogen, such as
during pickling or cleaning operations, electroplating, cold working, welding in the presence of
hydrogen-bearing compounds, or the steel-making process itself. There is a noticeableembrittling
effect in steels containing hydrogen. This can be detected in tensile tests and seen in the plastic
region of the stress- strain diagram showing a loss in ductility. Electroplating of many parts is
required because of their service environment to prevent corrosion failure. Steel may be
contaminated by electroplating materials that are commonly used for cleaning or pickling
operations. These materials cause hydrogen embrittlement by charging the material with
hydrogen. Mono-atomic hydrogen is produced by most pickling or plating operations at the
metal-liquid interface, and it seems that single hydrogen atoms can readilydiffuse into the metal.
Preventive measures can be taken to reduce this accumulation of hydrogen gas on the surface of
the metal.

Stress raisers such as notches on the surface of a material have a weakening effect and cause
embrittlement. A classic example is provided by the internal notches due to graphite flakes incast
irons. Theflakes embrittletheirons in tension. Thereforein structural applications cast irons are
most usefully employed under compressive loads. Their brittle strength and toughness can,
however, be increased appreciably if the graphite is allowed to form in spheroidal rather than
flaky form. This can be done by alloying the melt, for example, with magnesium.

Qualityand standardization

Quality

Quality of an industrial product does not mean the best or excellent. On the other hand it is
defined as the fitness of the product to do the job required of it bythe user. It may also be said to
be the ability of the product to meet the design specifications which usually are set keeping in
view the purpose and the use to which the product is expected or intended to be put. As stated
earlier itwouldbe better tosetordefine anoptimumqualitylevelfora productratherthan trying to
make it of best possible quality which will unnecessarily make the product more expensive
which may not be acceptable to the customer.

Qualitycontrol

Qualitycontrol can bedefined as thecontrols applied at each manufacturingstageto consistently

produce a quality product or in another way it is said to be the applications of operational
techniques and activities which sustain quality of a product or service that will satisfy given
needs, also the use of such techniques and activities.

The word "control" represents a management tool with four basic steps, namely, setting quality
standards, checking conformance with the standards, acting when the standards are not met and
assessing the need for changes in the standards.

Standardization

Standardization of a process can be defined as the setting up of process parameters so that it

constantly produces a product of uniform characteristics

47
Importanceofqualitycontrolandqualityassurance

In any manufacturing, fabrication or production process, the quality of the structure orcomponent
produced (or service provided) is a key factor in the long term economic and engineering success
of that process. Increasing awareness of the importance of quality in every area of technologyhas
resulted from sensitivityto growingpressure of international competition,
morediscriminatingdemands from themarketplaceand stricter consumer protection and product
liability legislation. Part of this awareness is that consistent quality requires much more than
product testing. The need to identify and correct inadequacies well before the final product is
ready for shipping or handover has become an economic priority in many industries. Quality
Control is required because of changing buyer-producer relationships and major marketplace
demands for quality.

The social and economic demands for effective use of materials and production processes to turn
out higher technology based products assure the need for quality assurance. Similarly the
changingwork practices in factories and offices and theneed to competein international markets
require total quality control of all products and services.

Because the human factor is of great importance in the quality control operation, specialattention
must be paid to the personnel in the organization. They need to be educated to the
benefitsofqualitycontrol,theyneedto feelinvolvedinthequalitycontrol process andtheymust be able
to communicate with other personnel on quality control. This allows them to develop a quality
control spirit and improved morale necessary to the success of any quality control programme.

Responsibilityfor quality

Quality is not the responsibilityof any one person or department; it is everyone's job. It includes
the assembly line worker, the typist, the purchasing officer and the managing director. The
responsibility for quality begins when marketing department determines the customer quality
requirements and continues through to the satisfied customer.

The responsibility for quality is delegated to all departments. Each has the authority to make
quality decisions. The ideal place for an effective quality control department; it is independent,
reporting directly to upper level management.

Inspection and test department has the responsibility to appraise the quality of purchased and
manufactured items and to report the results. These results can be returned to other departments
so that corrective action can be taken when necessary.

In order to perform inspection, accurate equipment is necessary. This means it must be

maintained and regularly calibrated.

It is necessary to continually monitor the performance of inspectors. Some defects are more
difficult to find and require more patience. Inspectors vary in ability and the defect level affects
the number of defects reported. Samples with known defects should be used to evaluate and
improve the inspectors' performance. The reliability of inspection can usually be quantified
andismostoftenaffectedbytheoperator andnotthe possibledefectsinthe componentpresentedfor
inspection. Education (training) is the most effective way of improving reliability.

48
The quality control department does not have direct responsibility for quality. It assists or
supports the other departments as they carry out their responsibilities. The relationship between
the departments and quality control is similar to a line-staff organizational relationship.

Quality control appraises the current quality, determines quality problem areas and assists in the
correction or minimization of these problem areas. The overall objective is the improvement of
the product quality in co-operation with the responsible departments.

QualitycontrolapplicationsofNDT

Quality control of manufactured goods is accomplished by measuring dimensions, properties or

other characteristics, comparing the measurements with predetermined standards and varying the
manufacturing process as necessary to control these characteristics. Often direct measurementsof
characteristics can be accomplished only bydestroying the parts. Obviously a product that has
been destroyed cannot be sold. The commercial impact of this fact is twofold, costs wereincurred
to make the product, yet no profit can be made from its sale.

However, if the same information can be obtained without destroying the part, even if only as
indirect measurement, then the part can be sold for a profit after it has been tested. The
commercial incentive to test non-destructively is large when small quantities and large profit
margins are involved and is crucial with one of a kind products.
Various methods have been developed for accurately and reliably measuring characteristics of
parts without affecting their commercial value. Many of these are indirect methods, but theyhave
gained wide acceptance as tools that can aid both management and production personnel in
reducing costs and improving product quality. Also use of non-destructive inspection hasbecome
necessary as a means of meeting certain legal and contractual requirements affecting the
production and sale of a wide variety of manufactured products. Factors that contribute to the
reliable application of several of the major processes of non-destructive inspection areconsidered
later.

Qualitymanuals

A quality manual is a document which lays down the basic policies and principles on which the
inspection group functions and provides the co-ordination links with the others. More detailed
collections of operating procedures, resource information and data upon which the inspection
group's quality depends are also included. It is a working document describing the reality of the
group's operations for use by both management and staff.
Typicalelementsof aqualitymanualare:
a) Tableof contents.
b) Amendmentof records.
c) Introduction.
d) Managementofqualitysystem.
e) Descriptionofgroup and itsfunction
f) Staff.
g) Equipment.
h) Testingenvironment.
i) Test methods.

49
j) Operationalprocedure.
k) Controloftest items.
l) Test records.
m) Diagnosticandcorrectiveactions.
n) Testreports.
o) Subcontracting.
p) Occupationalhealthand safety.
q) Proprietaryrightsandconfidentiality.
r) Accreditations held.

Qualitysystem

As the name suggests qualitysystem is a method for qualityassurance which means taking of all
those planned and systematic actions necessary to assure that the item is being produced to
optimum quality level and it will, with adequate confidence, perform satisfactorily in service.
Quality assurance is aimed at doing things right the first time and involves a continuing
evaluation of the adequacy and effectiveness of the overall quality control programme with a
view to having corrective measures initiated where necessary. For a specific product or service
this involves verification audits and evaluation ofqualityfactors that affect the production or use
of the product or service.
The qualityassurance system is an evaluation or audit to determine how effectivelythe functions
are being performed. Evaluations are usually conducted each year to determine which elements
and subsystems need improvement. The overall rating provides a comparison with past
performance or with other plants of a multi-plant corporation. These subsystems are:

a) Independenceofqualityassurancedepartment
b) Establishmentofqualitystandards
c) Writtenprocedures
d) Controlofdocumentflow
e) Maintainingidentityandtraceabilityofmaterials
f) Non-conformingmaterialandcorrectiveaction
g) Calibrationof equipment
h) Retentionof records
i) Personneltrainingandqualification
j) Controlofpurchasedmaterial
k) Manufacturing, assemblyandpackaging
l) Qualityaudit

50
 2. TERMINOLOGY,PHYSICALPRINCIPLESANDFUNDAMENTALSOF
ULTRASONICS

THENATUREOFULTRASONICWAVES

Ultrasonic waves, like sound waves are mechanical vibrations having frequencies above the
audible range. Theaudible range of frequencies is usuallytaken from20 Hz to 20 kHz. Sound
waves with frequencies higher than 20 kHz are known as ultrasonic waves. In general
ultrasonic waves of frequencyrange 0.5 MHz to 20 MHz are used for the testing of materials.
Theycan propagatein solid, liquid and gas but not in vacuum.Sound cantravelin the formof
beam similar to that of light and follows many of the physical rules of light. Ultrasonic beam
can be reflected, refracted, scattered or diffracted.

Ultrasound is aform of mechanical vibration. To understand howultrasonic motion occurs

inamedium itisnecessary tounderstand themechanism which transfersthe energy between
twopointsinamedium. This canbeunderstood by studying thevibration of aweight attached to a
spring Figure 2.1a.

FIG.2.1.(a)Weightattachedtoaspring,(b)PlotofdisplacementofWwithtime with
respect to position A.

The two forces acting on W, while it is at rest, are force of gravity G and tension T in the
spring. Now if W is moved from its equilibriumposition A to position B, tension T increases.If
it is now releasedat position B, W would acceleratetowardsposition A under the influence of
this increase intension. At A the gravityG and tensionT willagain be equal, but as now W is
movingwith a certain velocity, it willovershootA. As it movestowards position C, tension T
decreasesand the relative increase in gravityG tends to decelerateW until it has used up all its
kinetic energyand stops at C. At C, G is greater thanT and so W falls towards A again. At A it
possesses kinetic energy and once more overshoots. As W travels between A and B, T
gradually increases and slows down W until it comes to restatB. AtB, T is greater than G, and
the whole process again.

The sequence of displacements of W from position A to B, B to A, A to C and C to A, is

termed acycle.Thenumberof suchcyclespersecondisdefinedasthefrequency of vibration.The
timetaken tocomplete one cycleis known as the time periodTof the vibration,where T=
1/f.Themaximum displacement ofWfrom AtoB orA toCis called the amplitudeof vibration. All
theseconcepts are illustrated in Figure 2.1b.

51
All materials are made of atoms (or molecules) which are connected to each other by
interatomic forces. These atomic forces are elastic, i.e. the atoms can be considered to be
connected to each other as if by means of springs. A simplified model of such a material is
shown in Figure 2.2.

FIG.2.2.Modelofanelasticmaterial.

Now if an atom of the material is displaced from its original position by an applied stress, it
would start to vibrate like the weight W of Figure 2.1a. Because of the interatomic coupling,
vibration of this atom will also cause the adjacent atoms to vibrate. When the adjacent atoms
have started to vibrate, the vibratorymovement is transmittedto their neighbouringatoms and so
forth. If all the atoms were interconnected rigidly, they would all start their movement
simultaneouslyand remain constantly in the same state of motion, i.e. in the same phase. But
since theatoms of amaterial are connected to each otherby elastic forcesinstead, the vibration
requires a certain time to be transmitted and the atoms reached later lag in phase behind those
first excited.

When a mechanical wave traverses a medium, the displacement of a particle of the medium
from its equilibriumposition at anytime ‘t’ is given by:

Where,
a=displacementoftheparticleattime‘t’
ao=amplitudeofvibrationoftheparticle&f=fre
quencyofvibrationoftheparticle.

AgraphicalrepresentationofEquation2.1is giveninFigure2.3.

FIG.2.3.Graphicalrepresentationshowingvariationofparticledisplacementwithtime.

52
 Equation 2.2 is the equation of motion of a mechanical wave through a medium. It gives the
state of the particles (i.e. the phase) at various distances from the particle first excited at a
certain time ‘t’.

Where,

a =displacement (at a time‘t’ and distance ‘x’from the firstexcited particle) of a particle of
the medium in which mechanicalwave is travelling
ao=amplitudeofthewavewhichisthesameasthatoftheamplitudeofvibrationofthe particles of the
medium
v =velocityofpropagationofthewave
f =frequencyofthewave

x =distance of the particle fromthe first excited particle

Figure2.4givesthegraphicalrepresentationofEquation2.2.

FIG.2.4.GraphicalrepresentationofEquation2.2.
Sincein thetimeperiodT,a mechanical waveofvelocity ‘v’travelsadistance‘λ’ina medium,
thereforewe have:
v=λ/T (2.3)

Butthetimeperiod‘T’isrelatedtothefrequency‘f ’by: f=1/T

(2.4)

CombiningEquations2.3and2.4wehavethefundamentalequationofallwavemotion,i.e. v=λf
(2.5)

InEquation2.5 if‘f’ is inHz, ‘λ’inmmthen‘v’ is in mm/s.Alternativelyif‘f’ is inMHz, ‘λ’ in

mm then ‘v’ is in km/s.

53
 CHARACTERISTICSOFWAVEPROPAGATION

Frequency

The frequencyof a wave is the same as that of the vibrationor oscillationof the atoms of the
mediuminwhichthewaveis travelling.Itisusuallydenotedbytheletter‘f’andis expressed
as the number of cycles persecond.The international term fora cycle persecondisnamed after the
physicist H. Hertz and is abbreviated as Hz.

1Hz = 1cyclepersecond
1kHz = 1,000Hz = 1,000cyclespersecond
1MHz = 1,000,000 Hz = 1,000,000cyclespersecond
1GHz = 1,000,000,000Hz = 1,000,000,000cyclespersecond

Frequencyplaysanimportantroleinthedetectionandevaluationofdefects.

Amplitude

Thedisplacementoftheweightfrom itspositionofrestinFigure2.1andthatoftheparticles
ofamediuminFigures2.3and2.4iscalledtheamplitude.InEquation2.2‘α’isthe amplitude at anytime
‘t’ while ‘ao’ is the maximum amplitude.

Velocity

Thespeed withwhichenergyis transportedbetweentwo points in a mediumbythe motionof

waves is known as the velocityof the waves. It is usuallydenoted bythe letter ‘v’. SI unit of
velocity is meter per second (m/s).

Wavelength

During the time period of vibration T, a wave travels a certain distance in the medium. This
distance is defined as the wavelength of the wave and is denoted bythe Greek letter λ. Atoms
inamedium,separatedbydistance‘λ’willbeinthesamesateofmotion(i.e.inthesame phase)
when a wave passes through the medium.
Therelationshipbetween ‘λ’‘f’and‘v’isgiveninEquation2.5whichshowsthatina
particularmediumthewavelengthisthereciprocaloffrequency.Thereforehigherthe
frequencyshorter the wavelength and vice versa. In practicaltesting usually flaws of the order
ofλ/2orλ/3canbedetected.Thereforesmallerthewavelength,smallerarethe detectable defects.
Thus smaller wavelength or higher frequency ultrasound waves provide abetter flaw sensitivity.
This is further elaborated bythe following example.

Example:Comparetheflawsensitivities forprobesoffrequencies1MHzand6MHzin steel.

54
Letusassumethatflawsensitivityisoftheorderofl/3.Thenfora1MHzfrequency we have
Flawsensitivity =λ/3=1.98mm
λ= v/
f
=(5940(forsteel)×1000)/(1×1000000)mm
=5.94mm
For the6MHzfrequencywehave

λ =(5940×1000)/(6×1000000)mm=0.99mm

Flawsensitivity= λ/3 =0.33mm

Acousticimpedance

The resistance offered to the propagation of an ultrasonic wave by a material is known as the
acoustic impedance. Itis denoted by theletter ‘Z’ andis determined by multiplying the densityof
the material bythe velocity‘v’ of the ultrasonicwave in the material, i.e.
Z=ρv (2.6)

Thevalueofthe acousticimpedancefor agivenmaterialdependsonlyon itsphysical propertiesand

thus to beindependentofthewave characteristicsand thefrequency.Valuesof acoustic impedances
for a number of familiar materialsare given in Table2-I.

AcousticPressure

Acousticpressure is a term most oftenused to denotethe amplitudeofalternating stresses on a

material by propagating ultrasonic wave. Acoustic pressure ‘P’ is related to the acoustic
impedance ‘Z’ and the amplitude of particle vibration ‘a’ as:

P=Zα (2.7)

AcousticIntensity

The transmission of mechanical energy by ultrasonic waves through a unit cross section area,
which is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the waves,is called theintensity of
the ultrasonic waves. Intensity of the ultrasonic waves is commonly denoted by the letter
‘I’.Intensity ‘I’ of ultrasonic waves is related to the acoustic pressure P, acoustic impedance
‘Z’ and the amplitude of vibration of the particles ‘α’ as:

I= P2/2Z (2.8)

and

I=Pα/2 (2.9)

55
Table2-I. Densities,sound velocitiesandacousticimpedancesofsomecommonmaterials

Material Density vt vl Z
Kg/m3 m/s m/s ×10 Kgm-2s-1
3

air 1.3 - 330 0.430

aluminium 2700 3130 6320 17064
aluminiumoxide 3600 5500 9000 32400
bariumtitanate 5400 - 5000 27000
brass 8100 2120 4430 35883
castiron 6900 2200 5300 24150
concrete 2000 - 4600 9200
copper 8900 2260 4700 41830
epoxyresin 1170 1100 2650 3150
glass 3600 2560 4260 15336
glycerine 1300 - 1920 2496
greycasting 7200 2650 4600 33120
lead 11400 700 2660 24624
magnesium 1700 3050 5770 9809
motoroil 870 - 1740 1514
nickel 8800 2960 5630 49544
nylon 1140 - 2700 3000
oliveoil 900 - 1400 1300
teflon 2200 550 1350 3000
perspex 1180 1430 2730 3221
polyamide(nylon) 1100 1080 2620 2882
polyethylene 940 925 2340 2200
polystyrol 1060 1150 2380 2523
Polyvinylchloride(pvchard) 1400 1060 2395 3353
quartz 2650 - 5760 15264
quartzglass 2600 3515 5570 14482
rubbervulcanized 1200 - 2300 2800
silver 10500 1590 3600 37800
steel(lowalloy) 7850 3250 5940 46620
steel(calibrationblock) 7850 3250 5920 46472
steel(stainless) 7800 3130 5740 44800
titanium 4500 3120 5990 27000
tungsten 19300 2880 5170 100000
tungstenavaldite 10500 - 2060 21650
uranium 18700 2020 3370 63000
water 1000 - 1480 1480
zirconium 6400 2300 4650 29800

56
 TYPESOFULTRASONICWAVESANDTHEIRAPPLICATIONS

Ultrasonic waves are classified on the basis of the mode of vibration of the particles of the
medium with respect to the direction of propagation of the waves, namely longitudinal,
transverse, surface and lamb waves. The major differences of these four types of waves are
discussed below:

LongitudinalorCompressional Waves

In this type of ultrasonic wave alternate compression and rarefaction zones areproduced bythe
vibration of the particles parallel to the direction of propagation of the wave. Figure 2.5
represents schematically a longitudinal ultrasonic wave.

FIG.2.5.Longitudinalwaveconsistingofalternaterarefactionsandcompressions
alongthedirectionofpropagation.

Because of its easy generation and detection, this type of ultrasonic wave is most widely used
in ultrasonic testing. Almost all of the ultrasonic energy used for the testing of materials
originates in this mode and is then converted to other modes for special test applications. This
type of wave can propagate in solids, liquids and gases.

Transverseorshearwaves

This type of ultrasonic wave is called a transverse or shear wave because the direction of
particle displacement is at right angles or transverse to the direction of propagation. It is
schematicallyrepresented in Figure 2.6.

The transmission of this wave type through a material is most easily illustrated by the motion
of a rope as itis shaken. Each particle of the rope moves only up and down, yet the wave
moves along the rope from the excitation point.

57
 FIG.2.6.Schematicrepresentationofatransversewave.
For such a wave to travel through a material it is necessary that each particle of material is
strongly bound to its neighbours so that as one particle moves it pulls its neighbour with it,thus
causing the ultrasound energy to propagate through the material with a velocity which is about
50 percent that of the longitudinal velocity.

For all practical purposes, transverse waves can only propagate in solids. This is because the
distance between molecules or atoms, the mean free path, is so great in liquids and gases that
theattractionbetweenthemis not sufficientto allowoneofthemto movetheothermorethana
fraction of its own movement and so the waves are rapidlyattenuated.

SurfaceorRayleighwaves

Surface waves were first described by Lord Rayleigh and that is why they are also called
Rayleigh waves. These type of waves can only travel along a surface bounded on one side by
the strong elastic forces of the solid and on the other side by the nearly non-existent elastic
forces between gas molecules. Surface waves, therefore, are essentiallynon-existent in a solid
immersed in a liquid, unless the liquid covers the solid surface only as a very thin layer. The
waves have avelocity of approximately 90 percent that of an equivalent shear wave in the same
material and they can only propagate in a region no thicker than about one wavelength beneath
the surface of the material. At this depth, the wave energy is about 4 percent of the energyat
the surface and the amplitude of vibration decreases sharply to a negligible value at greater
depths.

FIG.2.7.Diagramofsurfacewavepropagatingatthesurfaceofametalalongametal- air
interface.

58
Insurfacewaves,particlevibrationsgenerallyfollowanellipticalorbit,asshown schematically in Figure
2.7.
Themajoraxisoftheellipseisperpendiculartothesurfacealongwhichthewavesare
travelling.Theminoraxisisparalleltothedirectionofpropagation.Apracticalmethodof generating
surface waves is given in Section 2.4.2.2.

Surface waves are useful for testing purposes because the attenuation they suffer for a given
material is lower than for an equivalent shear or longitudinal waves and because they cantravel
around corners and thus be used for testing quite complicated shapes. Only surface or near
surface cracks or defects can be detected, of course.

Lamborplatewaves

If a surface wave is introduced into a materialthat has a thickness equalto three wavelengths,
orless,of thewavethen adifferentkindof wave,known asaplate wave,results.The material begins
to vibrate as a plate, i.e. the wave encompasses the entire thickness of the material. These
waves are also called Lamb waves because the theory describing them was
developedbyHoraceLambin1916.Unlike longitudinal, shear or surface waves, the velocities
ofthese waves through a material are dependent not onlyon the type of material but also on the
materialthickness, the frequencyand the type of wave.

Plate orLamb waves existin many complex modes of particle movement. The two basic forms
of Lamb wavesare(a)symmetrical ordilatational and(b)asymmetrical orbending. The form of
the wave is determined by whether the particle motion is symmetrical or asymmetrical with
respect to the neutral axis of the test piece. In symmetrical Lamb (dilatational) waves,
thereisalongitudinal particle displacement alongneutral axisof the plate and an ellipticalparticle
displacementon each surface Figure 2.8.

FIG.2.8.LambwaveModes

59
This mode consists of the successive thickening and thinning in the plate itself as would be
noted in a soft rubber hose if steel balls, larger than its diameter, were forced through it. In
asymmetrical (bending) Lamb waves, there is a shear particle displacement along the neutral
axisof theplateandanelliptical particle displacement oneachsurfaceFigure 2.8.Theratio of the
major tominor axes of the ellipse is afunction of the material in which the wave is being
propagated. The asymmetrical mode of Lamb waves can be visualized by relating the action to
a rug being whipped up and down so that a ripple progresses across it.

Velocitiesforlongitudinal,transverse,andsurfacewaves

The velocity of propagation of longitudinal, transverse, and surface waves depends on the
elastic modulus and the density of the material, and in the same material itis independent of the
frequency of the waves and the material dimensions.

Velocitiesoflongitudinal,transverseandsurfacewavesaregivenbythefollowingequations.

E(1-μ) (2.10)
Vι=
ρ(1+μ)(1-2μ)

G
Vt=
2ρ(1+μ)

vS= 0.9vt

Where
v𝝸= velocityoflongitudinalwaves
vt= velocityoftransversewaves

vS= velocityofsurfacewaves
E= Young'smodulusofelasticity
G= modulus of rigidity
ρ= densityofthematerial

μ= Poissionratio

For steel

vt/v𝝸 = 0.55 (2.13)

The velocityofpropagationof Lambwaves depends not onlyon the materialdensitybut also on
the type of wave itselfand on the frequencyof the wave.

Table2-Igivesthevelocitiesoflongitudinalandtransversewavesinsomecommon materials.

60
 BEHAVIOUROFULTRASONIC WAVES

Reflectionandtransmissionatnormalincidence

Reflectedandtransmittedintensities

When ultrasonic waves are incident at right angles to the boundary(i.e. normal incidence) of
twomedia of different acoustic impedances, then some of the waves are reflected and someare
transmitted across the boundary. The surface at which this reflection occurs is also calledan
interface. The amount of ultrasonic energy that is reflected or transmitted depends on the
difference between the acoustic impedances of the two media. If this difference is large then
most of the energy is reflected and only a small portion is transmitted across the boundary.
While for a small difference in the acoustic impedances most of the ultrasonic energy is
transmitted and only a small portion is reflected back.

Quantitatively the amount of ultrasonic energy which is reflected when ultrasonic waves are
incident at theboundary of twomedia of differentacoustic impedances Figure 2.9,isgiven by:

Intensityofreflectedwavesattheboundary
Reflectioncoefficient=
Intensity ofincidentwavesat theboundary

R=Ir/Ii= (Z2-Z1)2/(Z2+Z1)2

Where,
R=reflectioncoefficient
Z1=acousticimpedanceofmedium1
Z2=acousticimpedanceofmedium2
Ir=reflectedultrasonic intensity
Ii=incidentultrasonicintensity

FIG.2.9.Reflectionandtransmissionatnormalincidence

Theamountofenergythatis transmittedacrosstheboundaryisgivenbytherelation:

61
 Transmissioncoefficient=Intensityoftransmittedwavesattheboundary

Intensityofincidentwavesattheboundary

T=It/Ii=4Z2Z1/(Z2+Z1)2 (2.15)

Where
T=transmissioncoefficient
Z1=acousticimpedanceofmedium1
Z2=acousticimpedanceofmedium2
It=transmittedultrasonic intensity
Ii=incidentultrasonicintensity.
ThetransmissioncoefficientTcanalsobedeterminedfromtherelation:

T=1−R (2.16)

Where
T= Transmission coefficient
R= Reflectioncoefficient
Using the values of the characteristic impedances given in Table 2-I reflection andtransmission
coefficients canbecalculated forpairsofdifferentmaterials.The equations show that the
transmission coefficient approaches unity and the reflection coefficient tends to zerowhen Z1
andZ2have approximately similar values. Thematerials arethen saidtobe well matched or
coupled. On the other hand, when the two materials have substantially dissimilar characteristic
impedances, e.g. for a solid or liquid in contact with a gas, the transmission and reflection
coefficients tend to zero and 100 percent, respectively. The materials are then said to be
mismatched or poorly coupled.

Example:
Whatwouldbethepercentageofacousticenergyreflectedandtransmittedattheinterface between water
and aluminum.

FromTable2-Iwehavethe followingdata:

Zw =Z1 =1480×103kgm-2s-1
ZAl =Z2 =17064×103kgm-2s-1

ReflectionCoefficientR=Ir/Ii=(Z2−Z1)2/(Z2+Z1)2

(17064+1480)2
= (17064−1480) /
2

=0.706
%reflection =0.706×100=70.6%

62
Transmissioncoefficient(T)=4Z2Z1/(Z2+Z1)2

=4×17064×1480/ (17064+1480)2
=0.294
%Transmission=0.294x 100
=29.4%

Example:
What percentagesof the originalsound energywill be reflected and transmittedatthe waterto
steel interface.Alsocalculate the percentage of the original sound energy thatwill finally enter
the water on its way back to the transducer fromthe back surface of the steelpart. Show the
results with the help of a diagram.

FIG.2.10.Reflectionandtransmissionatnormalincidence.
Using Table2-Iwehavethefollowingdata:

Zwater=Z1=1480x103kgm-2s-1
Zsteel=Z2=46620x103kgm-2 s-1

Reflectioncoefficient(R) =(1.48–46.62)2/(1.48+46.62)2
=2037.6/2313.6
=0.88
%reflection =0.88x100=88%

63
 Transmissioncoefficient(T) =(4Z1Z2)/Z1+Z2)2
=(4x1.48x46.62)/(1.48+46.62)2
=(275.99)/ (2313.6)
=0.12
%transmission =0.12x100=12%

Therefore 12% ofthe energyis transmitted into the steeltest piece. At the back it faces a steel
water interface. 88% of this 12% is reflected back from the backwall. This comes to 10.6%
which comes up and encounters the steel water boundaryonce again. At this 88% of 10.6% is
reflected back into the test specimen. This comes out to 9.3%. The remaining (10.6 – 9.3)
which comes to about 1.3% finally enters the water.

Reflectionandtransmissionatobliqueincidence

Refractionandmode conversion

If ultrasonic waves strike a boundaryat an oblique angle, then the reflection and transmission
of the waves become more complicated than that with normal incidence. At oblique incidence
the phenomena of mode conversion (i.e. a change in the nature of the wave motion) and
refraction (a change in the direction of wave propagation) occur.

Figure 2.11 shows what happens when a longitudinal wave strikes obliquely a boundary
between two media. The incident longitudinal wave splits up into two components, one
longitudinal and the other transverse and thishappens for both the reflected as well asrefracted
parts. L1andS1denote respectively longitudinal andshear wavesinmedium 1 while L2 and S2
denote these waves in medium 2. Of course there will be no reflected transverse component or
refracted transverse component if eithermedium 1 ormedium 2 is not solid. Figure 2.11 gives
all the reflected and transmitted waves when a longitudinal ultrasonic wave strikes a
boundarybetween two media. The refracted transverse component in medium2 will disappear
if medium 2 is not a solid.

FIG.2.11.Refractionandmodeconversionforanincidentlongitudinalwave.

64
 a𝝸=Angleofincidenceoflongitudinalwave
at=Angleofreflectionoftransversewave
β𝝸 =Angleofrefractionoflongitudinalwave
βt=Angleofrefractionoftransversewave

Snell's law

The general law that, for a certain incident ultrasonic wave on a boundary, determines the
directions of the reflected and refracted waves is known as Snell's Law. According to this law
the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidenceto the sine of the angle of reflection or refraction
equals the ratio of the corresponding velocities of the incident, and reflected or refractedwaves.
MathematicallySnell's Law is expressed as:

Sin(incident angle) Velocityof incidentwave

=
Sin(refratedorreflectedangle) velocityofrefractedorreflectedwave

Sinαι/Sinβι=VL1/VL2 (2.17)

Where,

α𝝸=Theangleofincidenceoflongitudinalwaveinmedium1
β𝝸=Theangleofrefractionoflongitudinalwaveinmedium2
VL1=Velocityof incident wave in medium1
VL2=Velocityofrefractedlongitudinalwaveinmedium2

Bothαιandβιaremeasuredfromalinenormaltotheboundary.

Consider now the relation in Equation 2.17. If the angle of incidence αιis small, ultrasonic
waves travelling inamedium undergothe phenomena of modeconversion and refraction upon
encountering a boundary with another medium. This results in the simultaneous
propagationoflongitudinalandtransversewavesat different anglesofrefractioninthe second
medium. As the velocity of transverse waves for a given solid is always less than that
oflongitudinal waves,the angle of refraction β𝝸forlongitudinal wavesisalwaysgreater than
theangleofrefractionβtfortransversewaves.Astheangleofincidenceisincreased,the
angleofrefractionalsoincreases.Foracertainvalueoftheangleofincidenceα𝝸the refractionangle
β𝝸reaches 90°. The longitudinalwave then emerges fromthe second mediumand travels parallelto
the boundary. The angle of incidenceat which the refracted longitudinal
waveemergesiscalledthefirstcriticalangle.Itisgivenbyαl=Sin-1(VL1/VL2)Figure2.12a.

NowconsidertherelationshipSinαl/Sinβt= VL1/Vt2.Iftheangleof incidenceαlisfurther

increased the angle of refraction for transversewave βtalso approaches 90°. This value of αlfor
which the angle of refraction of the transverse wave is exactly 90° is called the second critical
angle. At the second critical angle the refracted transverse wave emerges from the medium
andtravelsparallel tothe boundary.Thetransverse wave,hasbecomeasurface or
Rayleighwave.Thevalueofsecondcriticalangleisgiven byα𝝸=Sin-1(V/V).
L1 t2
Schematically,thecriticalanglesareshowninFigure2.12b.

65
 FIG.2.12. (a)Firstcriticalangle,(b)Secondcriticalangle.

Example:
Calculatethefirst andsecondcriticalangleforwater-aluminuminterface. a1St=
sin-1( VL1/VL2)

a1St=sin-1(1480/6320)

a1St=13.54°

a2nd=sin -1(VL1/Vt2)

a2nd=sin-1(1480/3130)

a2nd=28.2°

Example:
If itis desired that a shear wave travels into steel at 60 degrees, what would be the incidentangle
on the lucite (perspex) wedge?

ItisrequiredtofindtheanglealinthefollowingsketchFigure2.13whiletheangleβtis given to be 60°.

Longitudinal wave velocity in perspex =VL1=2730m/s

Shear wave velocity in steel = Vt2= 3250 m/s.
Applying Snell's Law:

66
 Sinαι/Sinβt =V L1

/Vt2

βt=60°

Sinα𝝸 / Sin60° = 2730/3250

Sinα𝝸 = 0.84× 2730/3250

Sinα𝝸=0.727

α𝝸=sin -10.727=46.67°

FIG.2.13
Example:
Whatwould be the refracted longitudinal wave if the angle of incidence through a water
tosteel interface is 12°.

It isrequiredto findtheangleblin the Figure2.14 while theangleofincidence,αιis givento be 12°.

ApplyingSnell'sLaw:
Sinα𝝸/Sinβ𝝸=VL1/VL2

α𝝸=12°
sin12°/sinβ𝝸= 1480/5940
sinβ𝝸=0.208×5940/1480
sinβ𝝸= 0.834
β𝝸=sin-10.834=56.5°
67
 FIG.2.14

Reflectedacousticpressureatangularincidence

Figure 2.15 gives the acoustic pressure reflection factors for reflected transverse and
longitudinalwaves at steel - air boundary.

FIG.2.15.Acousticpressureofreflectedwavesvs.angleofincidence.

The angle of incidenceof longitudinalwaves is shown by lower horizontalscale and the angle of
incidence of shear waves by the upper horizontal scale. The vertical scale shows the reflection
factor in percentages. It can be noted from Figure 2.15 that:

68
(i) The reflected acoustic pressure of longitudinal waves is at a minimum of 13% at 68°
angle of incidence. This means the other portion of the waves is mode converted to
transverse waves.
(ii) For an angle of incidence of about 30° for incident transverse waves, only 13% of the
reflected acoustic pressure is in the transverse mode. The remainder is mode converted
into longitudinal waves.
(iii) Forincident shear waves if the angle of incidence is larger than 33.2°, the shear waves
are totallyreflected and no mode conversion occurs.

THECHARACTERISTICSOFTHEULTRASONICBEAM

Theultrasonicbeam

FIG.2.16.Shapeofatypicalsoundbeamfromacirculartransducer.

The region inwhichultrasonic waves arepropagated from an ultrasonic transduceris known as

theultrasonicbeam.Forthepurposeofultrasonictestingofmaterials,the greatly simplified shape
of an ultrasonic beam fora circular transducer isasshownin Figure 2.16. This could be
imagined like a cone as is the light coming out of a torch. Two distinct regions
ofthebeamexistandareclassifiedasnearfield(Fresnelzone)andfar field(Fraunhofer zone).
The intensityvariationalongtheaxialdistanceforatypicaltransducerisshownin Figure 2.17.
Theintensity passes through anumber of maxima andminima.Thelast minima occur atN/2
while the last maxima occur atN where N denotes the near field length. After one near field
length the intensity decreases continuously. From a distance of approximatelythree near field
lengths the sound pressure on the central axis of the beam is reducedproportional to the
inverse distance and the sound beam diverges with a constant angleof divergence.We call
this area thefarfield or the Fraunhofer zone.The areafrom 1N to approximately3N is referred
to as the transitionzone where the divergenceangle still
changesandisnotconstantandthedecreaseofthesoundpressureisnotyet proportionaltothe
inverse distance.

69
 FIG.2.17.Distributionofintensityalongtheaxialdistance.

Figure 2.22 shows the radial distribution of acoustic intensity from a typical disc type
circular transducer. Such a diagram in practice can be drawn using reflections from a small
round ball in water or a small flat bottomor side drilled hole. The ball or holes are scannedat
a distance. The echo is maximized which shows the position of the central beam axis. Then
the reflector is moved perpendicularlyto the axis and the positions are noted when the echo
amplitude falls to 50% and 10% of its maximum. Such points, no doubt, exist on both the
sides of the central beam axis. This is schematicallypresented in Figure 2.22.

FIG.2.18.Schematicpresentationoftheradialdistributionofintensityinasound beam.
The quantities describing the shape of the soundfield in a useful practical approximation are
the nearfieldlength ‘N’and the half divergence angle‘q/2’.These twovalues arefunctions
ofthecrystaldiameter‘D’,thefrequency‘f’andthesoundvelocity‘v’inthemediumin
whichthesoundbeam develops.Someformulaethatapply areexplainedinthefollowing sections.
Nearfield
A piezoelectrictransducer can be considered to be a collectionof point sources, eachof which is
emitting spherical ultrasonic waves to the surrounding medium Figure 2.19.

FIG.2.19.Shapeofthewavefrontinthenearfield

70
The spherical waves interfere with each other and result ina systemof maximaand minima in
intensity in the region close to the transducer. This region is known as the near field region or
Freznel zone. The near field shows a beam having a width approximating the diameter of the
crystal. However, it is reduced up to theend ofthenear field which is calledthe focus.

Flawsappearinginthenearfield mustbecarefully interpreted becauseaflawoccurringin this region

can produce multiple indications and the amplitude of the reflected signal from the flaw can
vary considerably if the effective distance from the probe varies. This is especially true in the
case of smaller defects with which there are greater difficulties of interpretation in the near
zone as compared to larger defects (comparablewith crystaldiameter). The near field problem
can be reduced or even completely overcome by the use of plastic shoesin frontof the crystals
generating ultrasound.

Calculationofnearfieldlength

The length ‘N’ of the near field depends upon the diameter of the transducer and the
wavelengthofthe ultrasonic waves in the particular medium. The near field length for a probe
increases with increase in its diameter and frequency and can be calculated approximately
from:

N=D2/4λ (2.18)
=D2 f /4λ

Where,
N= nearfieldlength
D= diameteroftransducer
v= velocityofsoundinmaterial f
= frequency

2.5.1.3.Farfield

The region beyond the near field is known as the far field. The wave front of ultrasonicwaves
in the far field beyond a distance ofthree near field lengths fromthe transducer is spherical as
compared to the wave front in the near field which is planar. The region in the far fieldbetween
one near field length and three near field lengths is known as the transition region because
transition in shape of the wave front from planarto sphericaloccurs in this region.

The intensity in the far field along the axial distance from the transducer beyond three near
field lengths falls offwith distance in accordance with the inverse square law, i.e. the intensity
decreasesinversely withthesquareofthedistance.Theintensity inthetransition regionof the far
field varies exponentiallywith distancewith an exponent of distance between1 and 2.

The reflected intensityof ultrasonic waves from flaws occurring in the far field depends upon
the size of the flaw with respect to the beam dimensions. If the flaw is larger than the beam
then the reflected intensity follows the inverse proportional law, i.e. intensity of reflection is
inversely proportional to distance. On the other hand if the size of the flaw is smaller than the
beam dimensions then the reflected intensity varies inverselyas the square of the distance, i.e.
Intensityis inversely proportional to the square of distance.

71
 Fielddivergenceorbeamspread

It has already been mentioned in Section 2.7.1 that there is always some spreading of the
ultrasonic beam in the far field as the waves travel from the transducer. It is important to
understand the beam spread as it helps to point out the importance of selecting the proper
frequency andsizeof thetransducer.Thelengthof theultrasonicwaveandthediameter of the
transducer are often critical in the determinationof flaw size and location. The intensityof the
beam is maximum on the central axis and decreases in proportion to the distance from the
Centre.Theangleofbeamspreadordivergenceangleq/2canbecalculatedfromthe
followingequation:

θn/2=sin-1(Knλ/D) = sin-1(Knv/fD)

Where ‘λ’ is the wavelength of the ultrasonic waves, ‘D’ is the diameter in case of a circular
transducer and ‘K’ is a constant which depends:

(i) On the edge of the beam which is considered. Usually the value of ‘K’ is determinedwith
respect to the reductionof the beam intensity to 50% (6 dB), 10% (20 dB) and 0%
(extreme edge) of the maximum amplitude. The subscript "n" in θn and Kn denotes the
respective edge, e.g. θ6 is the divergence angle for 6 dB edge and θ20 is the divergence
angle for 20 dB edge.
(ii) Themethodwhichisusedtodeterminebeamspreade.g.freefieldor echofield.
(iii) Theshapeofthetransducer,i.e.whethercircularorrectangular.

Values of ‘K’ for circular and rectangular transducers are given in Table 2-III while Table 2-
IV gives different values of ‘K’ determined by the echo field method for both circular and
rectangular transducers.

Table2-III. Valuesofkforcircularandrectangulartransducersasdeterminedbythrough
transmissiontechnique

Edge K K
% (dB) circular rectangular

0% 1.22 1.00
10%(20dB) 1.08 0.60
50%(6dB) 0.54 0.91

Table2-IV. Valuesofkforcircularandrectangulartransducersasdeterminedbypulse echo

technique

Edge K K
% (dB) circular rectangular

0% 1.22 1.00
10%(20dB) 0.87 0.74
50%(6dB) 0.51 0.44

72
2.7.3.Influenceofsound velocityandtransducersize.

The near field length of an ultrasonic field is given by D 2/4λ or D2f/4v. Larger values of this
factor furnish a sharp, far-reaching beam with a long near zone. These large values mean that
larger the transducer size, longer the near fieldlength in a given material for a
givenfrequency.Larger diameter gives greater output of soundenergy which acts like abig bang
and pushes more and further in front of it. This results in longer near field length on the one
hand and greater depth of penetration into material under test on the other. Next let us see the
effect of sound velocity and the transducer size on the beam divergence. Equation 2.19 gives
the half beam divergence angle θ/2 to be sin-1(Kλ/D) or sin-1(Kv/Df) which shows that the
transducer diameter has a definite influence onthe sound beam for a given frequency, asmaller
transducerhas a greater beam spread angle than a larger diameter transduceras shown in Figure
2.24.

FIG.2.24.Influenceoftransducersizeonthebeamdivergence.

Changing the transducer's vibrating frequency will also change the beam spread. Beam
divergence is inverselyproportionalto frequency. Therefore a high frequencytransducer has a
more constant (less divergent) sound beamthan a low frequencytransducer.

Example:
Whatwouldbethenearfieldlengthwhentestingsteelusinga4MHztransducerhavinga diameter of 10 mm.

N=D2f/4v
102×4×106/4×5940×103
16.83mm

Example:

Whatwouldbethebeamspreadusinga25.4mmdiameter,2.25MHztransduceronan aluminum test

piece.
λ=v/f=6320×1000/2.25×1000000=2.8mm

θ/2=sin-1(1.22λ/D)

=sin-1(1.22×2.8/25.4)

=sin-1(.1344)=8°

73
Scatteringofultrasonicwaves

The scattering of ultrasonic waves is due to the fact that the material in which the ultrasonic
wave is travelling is not absolutely homogeneous. The in homogeneities can be anything that
will present a boundary between two materials of different acoustic impedance such as an
inclusion or pores and possibly grain boundaries containing contaminants. Certain materialsare
inherently inhomogeneous, such as cast iron which is composed of a matrix of grains and
graphite particles which differ greatly in density and elasticity. Each grain in theagglomeration
produces severe scattering.Itispossible toencounter scatteringinamaterial of just one crystal
type if the crystals exhibit velocities of different values when measured alongaxesin
differentdirections.Amaterialofthis typeissaidtobeanisotropic.If individual grains are randomly
oriented throughout a material, scattering will occur as if the material is composed of different
types of crystals or phases. Materials exhibiting these qualities not only decrease the returned
ultrasonic signal because of scattering, but also often produce numerous small echoes which
may mask or "camouflage" real indications. Acondition for scattering not to occur is that the
dimensions of the particles must be small compared with wavelength, i.e. the particle
dimensions must be less than 0.1 times the wavelength.

Absorptionof ultrasonicwaves

Absorption of ultrasonicwaves is the result of the conversion of a portion of the sound energy
intoheat. In any material notatabsolute zero temperature the particles arein random motion as a
result of the heat content of the material. As the temperature increases, there will be an increase
in particle activity. As an ultrasound wave propagates through the material it excites the
particles. When these particles collide with unexcited particles, energy is transmitted causing
them to oscillate faster and through larger distances. This motion persists after the sound wave
has passed on, so energy of the passing wave has been converted to heat in the material. The
absorption usually increases proportional tofrequency ata ratemuch slower than the scattering.

Diffraction

An important property of ultrasonic waves is their ability, or tendency, to bend around, and
pass obstacles which are comparable in size to their wave length. This wave interference or
diffraction occurs if the wave impinges upon a small inclusion or pore in the metal. A portion
of the energy bends around the defect and reflection is much reduced Figure 2.21a. A second
example of this phenomenon is the bending of ultrasonic waves near the edge of a specimen
Figure 2.21b. This bending may divert the ultrasonic wave from where it would normally be
received, to some other point.

(a) (b)

FIG.2.21.Diffractionofultrasoundinsolids;(a)Aroundthedefect,
(b)Near the irregular edge.

74
Overalleffectofattenuation

In addition to the amount of sound lost due to the above causes, there are other factors to
consider, such as losses in scattering due to surface roughness of a reflector and spreading of
the sound beam. In this instance, attenuation is considered as the sum ofall these factors since
they all affect the amount of sound transmitted to and returned from an area of interest in the
testmaterial.Theattenuationlossesduringpropagationinamaterialareshownin Figure 2.22.

FIG.2.22.Attenuationlossesduringtransmission

Scattering increases rapidly with increasing grain size of the material. Absorption is reduced
with decreasing frequency.

The discussion of attenuation made so far is applicable to the longitudinal waves. For
transverse waves the attenuation is generally much stronger, particularly in plastics. Similarly
attenuation usually increases with the temperature of the testspecimen. For steel a maximum of
the attenuation of sound appears at the transition point from body-centred to face-centred iron
(approx 721°C).

75
 3. BASICULTRASONICTESTINGTECHNIQUESANDTHEIR
LIMITATIONS
BASICULTRASONICTESTMETHODS

Ultrasonic waves arriving at an interface between two media are partially reflected into the
medium from which they are incident and partially transmitted into the other medium. The
method of ultrasonic testing which utilizes the transmitted part of the ultrasonic waves is the
throughtransmission method while that which makes use of the reflected portion of the waves
is classified as the pulse echo test method. Another method which is used for the ultrasonic
testing of materials is the resonance method.

Throughtransmissionmethod

In this method two ultrasonicprobes are used. One is the transmitterprobe and the other is the
receiver probe.These probes aresituated on opposite sides ofthe specimen as shownin Figure
3.1a & b.

FIG.3.1.Positionoftransmitterand receiverprobes inthe

throughtransmissionmethodofultrasonictesting(a)normalbeam(b)anglebeam.

In this method the presence of an internal defect is indicated by a reduction in signalamplitude,

or in the case of gross defects, complete loss of the transmitted signal. The appearanceof the
CRT screen is as illustratedin Figure 3.2a, b & c.

This method is used for the inspection of large ingots and castings particularly when the
attenuation is high and gross defects are present. The method does not give the size and
location of the defect. In addition good mechanical coupling and alignment of the twoprobesis
essential.

76
 FIG.3.2.Theappearanceof CRTscreenfordefectsofvaryingsizesincaseof through
transmission method.
(a)Defectfreespecimen.(b)Specimenwithasmalldefect.(c)Specimen witha large defect.

Pulseechomethod

This is the technique most commonly utilized in the ultrasonic testing of materials. The
transmitter and receiver probes are on the same side of the specimen and the presence of a
defect is indicated by the reception of an echo before that of the backwall echo. Mostly the
same probe acts as the transmitter as well as the receiver. The CRT screen is calibrated toshow
the separation in distance between the time of arrival of a defect echo as against that of the
backwall echo of the specimen, therefore, the location of a defect can be assessed accurately.
The principle ofthe pulse echo method is illustratedin Figure 3.3a, b &c.

A specimen with parallel boundaries yields not only single backwall echo but a sequence of
multiple echoes spaced evenly, provided the measuring range of the viewing screen is large
enough Figure 3.4. These multiple echoes are obtained because the first wave reflected at the
backwall transmits only a small portion of its energy to the probe when it arrives at the front
wall. It is therefore only attenuated slightly when reflected from the front wall and it passes
through the specimen a second time and so forth. The height of the multiple echoes decreases
because, in addition to the slight energy loss in the probe, the wave is attenuated in thematerial
and because the propagation of sound beam follows the laws of beam spread and diffraction,
etc.

There are two ways to transmit ultrasonic waves into the test specimen in pulse echo testing;
one is the normal beam or straight beam technique and the other is the angle beam technique.
Similarly tandem testing technique as well as immersion testing are also different forms of
pulse echo testing.

77
 FIG.3.3.Principleofpulseechomethodofultrasonictesting;
a) Defectfreespecimen,
b) Specimenwithsmalldefectand
c) Specimenwithlargedefect.

FIG.3.4.Multipleechoesincaseofapulseecho method.

78
 .
Automaticandsemi-automaticmethods

Automatic systems are used where large amounts of similar parts are to be tested. These
systems essentiallyconsist of one or several probes which are coupled to the test specimen bya
control unit and are moved across the test object according to a predetermined scanning
pattern. The ultrasonic signals are processed by the evaluation unit (e.g. an ultrasonic flaw
detector) and displayed on a CRT-screen, if available. All measured data along with the
information about the probe position are fed to a computer where they are further processed
and evaluated. The test report is produced by means of a printer. The computer also controls
the marking and sorting device which marks the flaw locations on test objects. Test objects
which have unacceptable flaws are rejected. A further task of the computer is to control the
transport of the work piece and to signal defined test conditions. Figure 3.5 shows block
diagram of a typical automatic ultrasonic testing system. The detailed components of the
system are given below:

(i) Mechanicaloperationoftheprobeorprobesandremotecontrol.
(ii) Capabilityoftheprobesortransducersadequatetothe automation.
(iii) Automaticsupplyofthecouplant.
(iv) Automaticgaincontrol.
(v) Automaticadjustmentoftheequipmentgainforspecifiedworkingsensitivity
(automatic distance-amplitude correction).
(vi) Self-checkingormonitoringsystem.
(vii) Ultrasonicdataprocessingsystem.
(viii) Applications of B-scope, C-scope, Quasi-threedimensionaldisplaysystem(acoustical
holography, frequency analysis, etc.).

79
 FIG.3.5.Blockdiagramofatypicalautomaticultrasonictestingsystem
Presentation anddocumentation ofresultsinautomatic testingneedsspecialattention. The test
information (flaw echoes, backwall echoes or reference echoes, acoustic transmission readings
and transit-time data) is made available in digital form.
Semi and fully automated methods of ultrasonic testing are generally useful for testing of
specimens of uniform and regular shapes. To this category belong plates of all sizes and
thicknesses, uniform shaped castings, forgings and welds, pipes and tubes, rods and cylinders,
small and large pressure vessels, rotor shafts.
TECHNIQUES

Techniques of ultrasonic testing are either of the contact type or the non-contact type. In the
contact type, the probe is placed indirect contactwith the test specimenwith a thin liquid film
used as a couplant for better transmission of ultrasonic waves into the test specimen. In the
non-contact type, either a waterproof probe is used atsome distance from the test specimen and
the ultrasonic beam is transmitted into the material through a water path or water column or the
transducer is coupled to the test specimen simplythrough air.
Contact techniques are divided into three types. These are normal beam techniques, anglebeam
techniques and surface wave techniques. To the second category may belong the immersion
techniques and the air-coupled techniques. Some of these techniques as these are applied in
practical ultrasonic testing are described below.

Tandemtechniques

In some cases it is necessary to conduct angle beam contact testing using two probes. One
probe acts as a transmitter and the other as a receiver. The transmitting transducer pitches a
sound beam that skips in the material and is caught by a receiving transducer. This two probe
method is therefore also called “pitch and catch” or tandem method. The principle of the
method is illustrated in Figure 3.6.

80
The usual objective with this technique is discontinuity location and characterization. The
sound pulse is deflected away from direction of incident beam and it can be received
satisfactorilyonly by a second probe. The position of both probes on the plate depends on the
plate thickness andthelocation of defects. Thepair of probesaredisplacedfromeachother by a
fixed distance and this distance can be calibrated to maximize the received signal amplitude.

FIG.3.6. Tandem techniquearrangement

Thedistancebetweentheprobesis determinedbythe relation:

S=2(t−d)tanθ (3.6)

Where,
θ=Probeangle
t=Specimenthickness,and
d=Depthoftheaimingpoint

Economicmanualtestinginaccordancewiththismethodrequiresthatbothprobesareinterconnectedb
yasuitableguidingdevice.Thiswouldmaintaintherequiredconstant distance between probes and
ensures the correct angle relative to thejointand probesall the time.

The tandem method is most commonly used method for testing the welded joints in thick
walledvessels,specifically in pressure vesselsfor reactors. Most of the testis carried out using
an arrayof probes. Another applicationof tandemtechnique is in the examinationof the root in
double vee welds.

Focusedsensortechnique

These techniques employ the focused probes which concentrate on focusing the ultrasonic
beam at a certain pre-determinedpoint or region within the test specimen. The focusing effect
is obtained through the use of acoustic lenses which work in a manner similar to that in which
the light is focused by optic lenses. For optimum sound transmission the acoustic lens is
usually bonded to the transducer face. Typical desired characteristics for the suitabilityof any
material to act as an acoustic lens include a large index of refraction in water, acoustic
impedance close to that of water and the probe crystal, low internal sound attenuation and the
ease of fabrication. Some of the materials which meet these criteria are methyl methacrylate,
polystyrene, epoxy resin, aluminium and magnesium. The shapes of acoustic lenses can be
either cylindricalor spherical. Former produce a line focus beam while the latter produce spot
focus. The sound beam from a cylindricalprobe has a rectangular shape having a length and a
breadth. Such probes are mainly used for the inspection of thin wall tubing and round bars.
These are specially sensitive to fine surface and sub-surface cracks. The sound beam from a
spherical probe illuminates a small circular spot. These have the greatest sensitivity and
resolution but the area covered as well as the depth range are small.

81
Focusing can also be achieved by shaping the transducer element. The front surface of quartz
crystalcan be ground to a cylindrical or sphericalradius. Bariumtitanatecan be formed into a
curved shape before it is polarized.A small piezoelectricelement can be mounted on a curved
backing member to achieve the same result.

FIG.3.7.Focused-beamshorteninginmetal

Focused transducers are described by their focal length, that is, short medium, long, or extra-
long. Short focallengthsare best for the inspectionofregions ofthe test piecethat are closeto the
front surface. The medium, long, and extra-long focal lengths are for increasingly deeper
regions. Frequently, focused transducers are specially designed for a specific application. The
longer the focal length of the transducer, the deeper into the test piece the point of high
sensitivity will be.

The focal length of a lens in water has little relation to its focal depth in metal, and changing
the length of the water path in immersion inspection produces little change in focal depth in a
test piece.

Focused sensortechniquesareusuallyemployedforprecisethicknessmeasurements,detection of
laminations, discontinuities in the thin sheets. Measurement of internal corrosion in pipes and
vessels. Thin wall tubing and small diameter rods and forgings are also inspected for internal
defects using focused probes. Use of the focusing of ultrasound beam is made for the testing of
specimens with curved surfaces.

Surfacewavesensortechniques

The nature of surface waves and the concepts for their generation have been explained in
chapter-2. The main advantage of surface waves is that they follow gentle contours and are
reflected sharply only by sudden changes in contour thus making a very useful tool for the
examination of complex shaped components Figure 3.7. Their energy is concentrated in a
relatively small region about one wavelength deep near the surface. For example surfacewaves
travellingon the top surfaceof a metal block are reflected froma sharp edge. But if the edge is
rounded off, the waves continuedown the side face and are reflected at the lower edge
returning to the sending point. In this way surface waves could travel completely around acube
if all edges of the cube are rounded off.

Surface wave techniques have been used very successfully in the aircraft industry. Figure 3.8
shows an aircraft component having a complex shape. Application of compression or shear
waves with this may be impossible or difficult. Development of cracks can be expected along
the edge of the blade out to about 2/3 of the blade length or in the root area. A surface wave
probe placed at the end of the blade and directed towards the root will send a beam along the

82
surface, around the radius and reflectfrom theedge of the root as shown.Cracks in the suspect
areas will give reflections at an earlier time than the root.

FIG.3.8.Surfacewavetechnique

FIG.3.9.Testingofbladesforsurfacecrackusing surfacewaves.

The main limitation of surface wave techniques is that theyare almost immediatelyattenuated if
the surface finish is improper or if the surface is covered with scale or a liquid (such as the
couplant)orifanypressureisappliedbyanotherobjectoreventhehandoftheoperator.

Thereforethecouplingliquidshouldbelimitedtothecontactpointasfaraspossible.
Misleadingindicationsmayeven be producedbyun-smoothlyappliedcouplant such as grease.

83
 Immersiontestingtechniques

Immersion testing techniques are mainly usedin the laboratory and for large installations doing
automatic ultrasonic testing. It has the advantage that uniform couplant conditions are obtained
and longitudinal and transverse waves can be generated with the same probe simply by
changing the incident beam angle.

Thethree basictechniquesused in immersion testing are the immersiontechnique,the bubbler

technique and the wheel transducer technique.

In the immersion technique both the probe and the test specimen are immersed in water. The
ultrasonic beam is directed through water into the test specimen, using either a normal beam
technique Figure 3.24a for generating longitudinal waves or an angle beam technique Figure
3.24bforgeneratingtransversewaves.

FIG.3.24Immersiontestingtechniques

When thenormalbeam technique isbeingused,the water path distance mustalwaysbe longer than
the distance “S” in Equation 3.7 below:

Thicknessofthespecimen× SoundvelocityinwaterSoun dvel ocityinthes p e ci m e n

S= (3.7)
When the specimen is steel, the water path distance must be longer than 1/4 steel thickness
otherwise the 1st backwall echo overlaps the 2nd surface echo and defects near the backwall
may not be seen.
PHASSEDARRAY
Phasedarray canbedefinedas“Anarray (series)oftransducerelements inwhichthetiming of the
elements' excitation can be individually controlled to produce certain desired effects, such as
steering the beam axis or focusing the beam by constructiveinterference (phasing). A phased array
system as shown in Figure 9.1 includes a sophisticated computer-based instrumentthatiscapable
ofdrivingthemultielementprobe,receivinganddigitizingthe returning echoes, and plotting that echo
information in various standard formats.

84
Phased array beams are generated by pulsing the individual probe elements or groups ofelements
in a particular pattern. Phased array instruments generate these patterns based on information
that has been entered by the user software known as a focal law calculator that establishes
specific delaytimes for firingeach group of elements in order to generate the desired beam shape
through wave interaction, taking into account probe and wedge characteristics as
wellasthegeometryandacousticalpropertiesofthetestmaterialasshowninFigure3.12&
3.13a & b. The programmed pulsing sequence selected by the instrument’s operating software,
then launches a number of individual wave fronts in the test material. These wave fronts in turn
combine constructively and destructively into a single primary wave front that travels through
the test material and reflects off cracks, discontinuities, back walls, and other materialboundaries
as with any conventional ultrasonic wave. The beam can be dynamically steered through various
angles, focal distances, and focal spot sizes in such a way that a single probe assembly is capable
of examining the test material across a range of different perspectives. This beam steering
happens very quickly, so that a scan from multiple angles or with multiple focal depths can be
performed in a fraction of a second.

FIG.3.11.PhasedArraySystem

FIG.3.12.Timedelaysforfocusingofphasedlinear array

a) Focusednormalbeam

b) Focusedtransversewave
FIG.3.13.Schematictimedelays(histograms

85
Because phasing technology permits electronic beam shaping and steering, it is possible to
generate a vast number of different ultrasonic beam profiles from a single probe assembly, and
this beam steering can be dynamically programmed to create electronic scans:
Thisenablesthefollowingcapabilities:

(i) Software control of beam angle, focal distance, and beam spot size. These parameters can
be dynamically scanned at each inspection point to optimize incident angle and signal-to-
noise for each part geometry.
(ii) Multiple-angle inspection can be performed with a single, small, multi-element probe and
wedge, offering either single fixed angles or a scan through a range of angles.
(iii) These capabilities provide greater flexibility for inspection of complex geometries andtests
in which part geometry limits access.
(iv) Multiplexing across many elements allows motionless high-speed scans from a single
transducerposition.Morethanonescanmaybeperformedfromasinglelocation with various
inspection angles.

PhasedArray Applications

ThephasedarrayultrasonictechnologyforNDT(Non-destructivetesting)usewasinitially triggered by the

following power generation inspection problems:
i) Theneedtodetectcrackslocatedatdifferentdepthswithrandomorientationsusingthe same probe
in a fixed position.
ii) TherequirementtoimproveSNR(signal-to-noiseratio)andsizingcapabilityfordissimilar metal
welds and centrifugal-cast stainless steel welds.
iii) Therequirementtoincreasethescanner reliability.
iv) Increasedaccessibility requirementsfordifficult-to-reachPWR/BWR(pressurizedwater
reactor / boiling water reactor) components.
v) Decreasedsetupandinspectiontime(productivity).
vi) Detection and sizing of small SCC (stress corrosion cracking) in turbine components with
complex geometries.
vii) A requirement to decrease the amount of radiation the personnel is exposed to a
requirement to increase the accuracy in detection, sizing, location, and orientation of
critical defects, regardless of their orientation.
viii) The need to provide a quantitative, easy-to-interpret report for fitness for purpose (also
called “engineering critical assessment or life assessment/disposition-inspection interval
strategy”).
Industries such as aerospace, defense, petrochemical, and manufacturing required similar
improvements, though specific requirements vary for each industry application. A number of
applications include austenitic weld inspections, turbine root inspections, Butt weld inspections,
T-weld inspections of bridge structures. Hydrogen induced crack, flange corrosion under gasket,
nozzle inspections, bridge bolt inspections, spindle/shaft inspections, thread inspections, landing
gear inspections and laser weld inspections etc.

PhasedArray Limitations

Phased array UT is just another inspection technique for assessing the integrity of materialsusing
ultrasonic waves. Many of the inherent detection and sizing limitations of standard UT methods
are also applicable to phased array UT. Phased array UT results depend on decisions based on
the “human factor.” Training and certifying the technicians, analysts, and theengineers, in
advanced phased array UT, is one of the most important tasks in the phased array UT reliability
chain.

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 TIMEOFFLIGHTDIFFRACTION

TOFD is currently the most promising ultrasonic technique for the examination of welds on
pressure vessels in lieu of radiography, for pipe weld quality, crack detection, and weld root
erosion.TOFDisacomputerizedultrasonicsystemabletoscan,store,andevaluateindicationsin
termsofheight(throughwallthickness),lengthandposition,withadegreeofaccuracyandspeed never
achieved with other ultrasonic techniques.

PrincipleofOperation

Measuring the amplitude of reflected signal is a relatively unreliable method of sizing defects
because the amplitude strongly depends on the orientation of the crack. Instead of amplitude,
TOFDusesthetimeofflightofanultrasonicpulsetodeterminethepositionofareflector.

The basic configuration for TOFD (Time of Flight Diffraction) technique consists of a separate
ultrasonictransmitterandreceiver.Afteremissionofacompressionalwavefromatransmitter,the
firstsignaltoarriveatthereceiverislateralwavethroughuppersurface.Intheabsenceofdefects
thesecondsignal to arriveat thereceiveristhebackwall echo.Thediffractedsignal generatedat
theuppertipofadefectwillarrivebeforethesignalgeneratedatthelowertipofadefect.

AdvantagesofTOFD

● PermanentdatarecordingwithB-scantypeimaging(sideview).

● Accuratesizingcapability(height)-through-wallheight.

● Techniqueallowsforrapidscanning

● Detectionandsizingalmostorientationindependent.

● BasedonTOFsoavoidcommonamplitudetechniquesizingerrors.

● TOFDhas apotentialthrough-walldimension accuracyof±1mm.

● Setupvirtuallyindependentofweldconfiguration.

● Widecoveragearea.

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ApplicationsofTOFD

ThemainTOFDapplications are:

In-servicedefectmonitoring.

Defectdetection,documentationandevaluationduringtheproduction.

Limitations of TOFD are:

Thedead zoneunderthe outsidesurfacehas always been alimitation ofTOFD. Defects closeto

thesurfacecouldnot bedetected.(Surfacebreakingcracksaredetectable)

88
 4. ULTRASONICEQUIPMENTANDACCESSORIES

CONSTRUCTIONANDMODEOFOPERATIONOFULTRASONICEQUIPMENT

The ultrasonic equipment and accessories include, in principle, the ultrasonic flaw detector,
transducersandconnectingcables,calibrationblocks,datapresentationandrecording systems,
immersiontanks and handling systems for probes and the test specimen.The salient features of
the flaw detector and data presentation systems are described in this chapter while the other
topics have been dealt with elsewhere at appropriateplaces in the book.

Figure 4.1 shows the components of an ultrasonic flaw detection system. The simultaneous
triggering of the sweep generator and pulser by the clock, initiates the transmission of
ultrasonic pulse from the probe at the same time as the electron beam spot starts to moveacross
the cathode ray tube.When a single crystal probe is used, the electrical voltage pulse supplied
by the pulser to the probe is also fed to the receiver unit and is thus amplified and displayed as
indication ‘a’ on the CRT screen Figure 4.1. The indication ‘a’ is known as the transmission
echo, ‘transmission pulse’, the ‘initial pulse’, the ‘main bang’ or the ‘frontsurface reflection’.

FIG.4.1.Basiccomponentsofanultrasonicflawdetectionsystem.

The electron beam spot continues to move across the CRT screen as the ultrasound from the
probe moves through the specimen.When the ultrasound reaches the reflecting surface b, a part
of it is reflected via a probe and receiver unit to register an indication ‘b’ on the CRT
screen.The other part which is carried tothefarsurface ‘c’ of the testspecimen is reflected by it
to be displayed as indication ‘c’ on the CRT screen.The indications from the reflecting surface
‘b’ and the far surface or backwall ‘c’ of the specimen are known as the ‘defect echo’ and
‘backwall echo’ or ‘bottom echo’ respectively.

If the specimen of Figure 4.1 is a 25 mm thick steel plate, the above operation would have
taken about 8 millionthof a second (8 ms) to complete.The pulse repetition frequency(PRF)
should, therefore, be high enough to make the pattern to be bright enough to be visible to the
human eye.On the other hand for a 500 mm thick specimen, the time required for the whole

89
 operation to complete is about 160 ms.If a high repetition frequency is used in this case,
confusion would arise because the probe will send a second ultrasonic pulse before the firstone
is received.Depending upon the thickness of the test specimen, in most of the instruments, the
PRF can be varied between 50 pulses per second (PPS) to 1250 PPS. This is done
automaticallyin modern instruments with the setting of the ‘test range’ control.It alters the
velocityof the electron beam spot across the CRT screen for different test ranges.

In twin crystal and transverse wave probes there is a perspex delay block, fitted between the
piezoelectric transducer and the surface of the specimen.The ultrasonic waves travel for
sometime before entering the test specimen. To prevent the electron beam spot to travel a
distance proportionalto this travellingtime in perspex delay block, the ‘delay’ control is used.
The ‘delay’ control makes the time base generator to wait for a period equal to the perspex
travellingtime, before makingthe spot to start fromthe zero position.

Functionsoftheelectroniccomponentsinatypicalinstrument

The essentialcomponentsof a typicalultrasonic flaw detector are as shown in Figure 4.1. The
functions of these components are explained in the following sections.

Cathoderaytube

The cathode ray tube orCRT Figure 4.2 contains aheater coil whichheats the cathode to make
itemitelectrons.These electrons are accelerated by avoltage applied across the cathode and
anode.The resultant electronbeam is focused by the focusingcylinder to make it appear onthe
fluorescentscreen as a spot.As the electrons traveltoward the CRT screen they
passtwopairsofdeflecting plateshorizontal andvertical.Avoltageapplied tothe horizontal- plates
would deflect the electron beam horizontally while a voltage applied to the vertical-plates
would deflect the beam vertically.

FIG.4.2Constructionofacathoderaytube(CRT).

90
The focusing of the spot is indicated as‘focus’, on the CRT controls.The ‘astigmation’ or
‘auxiliary focus’ are thecontrols tocorrect the unsharpness inducedinthe CRT trace by the
changingtransit time of the electronbeamspot when it is deflected by a voltage applied to the
vertical plates.The brightness of the CRT trace can be varied through a controlknob marked as
‘brightness’.Similarly the control knobs for horizontaland vertical movement of the CRT trace
are respectivelymarked as ‘horizontalshift’, ‘set zero’, ‘X-shift’ or ‘delay’ and ‘vertical shift’
or ‘Y-shift’.

Timebasegenerator

The time-base generator provides a sawtooth voltage to the X-plates of CRT to move the
electron beam spotfrom lefttoright across the CRT screen with auniform speed. Thespeed of
the spotdepends on the rise time of the sawtooth voltage, i.e.the timeinwhich the sawtooth
voltage rises from zero to its maximum value Figure 4.3.The shorter the rise time the greater
would be the speed of the spot.The practical implication of this is related to the thicknessof the
test specimen.If we want to displaythe full thickness of the specimen on the CRT, we need
toensure that the spot takes atleast as long tosweep from lefttoright as it takesthesoundtotravel
to thebottom ofthe specimenandbacktothetop.Forthin specimens we can allow the spot to move
quickly, whereas for thick specimens we must slow down the spot.The control which is
provided for the adjustment of the rise time of sawtooth voltage and hence the speed of the
spotis termed as ‘depth range’ or ‘test range. To preventthe return of the electron beam spot to
produce a trace on the screen, the time base generator simultaneouslycontrols the brightness of
the spot by means of a square wave voltage sothat the spot remains bright onlyduring the rise
time of the sawtoothvoltage Figure 4.4.

Sometimes it is needed that the pulse which triggers the time base should be delayed as
compared to the pulse which triggers the transmitter.For example, twin crystal and shearwave
probes usually are fitted with a perspex shoe.As the transducer is energized, the sound takes
some time to travel through the perspex before entering the test specimen.We do not
wanttodisplay thisperspex travel time on thetimebase.Thisisdone through acontrol called
‘delay’ which makes the time base generator wait for a period equal to the sound travel time in
perspex before making the spot travel from zero.The delay control can also allow to start the
time base when the soundhas travelled say200mm through a 225mm thicksection so thatit is
possible to look at just the last 25 mmofthe specimen.

FIG.4.3(a)Sawtoothvoltagefortimebase,and
(b)withdifferentoperatingtimes

91
 FIG.4.4Sawtoothvoltagefortimebasewithcorrespondingsquarewavevoltagefor
controlofbrightness

Transmitter

The transmitter, also called an oscillator, is basicallya tuned electronic circuit comprisingof a
thyratron, capacitances and inductances (LC) as shown in Figure 4.5. The circuit receives a
control pulse from the clock.The control pulse is fed to the thyratron which generates a voltage
surge by the sudden discharge of the capacitor charged to several hundred, up to 1000
volts.This surge excites the tuned circuit to its own damped oscillation which becomes the
electrical transmitting pulse.

FIG.4.5Typicalelectroniccircuitofthetransmitterinanultrasonicflawdetector
Different modifications can be made to this basic circuit to get pulses of desired amplitude,
shape and length.

The transmitter supplies a short electrical voltage pulse of 300-1000 V to the piezoelectric
transducer in the probe.The piezoelectric transducer, in turn, converts this electrical voltage
pulse into an ultrasonic wave.In some instruments controls are provided to adjust the
frequency andamplitude of theinputelectrical voltage pulse, while inothers thisadjustment is
done automatically.The frequency and width of the ultrasonic wave pulse are controlled
respectively by the thickness and degree of damping of the piezoelectric transducer in the
probe.

92
Receiverunit

Theultrasonictransducerreceivespulsesfromthetransmitterandgeneratessoundwaves
whichtravelwithinthetestspecimen andarereflectedbackfrom theboundariesaswellas
thediscontinuitiespresentwithinthetestspecimen.Thereflectedsoundwavesreceivedby the probe
are converted back into electrical voltage pulses.While the pulsesfed to the probe areof
theorder ofhundredsofvolts,thoseproducedby thesoundwavesreturning from the testspecimen
arecomparatively very weak,e.g.only of theorderof 1/1000 to1volt. These
weakpulsesneedtobeamplifiedbeforebeingfedtotheoscilloscope.Thisisdoneinthe
receiverunitFigure4.6whichconsistsofapreamplifier,anamplifier,arectifierandan attenuator. The
purpose of the preamplifier is the amplification of small echo signals in orderto lift them above
the unavoidable noise level of the following circuit. The amplifieramplifies any voltage pulse
supplied to it from the probe. The amplification is of the order of about 10 5.
Inmostoftheinstrumentstheamplifierisofawidebandtypewithafrequencyrangeof
about1to15MHzandacontroltotunetheamplifiertothefrequencyoftheprobeisnot
needed.Insomecasesitisanarrowbandtypeandacontrolisprovidedtotuneittothe frequency of the
probe.There are twogeneral typesof the amplifiers from the amplification pointof
view.Firstly,the linear amplifiers inwhich the indication of the echoamplitude on the screen is
proportional tothe receiver voltage of the probe, andsecondly, thelogarithmic amplifiers in
which the echo amplitude is proportional to the logarithm of the probe voltage. Since the
amplitudes are usually quoted in decibels (dB)and since thelatter is a logarithmicquantitythe
logarithmic amplifiers offer the advantageof being dB-proportional amplifiers.

The rectifier in the receiver unit rectifies the voltage signal for ease of observation.In some
instruments a control is provided to observe the received signal either in the rectified or
unrectified state.The attenuator in the receiver unit is used to vary the signal amplitude as
needed.The control provided to do this is known as “gain control” and is calibrated in the
decibels or dB.It controls the input from the probe to the main amplifier so that the operator
can keep echo height from a reflector within the CRT screen for echo heights comparison and
making theflawsizing possible.Anothercontrol knownas‘reject’ or“suppression”control is
provided in the receiver unit to remove the indications of random noise, known as grass,
fromthe CRT display.Typicalcircuit ofa receiver is shown in Figure 4.6.

FIG.4.6. Typicalreceivercircuitandwaveforms

93
 Clockortimer

The clock or timer circuit generates electricalpulses which trigger the time base generator and
transmitter at the same time.These pulses are generated repeatedlyto make the trace on the
CRT screensteadyand bright.The frequencywith which these pulses are generated is known as
the pulse repetition frequency (PRF).In some instruments a control is provided for the
adjustment of PRF while in others it is adjusted automaticallywith the alteration in setting of
the ‘test range’ control.

Signalmonitorsandgates

Visual evaluation of the screen traces is often slow and not suitable for rapid and continuous
testing.It is desirable that the test data such as the echo amplitude and echo transit time are
converted to electrical values for purposes of quick recording.This is done with the help of
signal monitors which indicate the echoin theform of asignal assoon as theformer appears in a
pre-selected transit time zone, i.e. the gate, and exceeds a pre-selected amplitude reading.
Onthe screen thisgateisusually indicated by astep orby abrightnesschange of the base line.The
position as well as the width of the gate is adjustable. The start of the gating is usually initiated
by the transmitting pulse after a certain delay. Several gates can be used to monitor different
ranges simultaneously.

Electronically themonitor consists of a gate amplifier receiving the samevoltage pattern asthe
CRT which, however, transmits only the desired portion of this pattern through a transit time
interval, i.e. the gate. The gating voltage is synchronized by the pulse repetitionfrequency
(PRF) of the instrument.

The output signals of the monitor can be used for actuating any acoustical (horns or bells) or
optical (lamps) signalling devices. Also switching operations can be initiated which, for
instance, can stop the movement of the test piece in continuous testing or can actuate
amarkingdevice, such as a paint spraying gun, for flaw indicationon the test specimen.

Thicknessmeters

Digital thickness meters are more widely used for thickness measurements because of their
verycompactsize,highermeasurementaccuracy andsomewhatsimpleroperating procedures.
Usually thickness meters have few controls. They use special highly damped transducers.
Figure 4.7 shows the block diagram of a digitalthickness meter.

FIG.4.7.Functiondiagramofanultrasonicthicknessgage

Thetransittimeofultrasonicpulsecanbemeasuredinthefollowingmodes:

94
a) Directcontactmode
In this mode the single crystal normal beam probe is separated from the test specimen surface
by a thin protective layer and sends the ultrasonic pulses into the test specimen immediately
after they have been generated. The measurement of the transit time begins with each
transmitted pulse and ends with the return of the same pulse from the backwall of the test
specimen Figure 4.8. This mode is usually used with components having uncorroded plane
parallel and concentric surfaces and having greater thicknesses and or greater attenuation
characteristics. For these components the requirement on accuracy of measurement is not so
stringent.

FIG.4.8.Pictorialrepresentationofdirectcontactmode
b) Delayblockmode
In this mode an exchangeable delay block separates the probe from the test specimen surface.
The transit time measurement is started by the 'entry echo' (i.e. echo produced due to the
reflected ultrasonic energy at the delay block/test specimen interface) and the transit time is
measured betweenthe entryecho and the first backwallecho Figure 4.9.

FIG.4.9.Pictorialrepresentationofdelayblock
mode.

This mode is used with precision components having uncorroded plane parallel or concentric
thicknesses below 10 mm and down to a few tenths of a millimetre and which require higher
measurementaccuracy.

c) Successivebackwallechoesmode
This is another mode used with a normal beam single crystal probe having an exchangeable
delay block. The transit time measurement in this case starts with the first backwall echo and
ends with the second backwall echo Figure 4.10.

95
 FIG.4.10.Pictorialrepresentationofsuccessivebackwallechomode.

This modeisusedwithuncorroded plane parallel orconcentric thin wall components and where the
highest possible measuring accuracyis required.
d) Twincrystal mode
In this mode a twin crystal probe is used and the transit time measurement is initiated by the
crosstalkechoandisstoppedby thefirstbackwallechoFigure4.11.Thismodeismostly used for
components with corroded surfaces.

FIG.4.11.Pictorialrepresentationoftwincrystalmode.

ThicknessmeterswithA-scandisplay

Ultrasonic equipment manufacturers have now incorporated both digital and echo displays onthe
same equipment. This would allow a technician to look at the reflected echoes and see if a
weaker echo is coming from a deeper corrosion pit not readable by the electronic gate of the
thickness meter. In order to be able to interpret such a phenomenon, a technician need to be
trained and be familiar with behavioral pattern of ultrasonic waves reflected from uneven or
corroded backwall.

Automatic equipment

Automatic systems are used wherelarge amounts of similar parts are tobe tested. These systems
essentiallyconsist of one or several probes which are coupled to the test specimen by a
controlunitandaremovedacrossthetestobjectaccording toapredetermined scanning pattern. A
simplified diagram of a four channel automatic flaw detection system is shown in Figure 4.12.

96
 FIG.4.12.Schematicdiagramof afourchannelflawdetectionsystem

Figure4.13&4.14showsanautomaticpipelineinspectionsystemandmanipulatorfor inservice inspection

of nuclear pressure vessel respectively.

FIG.4.13.Automaticpipelineinspectionsystem.

97
 FIG.4.14.Manipulatorforinternaltestsonnuclearreactors,schematic
(DesignMAN-Krautkrämer):
1Monorailhoist,2controlpanel3,mast bearing,4maintenanceplatform,5slewing
crane,6mastsections,7electronicpanel,8cross-bridge,9manipulatorbridge,
10spidersupport,11telescopictube,12swivelarm,13probesystemmountfor
hemisphericalbottom,14probesystemmountforcylindricalwallandnozzles.

CHARACTERISTICSOFEQUIPMENTAND SYSTEMCONTROLS

Propertiesofverticaland horizontalamplifiers

Since the signal coming from an ultrasonic probe is usually weak it has to be "amplified"
before displayingitontheCRTscreen.Thisamplification isdoneby theradiofrequency (RF)
amplifier. The two performance characteristics which are important are the dynamicrange and
frequency response of the amplifier.

Dynamicrange

Dynamic range of the amplifier is the ratio of maximum and minimum inputs which it can
amplifywithoutdistortion.Alargedynamicrangeisrequiredinultrasonicflawdetection

since flaw sizes are evaluated by comparing the height of the echoes from these flaws. The
dynamic range of a linear amplifier used in ultrasonic flaw detectors is usually 34 dB (50:1)
while that of a logarithmicamplifier is 100 dB (105: 1).

98
 Frequencyresponse

Frequency response of an amplifier determines the range of frequencies which an amplifiercan

amplifyequally. A narrow band amplifier usuallyamplifies a narrow band of frequencies
around the resonance frequencyof the probe used. Narrow band amplifier improves the signal
to noise ratio by amplifying the signal from an interface to a greater degree than that of noise
signals thus improving flaw detection sensitivity. But an excessive narrow band width has the
disadvantage that the pulses are broadened, resulting in reduced resolving power. To
accommodateprobes of different frequencies, the instrument using a narrow band amplifier is
usuallyprovided with a frequency selection switch. Wide band (WB) amplifiers can amplify a
wide band of frequencies. This type of amplifier improves the resolution of the flaw detector
though thesignalto noise ratio (detectionsensitivity) is usually lowered.This type of amplifier is
usually used in portable ultrasonic flaw detectors and with shock wave probes. Typicalrangeof
frequencies for a wide band amplifier is from1 to 10 MHz.

Correlationbetweenresolvingpowerandfrequency,transmittingpoweranddamping

Resolving power of a flaw detection system is its ability to give separate echoes from two
closely occurring flaws. The resolving power of a flaw detection system depends upon the
ultrasonic pulse length generated bythe probe. The pulse length is controlled bythe frequency
and damping of the crystal of the probe and the electrical power provided to the probe for
generation of ultrasonic waves. The vibration of the crystals of the commercially available
standard probes is so damped that the ultrasonic pulse generated by these probes consists of
four to five cycles of vibration when the crystal is energised by a normal strength electrical
pulse. It consists of more than five cycles when it is energised by a high strength electrical
pulse.Shock waveprobesonthe otherhand arehighly damped probes andthe ultrasonic pulse
generated by such probes, at normal transmitting power, consists of half to one cycle of
vibration. Since shorter pulse length (i.e. smaller number of cycles of vibration in the pulse)
willoccupyless space inthe materialit will therefore result inhigher depth (or far) resolution.
But since the energy in the pulse (i.e. the transmitting power) is less, the flaw detection
sensitivity would be lowered. Another characteristic of a shorter pulse is its higher frequency
band width. This frequency band consists of higher as well as lower frequencies around the
resonance frequency of the probe. The higher frequencies give rise to sharp echoes therefore
improving the resolution of the system. Increasing the transmitting power of the probe will
increase the pulse length generated by the probe thus increasing the flaw detection sensitivity
and reducing the resolution of the system.

Ultrasonic flaw detectors are usuallyprovided with a two position transmitting power control.
The first position of the controlprovides a low power electrical pulse to the probe. This
position provides sufficient flaw detection sensitivity and higher resolution and most of the
flaw detection is carried out with this position. However, when inspecting specimens withlarge
thicknesses or high attenuation characteristics, the transmitting power of position one may not
be sufficient. In such cases position two of the control is used. In this position, a higher power
electrical pulse is provided to the probe for generating a longer ultrasonic pulse (higher
energy). This position therefore renders high flaw detection sensitivity and lower resolution.

99
 Linearity

The amplifier should amplify small signals as much as the large signals. This is an essential
requirement, since flaw size in ultrasonic detection is determined by comparing the echo
heights. As already mentioned the range of inputs at which the amplifier exhibits this
characteristic (known as the linearity) is called the dynamic range of the amplifier. Inultrasonic
flaw detection this propertyof linearity has to be checked regularly as a part of the calibration
process

Saturation

Beyond a certain maximuminput the amplifier will not amplifythe signal in the same ratio as
itdoes in the dynamic range. The amplification or the gain of the amplifier decreases forinputs
with greater signal amplitude. This phenomenonis calledthe saturation of the amplifier. Since
flaw sizing in the saturation region of the amplifier will not be accurate, therefore, an
attenuator is provided to control the input to the amplifier; to keep it below the saturation
limit.Theattenuator control enables theoperator todetermine accurateflawsize for inputs larger
than the saturation limit as well.

SIGNALPRESENTATION

Echoamplitudeanditscontrol

A convenient way of measuring changes in amplification or attenuation of ultrasonic waves is

in terms of decibel(dB). A decibel is l/l0 thof a belwhich is a unit basedon logarithmsto the
base 10. In physics, the term “power” is used to mean the rate at which work is done. If two
powers aretakenas ‘P1’ and ‘P2’, theyare said to differ by‘n’ bels when

As the amplitudes of the reflected ultrasonic waves are proportional to the heights of the
echoes displayed on the CRT screen, thereforeEquation 4.1 can be modified as:
n=20logH1/H2dB (4.2)
Where,
H1=echoheightproportionaltoultrasonicwaveamplitudeA1
H2=echoheightproportionalto ultrasonicwaveamplitudeA2
Theadvantagesofdecibelunitare:
(a) largeechoheightratioscanbegiveninsmallfigures,e.g.
1000:1=60dB
1000,000: 1=120 dB
(b) areversaloftheecho height ratiosonlyrequiresa changeofsign,e.g.
100,000 : 1 = +80 dB, and
1 : 100,000=–80 dB
(c) multiplicationoftheecho height ratioscorrespondstothesimpleadditionofadBvalue, e.g.
gainfactor2 +6dB
gainfactor10 +20dB
gainfactor100 +40dB

100
 A-scanpresentation

The most commonly used presentation is the A-scan presentation. In this presentation, the
horizontal line on the screen indicates the elapsed time and the vertical deflection shows the
echo amplitude. From the location and amplitude of the echo on the screen the depth of the
flaw in the material and an estimate of the size of the flaw can be made. A typical A-scan
system is shown in Figure 4.15.

FIG.4.15.A-scanpresentation(Basicdisplay).

B-scanpresentation

B-scan display is a plot of time versus distance, in which one orthogonal axis on the display
corresponds to elapsed time, while the other axis represents the position of the transduceralong
a line on the surface of the testpiece relative to the position of the transducer at the start of the
inspection. Echo intensity is not measured directly as it is in A-scan inspection, but is often
indicated semiquantitatively by the relative brightness of echo indications on an oscilloscope
screen.AB-scan display canbelikenedtoanimaginary crosssection through the testpiece where
both front and back surfaces are shown in profile. Indications from reflecting interfaces within
the testpiece are also shownin profile, and the position,orientation, and depth of such interfaces
along the imaginarycutting plane are revealed.

C-scanpresentation

C-scan display records echoes from the internal portions of testpieces as a function of the
position of each reflecting interface within an area. Flaws are shown on a readout,
superimposed on a plan view of the testpiece, and both flaw size (flaw area) and position
within the plan view are recorded. Flaw depth normally is not recorded, although it can be
measured semiquantitatively by restricting the range of depths within the testpiece that is
covered in a given scan. With an increasing number of C-scan systems designed with on-board
computers, other options in image processing and enhancement have become widely used in
the presentation of flaw depth and the characterization of flaws. An example of a computer-
processedC-scan image is shown in Figure 4.17, in which a graphite-epoxysample with impact
damage wasexamined using time-of-flight data. The depth of damage isdisplayed with a color
scale in the original photograph.

101
 FIG.4.16.Time-of-flightC-scanimageofimpactdamageingraphite-epoxylaminate supported
by two beams (arrows)
RECORDINGINSTRUMENTS

Automaticmonitor

Many instruments areequippedwithamonitor function whichfacilitates observing theflaw

intheexpectancyrange.Thestartandendoftheflawexpectancyrangecantherebybe

marked by means of a step on the base line of the screen oran additionally displayed bar onthe
screen. If now an echo appears within this range then this releases a visible and/or audible
alarm signal. The response threshold of the monitor is also variable so that an echo indication
onlyreleases the alarm when it has reached a certain height. This mode of operation is called
“coincidence” mode. Some systemse are fitted with monitor which can also operate in the
“anticoincidence” mode, i.e. an echo indication only releases the alarm when it has fallen
below a certain threshold value. The anticoincedence mode is usually used for monitoring the
backwall echo height. This monitoring enables the operator to check whether sufficient
ultrasonic energyis being transmitted into the test specimen or not.

In addition to the monitor function, most of these instrumentshave a controloutput which can
be used to further process the information. As soon as an echo appears within the monitor
threshold a voltage is fed to the control output which is proportional to the echo height and
which can be immediately used for automatic recording. By means of this monitor function
together withapath pick-up which isfixedintothe probe, C-scans of workpieces can be easily
printed on an X-Y recorder.

SENSORS

Theterm sensorin ultrasonic testingis usedforthedevice usedfortransmission andreceipt of

ultrasound. Itis alsocalled a transducer or a probe. An ultrasonic probe (Figure 3.7) consists of:
a) Apiezoelectriccrystalortransducer.
b) A backingmaterial.
c) A matching transformer which matches the piezoelectric transducer’s electrical
impedance to thatof thecable totheflaw detector in order totransfermaximum energy
from the cable to the transducer and vice versa.
d) Acasewhichissimplya holderofsuitabledimensionsandconstruction.

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 FIG.4.17.Straightbeam(longitudinalwave)

Piezoelectric transducers

An ultrasonic probe is generally excited by a voltage pulse of less than 10 micro second
duration. A short voltage pulse consists of a band of frequencies. Among thesefrequencies,the
transducer vibrates with maximum amplitude at the frequency known as the resonance
frequencyof the transducer, which is related to its thickness as follows:

fr=v/2t (3.3)
Where
fr = resonancefrequencyofthe transducer.
t = thicknessofthetransducer.
v = longitudinalwavevelocityofultrasoundinthetransducermaterial.

Equation 3.3 is used to determine the thickness of the transducer required to construct an
ultrasonic probe of a particular frequency. For example to make a probe of 1 MHz frequency
the thickness of a quartz crystal will be 2.98 mm. The thickness for 10 MHz frequency comes
out tobe 0.298mm while for afrequency of20 MHzitwillbe 0.14mm.Itwill be appreciated
thatalthough flawsensitivity willbemuchimproved witha20MHzprobe(at this frequencythe
wavelength=0.298mm andflaw sensitivitybeing of the order of l/3is 0.1
mm) the crystal in this case will be extremelythin and consequentlyquite fragile and difficult to
handle. Therefore in practice a compromise has to be made between the crystal thickness that
can be convenientlymanagedand the flaw sensitivityto be achieved. In cases where high
sensitivity is essentially required the probes are immersed in a liquid and most testing is done
with the probe receiving minimum possible disturbance.
Theotherimportantparameterofthecrystal whichaffectstheultrasonicbeamisitsdiameter,
D. On crystal diameter depend the near field length, the beam divergenceand the width of the
beam at a given point.
Most probes have circular radiating surfaces with diameters of approximately 5 to 40 mm.
Diameters larger than 40 mm are unsuitable for most test problems because a corresponding
flat contact surface is not available. The disadvantage of smaller diameters, particularlyin the
case of low frequencies, is the greater radiation of lateraltransverse waves and surface waves.
Another difficultyarising from the use of probes with small diameters is their greatly reduced
sensitivity.
For providing the electrical pulses to the crystal,its faces need to be electrically connected with
thehelp of wires.Forthis purposethefaces of the crystal are electroplated with silver and
contacts are then provided by soldering the connecting wires to this layer of electroplated
silver.
To prevent the wear of crystal a wear face is provided in thin layers of aluminum oxide,
sapphire, ruby, boron or carbides.

103
 Backingmaterial

The backing material in a probe is used to control its two basic performance characteristics
namely the resolution and the sensitivity.
Resolution of a probe is its ability to separate the echoes from two flaws which are close
togetherindepth.Sensitivity of theprobeisdefinedastheability oftheprobetodetect echoes from
small flaws. To have a high resolution probe, the vibration of the transducers of the probe
should be damped as quickly as possible, but to have a high sensitivity probe, the damping of
the transducer vibrations should be as low as possible. The two requirements are contradictory
to each other and therefore a compromise has to be made. The maximum damping of the
transducer's vibration is achieved when the backing material has the same acoustic impedance
as that of the transducer. This matching of the acoustic impedances of transducer and backing
material allow the ultrasound to pass easily from the transducer intothe backing material. The
backing material should also provide a high degree of attenuation and absorption todissipate
the transmitted ultrasound so thatitwill notreflectfrom the back of the backing materialto create
spurious signals. Backing materials for pulse echo probes are often made of fibrous plastics or
metal powders combined with various plastic materials. Attenuation can be controlled by the
grain size of the powder and impedance by the proportions of metal powder and plastic.

Matchingtransformer

All types of probes also contain electrical matching elements (capacitors and inductors) in
order to maximize the electrical coupling of the probe to the input of the amplifier. In other
words the transformer matches the piezoelectric transducer electrical impedance to that of the
cable totheflawdetector in ordertotransfer maximum energy from the cable tothe transducer
and vice versa.

Protectivefaceand housing

The essential elements of an ultrasonic probe are encased in a metallic housing and usually
provided with a protective face or cover. The protective face of a probe does not onlyprotect
the sensitive transducer from direct contact with the test piece surface but also improves the
acoustical matching to the test piece.

MaintenanceofProbes

The probes during use may experience certain damages. The user should therefore be well
aware of the possible causes and effects of these damages. These are brieflydescribed here.
(i) The probe may be mechanically damaged because of dropping down, fixing the probe
too firmly or by the application of too much load on the coupling surface. This can
result in changingof the sound field and reduction or loss of sensitivity.
(ii) The crystal may be loosened from the protective face or delay block because of
penetration of liquids into the probe or because of the probe temperatures being too
high. This can also affect the sound field and sensitivityof the probes.
(iii) Naturalwearoftheprotectivefaceandtheperspexdelayblocksmaytakeplacein case of
directcontact type probes.This may resultin anincrease of theprobeindex and a change
in the probe angle. In case of TR probes a change in the sound field, increase of cross
talk and reduction in sensitivitycan take place.
(iv) Extremelyhigh voltages (transmissionpulse) at the probe can lead to a dielectric break
down resulting in complete destruction of the crystal. Standard probes normally
withstand suchhigh voltages. Special probes designed for working atlow voltages (e.g.
probes for digital thickness gauges) may be affected when connected to an instrument
with a high power transmitter.

104
 Normalincidencesensors

Thesesensors send a sound beam, usuallylongitudinal, into the test specimenat right angle to the
surface ofthe test specimen. Figure 4.18 shows the design of a typicalprobe ofthis kind.

FIG.4.18.Designofatypicalnormalbeamultrasonicprobe.
Thenormalincidenceprobesareeitherusedindirectcontactwiththetestspecimenor without such
contact. The former are termed as contact type probes while the latter are said to be non-contact
type. In the normal probes of direct contact type a wear plate is often used to
protectthetransducerfromwear.Whenusingthisprotectiveplateathinlayerofan appropriate
couplant usually light oil is always required between the transducer and the wear plate to obtain
transmission of ultrasound energy across the interface. There are probes which
haveonlyonetransducercrystalwhilethereareothersinwhichtwocrystalsare
simultaneouslymountedinthesamehousing.Someprobeshavespeciallygroundplastic faces which
are used for focusing the beam at a particular region or points. All these different types of
normal incidence probes are described below.
Singletransducernormalbeamprobes
These probes use a single transducer Figure 4.19 as a transmitter and receiver of ultrasound.
This transducer has a common connection to the transmitter and amplifier units of the flaw
detector Figure 4.19. Because of this common connection to the transmitter and receiver unit,
the single transducer probes have a large initial or transmission pulse which results in a large
dead zonefortheprobegenerally making theprobeuselessfornearsurfaceflaw detection and thin
wall thickness measurement. Short pulse length probes are now available which have shorter
dead zones thus making them more useful for testing thin material. The dead zone is a zone
where it is not possible to detect defects. The dead zone is shown as the transmission signal at
the start of the time base. The dead zone increases when the frequency is decreased, therefore a
5 MHz single probe will have a smaller dead zonethan a 2.5 MHz probe.

FIG.4.19Modeofoperationofsinglecrystalprobes.

105
 Singlecrystalfocusednormalbeam probes

Occasionally focusing probes of special design are used to increase the sensitivity over a
definite range for certain testing problems. For this purpose either a curved ground,
piezoelectric plate of ceramic material is used, or a curved layer with lens effects is cemented
to the flat plate. The latter method greatly increases the sensitivity immediately below the
surface in the case of probes used according to the immersion technique Figure 4.20 where
such a focusing layer is not subjected to wear. In the case of concave test surfaces and direct
contact the sound beam would open wide, resulting in low depth sensitivity. This can be
improved by inserting between the transducer and the test surface alens shaped body.This will
produce a certain zone of disturbance which must be accepted, even if an absorbing materialis
used for the lens, suchas vulcanized rubber which maycontain filler.

FIG.4.20Testingbytheimmersiontechniquewithfocusedbeam.

Twincrystalnormalbeamprobes

To avoid the limitations encountered in the use of single transducer normal beam probes for
thin wall thickness measurements and near surface flaw detection, double transducer normal
beam probes areused. These are alsocalled twin-crystal or TRprobes. These areprobes which
incorporate two transducers in a single case. These transducers are separatedacoustically and
electrically from each other by an acoustic barrier Figure 4.21. One of the transducers is
connected to the transmitter unit and the other to the receiver unit of the flaw detector, as
shown in Figure 4.22, thus eliminating the transmissionpulse.

FIG.4.21.Twincrystaltypeprobe

106
Thespecialfeatures tonotein theconstruction of adouble transducer probearethe inclination of
the transducers and the long delay blocks. The inclination of the transducers gives a focusing
effect and maximum sensitivity can be obtained at a certain point in the specimen for a
particular angle of inclination, i.e. "roofangle", Figures 4.23.

The long delay blocks which are made of perspex or for hot surfaces, of a heat resistive
ceramic material, allow the ultrasonicbeam to enter thetest specimen at its divergent part (i.e.
in the far zone). This eliminatesthe difficultiesof evaluatinga flaw occurring in the near field
and also helps in producinga shorterdeadzone forthe probe for a larger roofangle.
The minimum distance at which echoes of flaws can be detected is given by the beginning of
the region where the sound beam of the transmitter and the receiving characteristics of the
receiveroverlap.Duetothisfact,withTR-probes,wecandefineapipeshapedregionof
maximum sensitivity which is often dealt with in the data sheets of TR probes. The high
sensitivity in the subsurface region iscausedby the roof angle of the twocrystals.On the other
hand, with high gain settings, this leads to an interference echo, known as the cross talk echo
which should not be misinterpretedas being a flaw.

FIG.4.22.Modeofoperationoftwincrystalprobe

FIG.4.23.Influenceofroofanglesoversensitivityoftwincrystalprobe

Further attention must be paid to the fact that, with decreasing thickness of the work piece
(plate)orflawlocation,abigmeasuringerrormayoccur,knownastheV-patherror Figure 4.24. It
never occurs with distanceslying betweenthe two steps used for calibration if the
thicknessratio of the two steps does not exceed 2 : 1.

107
 FIG.4.24.V-patherrorwithTR-probes.

The%errorinmeasurementintroducedduetothiseffect canbecalculatedfromtheformula

(3.4)

Where
T=Thickness of the specimen

S=Actualbeampathlength

C =Distancebetweentheprobeindicesofultrasoundexitandultrasoundentrance TR-

probes are veryoften used in ultrasonic testing for:

(i) Checkingthedimensionsofworkpieces(e.g.plates).
(ii) Remainingwallthicknessmeasurements.
(iii) Detection,locationandevaluationofsubsurfaceflaws.
(iv) Scanninglargedefects(lamination)

Normalbeamimmersiontypeprobes
The construction of an immersiontype probe is essentiallythe same as that of the contact type
normal beam probe. Since, however, immersion type probes are always in contact with water
theyneedtobewaterproofedandalso do notneedtohaveawearprotectiveplatein front.
Angularincidencesensors

In angle probes, refraction and conversion of wave modes are used to transmit ultrasound into
the test specimen at various angles to the surface. A typical construction of an angle beam
contact type probe is shown in Figure 4.25.

An angle probe transmits longitudinal waves through a perspex delay block at a definite angle
of incidence to the surface of the specimen. The angle of incidence chosen is greater than the
first critical angle so that only transverse waves enter that specimen. The longitudinal portionis
reflected back into the probe and is attenuated by the damping block and thus spurious
indications thatmay arise due tothe presence of thelongitudinal wavesareavoided.The angle of
refraction for steel specimen and the beam exit point, generally known as the probe index, are
marked on the metal case of the probe.

108
Asurfacewaveprobeisananglebeamprobeinsofarasitusesawedgetoposit transducer at an angleiontheto
the surface of the specimen. The wedge angle is chosen so that the shearwaverefractionangleis
90°and thewaveresultingfrommode conversiontravelsalong
thesurface.

Whenan angle beam probe designed for steel is used for another material, the change in angle
of refraction should be taken into account.

FIG.4.25.Designofananglebeamprobe.

It is also required that the wedge is made of a material whose longitudinal wave velocity is
smaller than the transverse wave velocityin the test piece such as to refract the incident beam
away from perpendicular.

109
 5. CALIBRATIONOFTHETESTINGSYSTEM

PURPOSEOFCALIBRATION

The standardization of the ultrasonic inspection allows the same test procedure to beconducted
at various times and locations and by different persons with reasonable assurance that the
results obtained will be accurate, reliable and reproducible. Standardization also provides a
basis for estimating the sizes of anyflaws that are found.

In ultrasonic testing calibration means the verification and adjusting of ultrasonic equipment
characteristics so that reliable and reproducible test results are obtained. The calibration
procedure used in ultrasonic testing can be classified into:

(i) Equipmentcharacteristicsverification.

(ii) Rangecalibration.

(iii) Referencelevelorsensitivitysetting.

Different types of calibration & reference blocks are used to achieve the above threeobjectives.

The inspection or reference standards for pulse-echo testing include test blocks containing
natural flaws, test blocks containing artificial flaws, and the technique of evaluating the
percentage of back reflection. Inspection standards for thickness testing can be plates ofvarious
known thicknesses or can be stepped or tapered wedges.

Testblockscontainingnaturalflaws

Test blocks containing natural flaws are metal sections similar to those parts being inspected.
Sections known to contain natural flaws can be selected for test blocks.
Test blocks containing natural flaws have only limited use as standards, for two principal
reasons:

It is difficult to obtain several test blocks that give identical responses. Natural flaws vary in
shape, surface characteristics, andorientation,andechoesfromnaturalflawsvary accordingly.

It is often impossible to determine the exact nature of a natural flaw existing in the test block
without destructive sectioning

Testblockscontainingartificialflaws

Test blocks containing artificial flaws consist of metal sections containing notches, slots, or
drilled holes. Thesetest blocks are more widely accepted as standards than are test blocks that
contain natural flaws.

Percentageofback reflection

As an alternative to reference blocks, an internal standard can be used. In this technique, the
search unit is placed over an indication-free area of the part being inspected, the instrument
controls are adjusted to obtain a predetermined height of the first back reflection, and the part

110
is evaluated on the basis of the presence or absence of indications thatequal or exceed a certain
percentage of this predetermined amplitude. This technique, known as the percentageof back
reflection technique, is most useful when lot-to-lot variations in ultrasonic transmissibility are
large or unpredictable condition often encountered in the inspection of steels.

STANDARDTESTBLOCKS

I.I.W.CalibrationBlock(V1Block)

The most versatile calibration block is the block made from medium carbon ferritic and
normalized steel described by the International Institute of Welding (I.I.W) and proposed by
the International Standard Organization (I.S.O.). This block, called the I.I.W. V1 block, is as
shown in (Figure 5.1).

FIG.5.1.TestblockI.I.W.(V1)forcalibrationofanequipmentwithnormalandangleprobes

Thisblockisgenerallyusedfor:
i) The calibrationof the time base using 25 mm, 100 mm and 200 mm thickness withthe
normal beam probes and 100 mmquadrant for angle beamprobes.
ii) Thedeterminationofprobeindexusing100mmquadrant.
iii) Thedetermination of the probe angle using plastic wedge and degrees stamped on the
side ofthe block. The angle beam transducer is subject to wear in normaluse. This wear
can change the probe index and the probe angle.
iv) Thecheckingofperformancecharacteristicsoftheultrasonicflawdetectorsuch as:
· Timebaselinearity.
· Screenheightlinearity.
· Amplitudecontrollinearity
· Resolvingpower.

111
 · Penetrativepower
· Horizontallinearity
· Deadzonecheck
· Pulselength
v) Thesettingofsensitivity.
vi) ThecalibrationoftimebaseandsensitivitysettingforDGSmethod.
vii) Thecomparisonofvariousmaterialsduetotheirdifferentacousticvelocities.

TheMiniatureAngle-BeamBlock(V2Block)

This is a more compact form of the V1 block suitable for site use, although somewhat less
versatile in its function. It is also described by International Institute of Welding (I.I.W). The
latest version of this block is shown in (Figure 5.2). It is particularly suitable for short near
field lengths and the time base calibrationof small diameter normaland angleprobes.

Thiscalibrationblockismadeofsteelwiththedimensionsinmillimetresasshownin
(Figure5.2).Thetolerancesare±0.1mmexceptonthelengthoftheengravedscalewhere they
are±0.5mm.Thiscalibration blockcontains twoquadrants having radii of 25mm and 50 mm.
Point ‘A’ is the common focal point for both quadrants. The uses of the block are as follows:

i) Checkingthecharacteristicofanglebeamprobe.
ii) Calibrationoftimebaseofultrasonicinstruments.
iii) Probeindexpoint.
iv) Beamangle.
v) Metaldistancecalibration.

FIG.5.2.MiniatureAngle-BeamBlock(V2)

ThicknessBlocks

ThicknessBlocks Stepped or tapered test blocks are used to calibrate ultrasonic equipment for
thickness measurement. These blocks are carefully ground from material similar to that being
inspected, and the exact thickness at various positions is marked on the block.

112
 FIG.5.3.Stepwedgecalibrationblock

ASMEreferenceblock

The block is used to construct a distance-amplitude-correction (DC) curve on the CRT screen
by noting the changes in echo amplitude from the hole with change in scanning distance
(multiple skip). This block is made from the same material as that of the test specimen and
contains side drilled holes. Thickness of the block and the diameter of the side drilled holes
depend onthethickness of thetestspecimen.AtypicalASMEreferenceblockcalled the basic
calibrationblock (BCB) used for the inspectionof welds is shown in (Figure 5.4).

CalibrationBlock
WeldThickness,t, HoleDiameter, NotchDimensions.
Thickness,T,
in.(mm) in.(mm) in.(mm)
in.(mm)
Upto 1(25) ¾(19)ort 3/32(2.5)
Notchdepth=2% T
Over1(25)through2(50) 1/2(18)ort 1/8(3) Notchwidth=¼(6)max.

Over2(50)through4(100) 3(75),ort 3/16(5)

Notchlength=1(25) min.
Over4 (100) t±1(25) [Note(1)]

FIG.5.4.ASMEBasicCalibrationBlock(BCB)

113
 ASMEbasiccalibrationblockforpiping

The basic calibration block configuration and reflectors shall be as shown in (Figure 5.5) andin
accordance with the following general notes. Thickness, T, shall be within 25% of the nominal
thickness of the component to be examined. The block size and reflector locations shall be
adequate to performcalibration for the beam angles used.

*Notches shall be located not closer than for 1 in. (25 mm), whichever is greater, to any block edge or to other
notches.
GENERAL NOTES:
a) Theminimumcalibrationblocklength(L)shallbe8in.(200mm)or8T,whicheverisgreater.
b) ForOD4in.(100mm)orless,theminimumarclengthshallbe270deg.ForODgreaterthan4in. (100 mm), the
minimum arc length shall be 8 in. (200mm) or 3T, whichever is greater.
c) Notch depthsshallbe8%Tminimumto11%T maximum. When claddingispresent,notchdepthsonthe
cladding side of the block shall be increased bythe cladding thickness, CT (i.e., 8% T+ CT minimum to
11% T+CTmaximum).Notchwidthsshallbe1/4in.(6 mm)maximum.Notchlengthsshallbe1in. (25 mm)
minimum.
d) Maximumnotch widthisnotcritical.Notch maybemade withEDMor withend millupto¼in.(6mm)in
diameter.
e) Notchlengthsshallbesufficienttoprovidefor calibration withaminimum3to1signaltonoiseratio.

FIG.5.5.Calibrationblockforpipe

BlockCurvature

(i) MaterialswithDiameters20in.(500mm)and Less

For examinations in materials where the examination surface diameter is equal to or less than
20 in. (500 mm), a curved block shall be used. A single curved basic calibration block may be
usedforexaminationsintherangeofcurvaturefrom0.9to1.5timesthebasiccalibration block
diameter. Forexample,an 8in(200mm)diameter blockmay beusedtocalibrate for examinationson
surfaces in the range ofcurvature from 7.2 in. to 12 in. (180 mmto 300 mm)
indiameter.Thecurvaturerangefrom0.94in.to20in.(24mmto500mm)indiameter requires 6 curved
blocks as shown in (Figure.5.6) for anythickness range.

114
 FIG.5.6.RatioLimitsforcurvedsurface
(ii) MaterialswithDiametersGreaterThan20 in.(500mm)

For examinations in materials where the examination surface diameter is greater than 20 in.
(500 mm), a block of essentially the same curvature, or alternatively, a flat basic calibration
block, may be used. An adjustment of receiver gain may be required when flat calibration
blocks are used.

To determine the required increase in gain, the ratio of the material radius, R, to the critical
radius of the transducer, Rc, must be evaluated as follows.

(a) When the ratio of R /Rc, the radius of curvature of the material R divided by the critical
radius of the transducer Rc from Table 5-I and Figure.5.7 is equal to or greater than 1.0,
no gain correction is required.

115
 Table5-ITransducerfactorF1 forvariousultrasonictransducerdiameterandfrequency

TransducerDiameters,in.

MHz 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.125

F1,in.
1.0 2.58 10.3 23.2 41.3 52.3
2.25 5.81 23.2 52.2 92.9 118
5.0 12.9 51.2 116 207 262
10.0 25.8 103 232 413 523

FIG.5.7.CriticalradiusRCfortransducer/couplantcombination

Curve Couplant TransducerWearface

A Motoroilorwater AluminumOxideorBoron
Carbide
B Motoroilorwater Quartz
Glycerineorsyn.ester AluminumOxideorBoron
Carbide
C Glycerineorsyn.ester Quartz
D Motoroilorwater Plastic
E Glycerineorsyn.ester Plastic

116
(b) WhentheratioofR/Rcislessthan1.0,thegaincorrectionmustbeobtainedfrom (Figure.5.8).

12

FIG.5.8.Correctionfactor(gain)forvariousultrasonicexaminationparameters

Thisgainincreasecalibratestheexaminationonthecurvedsurfaceafterestablishing calibration
sensitivityon a flat calibration block.

Example:

Materialwitha10in.(250mm)radius(R)willbeexaminedwitha1in.(25mm)diameter
2.25MHzboroncarbidefacedsearchunitusingglycerineasacouplant.
i) Determinetheappropriatetransducerfactor,F1fromTable5-I;F1=92.9.
ii) DeterminetheRcfromFIG.5.6Rc=100in.(2500mm).
iii) CalculatetheR/Rcratio;10in./100in.=0.1(250mm/2500mm=0.1).
Using (Figure.5.8) obtain the gain increaserequired;12 dB

Area-amplitudeblocks

Area-amplitude blocks provide artificial flaws of different sizes at the same depth. Eightblocks
made from the same 50 mm (2 in.) dia round stock, each 95 mm (3-3/ 4 in.) high, constitute a
set of area-amplitude blocks. The block material must have the same acoustic properties as the
test piece material. Each block has a 20 mm (3/4 in.) deep flat-bottom hole drilled in the center
of the bottomsurface (Figure.5.9);the hole diameters varyfrom0.4 to 3.2 mm (1/64 to 8/64 in.).
The blocks are numbered to correspond with the diameter of the holes;
thatis,blockNo.1hasa0.4mm(1/64in.)diamhole,No.2hasa0.8mm(2/64in.)diam

117
 hole, and so on, up to No. 8, which has a 3.2 mm(8/64 in.) diam hole. Similar area-amplitude
blocks made from 49 mm(1-15/ 16 in.) square stock are sometimes known as Alcoa Series-A
blocks

FIG.5.9.Area-amplitudeblock.(Dimensionsgivenininches)

The amplitude of the echo from a flat bottom hole in the far field of a normal beam probe is
proportional to the area of the bottomof the hole. Therefore these blocks can be used to check
linearity of a pulse echoinspection system and torelate echoamplitude to the area (or,in other
words, the size of a flaw). Because a flat bottom hole is an ideal reflector and most natural
flaws are less than ideal in reflective properties, an area-amplitude block defines a lower
limitfor the size of aflaw thatyields a given height of indication on the CRT screen. For
instance if the height of indication from a flaw in a test piece is six scale units and this is also
the height ofthe indication from a 5/64" (1.98 mm) diameter flat bottom hole at the same depth
as theflaw,itisnotpossible todetermine accurately howmuch larger than the reference hole the
flaw actually is. But the flawis at least as large as the diameter of flat bottom hole.

Distance-amplitudeblocks

Distance-amplitude blocks provide artificial flaws of a given size at various depths (metal
distance). Fromultrasonic wave theoryit is known that the decrease in echo amplitude from a
flatbottomholeusingacircular probeisinversely proportionaltothesquare of thedistance to the
hole bottom. Distance-amplitude blocks (also known as Alcoa series-B or Hitt blocks) can be
used to check actual variations of amplitude with distance fornormal beam inspection in a
given material. They also serve as reference for setting or standardizing the sensitivity of the
inspection system so that readable indications will be displayed on the CRT screen for flaws of
a given size and larger, but the screen will not be flooded with indications of smaller
discontinuities that are of no interest. On instruments so equipped, these blocks are used for
distance-amplitude correction so that a flaw of a given size will produce an indication on the
CRT screen that is of a predeterminedheight regardlessof distance fromthe entrysurface.

118
There are 19 blocks in an Alcoa series-B set. All are 2" (50 mm) diameter blocks of the same
material asthatbeinginspected, andallhave a 3/4" (19.6mm) deep flatbottom hole drilled in the
centre of the bottom surface (Figure.5.10). The hole diameter is the same in all theblocks of a
set. Sets can be made with hole diameters of 3/64" (1.19mm), 5/64" (1.98mm)
and8/64"(3.17mm).Theblocksvary inlengthtoprovidemetal distancesof1/16" (1.59mm), 1/8"
through 1" (25.4 mm) in 1/8" (3.17 mm) increments and 1-1/4" (31.7 mm) through 5-3/4" (146
mm) in 1/2" (12.7 mm) increments (see Table 5-I).

FIG.5.10.Distance-amplitudeblock.

EachAlcoaseries-Bblockisidentifiedbyacodenumberconsistingofadigit,adashand four more

digits. The first digit is the diameter of the hole in one sixtyfourths of an inch. The
fourotherdigitsarethemetaldistancefromthetopsurfacetotheholebottominone hundredthof an
inch. For instance, as illustratedin the Table5.2 a block marked3-0075 has a 3/64" (1.19 mm)
diameter hole and a 3/4" (19.6 mm) metaldistance.

119
 Table5-II.Distance-AmplitudeSet

Block Metaldistance Overalllength

identification
number Inches mm Inches mm
3-0006 0.062(1/16) 1.57 0.875 22.2
3-0012 0.125 (1/8) 3.2 0.875 22.2
3-0025 0.250 (2/8) 6.4 1.000 25.4
3-0037 0.375 (3/8) 9.5 1.125 28.6
3-0050 0.500 (4/8) 12.7 1.250 31.8
3-0062 0.625 (5/8) 15.9 1.375 34.9
3-0075 0.750 (6/8) 19.1 1.500 36.1
3-0087 0.875 (7/8) 22.2 1.625 41.3
3-0100 1.000 25.4 1.750 44.5
3-0125 1.250 (1-1/4) 31.8 2.000 50.8
3-0175 1.750 (1-3/4) 44.5 2.500 63.5
3-0225 2.250 (2-1/4) 57.2 3.000 76.2
3-02753 2.750 (2-3/4) 69.9 3.500 88.9
3-0325 3.250 (3-1/4) 82.6 4.000 101.6
3-0375 3.750 (3-3/4) 95.3 4.500 114.3
3-0425 4.250 (4-1/4) 108.0 5.000 127.0
3-0475 4.750 (4-3/4) 120.7 5.500 139.7
3-0525 5.250 (5-1/4) 133.4 6.000 152.4
3-0575 5.750 (5-3/4) 146.1 6.500 165.1

EQUIPMENTCHARACTERISTICS

The most important equipment characteristics to be verified are horizontal linearity, screen
heightlinearity,amplitude control linearity, resolution of equipment, deadzone estimation and
penetrative power.

Horizontallinearity

The horizontal linearityor time base linearityis a measure of the degree of difference between
an actual distance and a distance read out on the CRT. The IIW (V1) or any block of similar
material and finish may be used to measure horizontal linearity. The choice of thickness is
determined by the requirement that a longitudinal wave probe placed on the block produces
several backwall echoes (usually four or five) within the chosen range. For checking the
linearitytwo ofthe backwallechoes (say, the first and fourth in a five echo display) should be
set to coincide with appropriate scale divisions. The position of each of the remaining echoes

120
is then carefully noted. The maximum tolerance is 1% for the range chosen. Non-linearityof
the time base is seldom a real problem with modern flaw detectors and the mostcommoncause
of apparent non-linearityis the poor calibrationof time base zero bythe operator.

An important precaution to take during the assessment of time base linearity is that time base
readings are taken as each signal is brought to a commonamplitude.

Screenheightlinearity

To verifythe abilityof the ultrasonic instrument to meet the linearityrequirement, position an

anglebeamsearchunitasshownin(Figure-5.11)sothatindicationscanbeobservedfrom boththe ½
and ¾ T holes in a basiccalibrationblock. Adjust the searchunit positionto givea 2:1 ratio of
amplitudes between the two indications, with the larger set at 80% of full screen height.

Withoutmovingthesearchunit,adjustsensitivity(gain)tosuccessivelysetthelarger indication from

100% to 20% of full screen height, in 10% increments (or 2 dB steps if a fine control is not
available), and read the smaller indication at each setting. The reading must be 50% of the
larger amplitude, within 5% of full screen height.

The settings and readings must be estimated to the nearest 1% of full screen. Alternatively, a
straight beam search unit may be used on any calibration block which will provide amplitude
differences, with sufficient signal separationto prevent overlappingof the two signals.

FIG.5.11.Screenheightlinearity

Amplitudecontrollinearity

For the checking of amplitude control linearity, the time base is calibrated for a desired range
and an echo about midway along the time base is obtained. The echo amplitude is set to a
desired height and the attenuator reading is noted. The attenuator setting is then reduced by 6
dB, four or five times in succession and the decrease in echo amplitude is noted every time.
The indicationshall fall within specified limits as given in the Table 5-III.

121
 Table5-III.AmplitudeControlLinearity
IndicationSetat dBControl IndicationLimits
%ofFullScreen Change %ofFullScreen
80% -6dB 32to 48%
80% -12dB 16to 24%
40% +6dB 64to 96%
20% +12dB 64to 96%

Resolution

The resolution of a flaw detector is the ability to resolve minor difference in distance and
direction. To determine the resolution of a flaw detector I.I.W V1 block is used with normal
beam probes.Thisblock hasthree target reflectors atranges of 85mm, 91mm and 100mm. A
probe is placed on the block as shown in (Figure-5.12) and echoes fromthe three reflectors are
obtained. The separation of the echoes from each otherindicates thedegree of resolutionof the
flaw detector for that particular probe. Figures 5.13 (b) & (c) show the degree of resolution for
a flaw detector using two different normal beam probes.

(a)
FIG.5.12.(a)PlacementofprobeonI.I.WV1blocktodeterminetheresolution of
flaw detector and probe system.

(b) (c)
FIG.5.13.(b&c)CRTdisplayshowingresolvingpoweroftheflawdetectorusingtwo
differentnormalbeamprobes; (b)showsbetterresolution,while,
(c)showsapoorresolution.
A rough estimate of the length of the dead zone beneath a compressional wave probe is
obtainable using the 1.5 mm hole and the plastic insert of the V1 block. Any attempt to add
holeswouldlimititsusefulness,andtheuseofaspecialblockofthekindshownin

122
Figure 5.14 is, therefore, recommended. With this block the resolution is determined by the
minimumdistance apart that flaws can be indicated clearly and separately. In use the probe is
placed on the centre line of the block over the change in radius from one step to the next. Its
position isadjusted sothatechoes from thetworadiiare ofthesame heightand approximately1/2
full screen height. The steps are said to be resolved when their echoes are clearly separated at
half maximum echo height or less.

FIG.5.14.Britishstandardtestblockformeasuringresolutionoftheprobeandtheflaw detector
system

Maximumpenetrativepower

It describes a check which is used to compare the energyoutput for a particular set and probe
with its past performance or with similarequipment.The check is carriedout as follows:

Alongitudinal wave probeisplaced on the plasticinsert(methyl polymethacrylate cylinder) of

the I.I.W V1 block (Figure 5.15) having a thickness of 23 mm which is equal to 50 mm of steel
andthegainfortheinstrumentissettoitsmaximum. Thenumberof multiple echoes and the
amplitude of the last echo are noted and are used to express the maximumpenetrative power of
the set and the probe.

FIG.5.15Placementofnormalbeamprobetodeterminepenetrative
power of the system.

123
 DeadZone

The dead zone is the depth below the entrysurface that cannot be inspected because the initial
pulse interferes with echo signals.

An indication of the length of the dead zone of a straight-beam search unit can be obtained by
placing the search unit on surface G or F in line with the 50 mm (2 in.) diameter hole. When
the searchunit isplaced on surface F, a discernibleecho fromthe 50 mm (2 in.) diameter hole
indicates a dead zone of less than 5 mm (0.2 in.). Similarly, when the search unit is placed on
surface G, a discernible echofrom the 50 mm (2 in.) diameter hole indicates a dead zone of less
than 10 mm (0.4 in.). Alternatively, the length of the dead zone can be measured by calibrating
the time base of the instrument, then measuring the width of the initial-pulse indicationat the
base of the signal, as illustrated schematicallyin (Figure 5.16).

G
F

FIG.5.16.Schematicshowinghowdeadzoneismeasuredagainstverticalreference
lines.Theverticalreferencelinesrepresentaunitofverticalthickness

CALIBRATIONWITHNORMALPROBES

Calibrationoftimebase

UsingV1 block

For calibration of the time base with a normal beam probe for a range of up to 250 mm, the
probe is placed at position C (Figure 5.18) and multiple backwall echoes are obtained and
adjusted to the appropriate scale division of the CRT screen using the delay and fine material
testing range controls. (Figure 5.19) shows the CRT screen display for an 100 mm calibrated
CRT screen. The points where the rising backwall echoes leave the base line have been
adjusted to the appropriatescale divisions to give the time base calibration.

Fortimebase calibration ofmore than 250mmwith normal beamprobe, theprobeis placed at

position A or B (Figure 5.18) and multiplebackwallechoes are obtained and adjustedto the
appropriate scale divisions.(Figure 5.20)showstheCRTscreen display foraonemetre range. For
time basecalibrationof91, 182,273, normalbeamprobe is placedat positionD.

Multiple backwall echoes are used for time base calibration because the distance between the
transmission pulse and thefirst backwall echo is somewhat larger than the distance between
two consecutive multiple echoes. This zero error is caused by the ultrasound travelling in the
transducer, probe protective layer (if any) and the layer of the couplant before entering the
specimen.

124
 FIG.5.17.ProbepositionsonI.I.W.(V1)calibrationblockfordifferentthicknessranges

Table5-IV.RelationshipbetweentheProbePositionsandtheThicknessRangesfor
Calibration
Probepositiononcalibration Thicknessranges (mm)
block
A 200,400,600,
B 100,200,300,400,500,----------------------------------
C 25,50,75,100,125,150,175,200,225,250
D 91,182,273,

FIG.5.18.CRTscreendisplayfor100 mmtestrangecalibration
(when the probeis placed at position‘C’).

125
 FIG.5.19. CRT screendisplayforonemetretestrangecalibration (when
the probeis placed at position‘B’).

UsingV2block

A normal probe is placed on the block as shown in (Figure 5.20 a) and multiple backwall
echoesareobtained.These echoesareadjustedusingthetestrangeanddelay controls. (Figure 5.20 b)
shows the screendisplay for a 50 mmrange calibration.

(a)

(b)

FIG.5.20 (a &b). ProbepositiononI.I.WV2calibrationblockfortestrangeof 50mmand CRT

screen display.

126
 CALIBRATIONWITHANGLEPROBES

Range calibration

UsingV1block

Fora range of 100mm ormore themost directmethod is togetmultiple backwall echoes fromthe
100 mm quadrant byplacing the probe at position ‘E’ (Figure 5.21 a). A CRT screen display
for a range of 200 mm is shown in (Figure 5.21 b).

FIG.5.21 (a).Probepositionforthetestrangecalibrationof100mmandabovewithangle probes

FIG.5.21 (b).CRTscreendisplayfor200mmtestrangecalibration (when

the probe is positioned at ‘E’).

FIG.5.22(a).PeakBissetprovisionallyatornear10usingthesweeplengthcontrol

127
 FIG.5.22(b).PeakBissetat0andBꞌissetat10usingthedelayandsweeplengthcontrols
respectively.

FIG.5.22(c).SetpeakBto10usingthedelaycontrol.Thezeroisautomaticallycorrect.

UsingV2 block

The time base calibrationfor an anglebeamprobe for range up to 250 mmcan be done byone of
the following two methods. In both these methods, the probe is moved to and fro until a
maximum echo is obtained.

In the first method the probe faces the 25 mm radiusquadrant as shown in (Figure5.23 a). By
this method the screen can be calibrated for 100 mm, 175mm, 200mm and 250 mm
ranges.For100mm testrangecalibration,facing theprobe crystal to25mm quadrantof V2block,
first echo is obtained from 25 mm quadrant, the same wave is then reflected fromprobe index
towards50mmquadrant.Thiswaveisreflectedbacktotheprobecrystalwhichisnotreceivedby
thecrystal duetotheorientation ofthecrystal asitistowards25mm quadrant.
Againitisreflectedtothe25mmquadrant,thisreflectedwavefrom25mmquadrantis received bythe
crystal. The echo obtained now is at 100 mmon CRT, which means that after first echo
obtained at 25 mm on CRT the other multiple echoes will be obtained at an interval of
75mm.Theechopatternfora200mm rangeisasshownin(Figure5.23b).Theechoes appear at25mm,
100mm, and175mm. For a 250 mm range the echoes appear at25mm, 100 mm, 175 mm and
250 mm.

(a) (b)
FIG.5.23(a &b). Calibrationoftimebaseupto200mmusingV2blockandangleprobe facing
the 25 mm quadrant.

128
In the second method the probe faces the 50 mm radius quadrant as shown in (Figure 5.24 a).
The CRT screen in this case can be calibrated for ranges of 125 mm and 200 mm. The CRT
screen pattern for a 200 mm range is as illustratedin (Figure 5.24 b). The echoes appear at 50
mm, 125 mm and 200 mm.

(a) (b)
FIG.5.24(a &b). Calibrationof timebaseupto200mmusingV2blockandangleprobe facing the
50 mm quadrant.

In this method the echo from the 50 mm quadrantis set at 10th scale division of CRT
screenusing the sweep controlor range control. The probe is then reversed so that the echo
fromthe 25mmquadrantinobtained.Thisechoissetat5thscaledivisionofCRTscreenusingthe delay
control. The procedure is repeated until the echoes from 25 mm and 50 mm quadrants
respectively coincide with 5and10scale divisionsof CRT. The calibration for50mm range is
then said to have been achieved.

Determinationoftheprobe index

UsingV1block

The probe is placed at position L on the calibration block (Figure 5.25) and a backwall echo
from the 100 mm quadrant is obtained. The maximum amplitude of this backwall echo is
determined by moving the probe to and fro about the position L. When the maximum
amplitude is found then the point on the probe which coincides with the point 0 (or cut mark)
on the block is the probe index.

129
 FIG.5.25.DeterminationofprobeindexusingV1block

UsingV2 block

The probe is placed either facing the 25 mm quadrant or the 50 mm quadrant to obtain echoes
at 25 mm or 50 mm on the CRT screen. The probe is moved to and fro to maximizethe echo.
When the echo amplitude is a maximum, the probe index is obtained by extending the center
mark of the millimeter scale on the block on to the probe.

Determinationandcheckingtheprobeangle

UsingV1 block

To determine the probe angle, the probe is moved to and fro according to its angle either at
position “a”(35° to60°),“b” (60° to75° ) or“c” (75 °to80° )as shown in (Figure 5.26) until the
amplitude of the echo from the perspex insert or 1.5 mm diameter hole is maximum. The angle
of the probe is the one at which the index of the probe meets the angle scale on the block when
the echo amplitude is maximum.

FIG5.26.DeterminationofprobeangleusingV1block.

130
 UsingV2block

To determine the actual probe angle, the probe index is placed against the appropriate probe
angle inscribed on the block with the beam directed towards the hole (Figure 5.27). The probe
is moved to and fro until the echo is a maximum. An estimateof the probe angle is then made
bynoting the probe index position with respect to the angles inscribedon the block.

FIG.5.27.CheckingofprobeanglesusingV2 block.

CALIBRATIONINCURVEDWORKPIECES

Sensitivity

Two factors contribute to the reduction in sensitivity when a test specimen with a curved
surface is ultrasonically tested. One is the widening or divergence of the transmitted beam
because of refraction and the other is the reduction in the contact area between the probe and
the test specimen. Bothof these effects are shown in (Figure 5.28).

FIG.5.28.Additionalsoundbeamdivergencecausedbyrefractionbetweencouplantand work
piece surface.

The contact area can be increased, and thus the contribution of this factor in reducing
sensitivitycan be minimized, bythe use of an adapterblock or shoe. These blocks are made to fit
the surface curvature of the test specimen.

131
 .
CONSTRUCTIONOFDACUSINGREFERENCEBLOCKS

To compensate for the decrease in ultrasonic beam energy with increasing distance from the
probe, a curve known as 100% DAC, is constructed by using reference reflectors. Usually
equal size side drilledholes with angle beam probes andflatbottomedholeswithnormal beam
probes machined into a calibration block at different depths from the scanning surfaceare used.
The DAC is constructed as follows: The echo from a reference reflector which will give
alargerecho than the otherreference reflectors forthe same gain settingis settoa certain screen
height (say 80% screen height) and the peak of the echo is marked on an attachment scale to
CRT screen. Also the gain setting of the flaw detector is noted down and
should be kept constant while obtaining the maximized echoes from the other reference
reflector. The peak point of each maximized echo is marked on the attachment of the screen.
Byjoiningthesepointsa100%DAContheattachmenttothescreenisobtained (Figure 5.29). The
gain setting of the flaw detector for drawing this curve is known as the primary reference echo
(PRE) level.

Sometimesa 50% DAC and a 20% DAC is also constructedalong withthe 100% DAC on the
same attachment scale by plotting a curvejoining peak points of the reference echoes whenthe
PRE level is reduced by6 dB and 14 dB respectively.

Transfer lossis then calculated between the reference block andthe workpiece andis added to
the DAC gain. For initial scanning the sensitivity is then set at twice (i.e. +6 dB ) the
primaryreference level plus transfer loss. The evaluation of flaws for acceptance or rejectionis
however carriedout with the gaincontrolset at the PRE levelplus the transfer loss.

FIG.5.29. Constructionof100%,50%and20% DAC.

Fornormal beam probes the distance amplitude correction curve need notbe constructed when
the thickness of material is less than 2inches (50mm). This correction is only needed for
thicknesses greater than 2 inches (50 mm). To construct the DAC curve, either flat bottom
holes with varying metal distance or side drilled holes are used other procedure is same as for
angle beam probe.

132
5.8 COUPLINGMEDIUM

Proper coupling medium or couplant should be used between the probe and the test specimen
to improve the transmission of ultrasonic energy by eliminating air between the two.
Commonly used couplants in ultrasonic testing are glycerine, water, oils, petroleum greases,
silicon grease, wall-paper paste and various commercial paste like substances. For theselection
of a suitable couplant for a particular ultrasonic inspection task the following points should be
taken into consideration:

(i) Surfacefinishofthetest specimen.

(ii) Temperatureofthetestspecimen.
(iii) Possibilityofchemicalreactionbetweenthetestspecimenandthecouplant.
(iv) Cleaningrequirements(somecouplantsaredifficulttoremove).

(Figure 5.30) shows a comparisonof different couplants. It is obvious fromthat couplant used
during calibration of the equipment and during the testing of the test specimen should be of
same typeforreliable results.Thefigure shows thevariation of echoamplitude with variations in
surface roughness and for different types of couplants. Similar studies can be undertaken for
other variables such as temperature of the test surfaces. A simple comparison for the efficiency
of coupling between a test block and the test specimen can be made by measuring the echo
heights in dB respectivelyon each using the same couplant.

Water is a suitable couplant for use on a relatively smooth surface; however, a wetting agent
should be added. It is sometimes appropriate to add glycerine to increase viscosity; however,
glycerine tends to induce corrosion in aluminium and therefore is not recommended in
aerospaceapplications.

Heavy oil or grease should be used on hot or vertical surfaces or on rough surfaces where
irregularities need to be filled.

FIG.5.30.Variationsofsignalamplitudewithtypesofcouplantsanddifferentsurface roughnes

133
 6. SPECIFICAPPLICATIONS
METHODSOFEXAMINATION

Castworkpieces

The defects in materials which occur during casting are piping (shrinkage), cavities or
porosities, segregation, coarse grain structure, non-metallic inclusions and cracks.

FIG.6.1.Showssomeofthetypicalcastingdefects

Piping takes place duringthe solidification of an ingot. The outer layersare thefirstto solidify.
During this time the liquid metal collects at the top of the ingot where after solidification is
complete, a funnel-shaped cavity may appear due to the shrinkage. The shrinkage cavity will
be either open or closed and, under certain circumstances, secondary cavities may be found.

The materialof an ingot may not be homogeneous. Any variation in compositionwhich arises
during solidification is called segregation.

Onetypeof segregation is gravitational,beingcausedby theseparation in theupper partof the

ingot of impurities having alower temperature of solidification and a different densityfrom the
surrounding metal. This type of segregation consists primarily of sulphur or phosphorus.

A coarse grained structure may result when the pouring temperature is high and cooling takes
place slowly. This sometimes makes it impossible to use ultrasonics because of the high
attenuation in the material.

Gases dissolved in steel separate out when solidification occurs since their solubility in liquid
metaldecreasesrapidly at this stage.If the gas content is high, gas cavities are often trapped
under the surface or in the interior of the ingot.

Non-metallic inclusions, such as slag or refractories from the steel making process, find their
way into the metal during melting or casting and are quite frequently the ultimate cause of
fatigue cracks.

Longitudinal or transverse cracks may appear during solidification, depending on the method
of constructionof the mould, its temperature,the composition of the steeland the temperature of
the melt.

134
In castings flaw detection almost exclusively concerns manufacturing defects such asshrinkage
cavities, blow holes, inclusions(usuallysand or slag) and cracks (caused by internal stresses
during cooling while metal is already solidified).

Both shear and compression wave techniques are widelyused for the examinationof castings.
Because the grain structure has an appreciable effect on the attenuation of ultrasonic waves,the
test frequencies used in the examination of castings tend to be lower as compared to the
frequencies used for the testing of other products. Frequencies of 1.25 MHz to 2.5 MHz are
common and occasionally it is necessary to drop to 0.5 MHz in order to penetrate to the far
boundary. The most commonly used probes are compression wave (single and twin crystal)and
shear wave probesof45°, 60°and 70°. The ultrasonic flaw detectorused for the inspection of
castings should therefore cover thefrequency range 0.5MHz to6 MHz and when used with the
probes selected for the job should have good resolution and penetration characteristics. The
casting can be inspected by using a series of test blocks containing flat bottom holes or byusing
a back reflection method.

In the following some common defects in castings along with the techniques commonlyused
for their detection are discussed.

Shrinkagedefects

Shrinkage defects arecavities formed by contraction duringsolidification andinsufficient feed

of metal. These defects are normally associated with gas, and a high gas content will magnify
their extent.

Typical locations at which shrinkage cavities occur are below feeders at change of sectionand
model points and within large wall sections as centre line flaws shown in Figure 6.2. Acute
angle junctions(V, X or Y) are least satisfactoryand T or Ljunctionsare lessofa problem.

FIG.6.2.Typicallocationsforshrinkagecavities

135
 Shrinkage defects in steel castings can be considered as falling into three types, namely:
Macro-shrinkage, Filamentary shrinkage, and Micro-shrinkage.

a) Macro-shrinkage

Macro-shrinkage is a large cavity formed during solidification. The most commontype of this
defectis piping which occurs due to an inadequate supply of feed metal. In good design, piping
is restricted to the feeder head.

The technique used to detect this defect depends on the casting section thickness. For sections
greater than 75 mm thick, a single crystal compression wave probe can be used, whilst for
thickness below 75 mm it is advisable to use a twin crystalprobe.

The presence of a defect is shown by a complete loss of back wall echo together with the
appearanceofa defect echo. An angle probe should be used to confirmthe informationgained
from the compression wave probe Figure 6.3.

FIG.6.3.Typicalprobepositionsfortestingofcastingformacro-shrinkage

b) Filamentaryshrinkage

This is a coarse formof shrinkage, but of smaller physical dimensionsthan a macro-shrinkage

cavity. The cavities may often be extensive, branching and interconnected.

Theoretically filamentary shrinkage should occur along the centre line of the section,butthisis
notalways the case and on some occasions it extends to the casting surface. This extension to
the casting surface may be assisted by the presence of pinholes or wormholes. Filamentary
shrinkage can best be detected with a combineddouble probe if the section is less than 75 mm
thick. Defect echoes tend to be more ragged in outline than for macro-shrinkage. The initial
scan should be carried out with a large diameter (20-25 mm) probe and the final assessment
with a smaller (10-15 mm) diameter probe Figure 6.4.

c) Micro-shrinkage

This is a very fine form of filamentary shrinkage due to shrinkage or gas evolution during
solidification. The cavitiesoccur either at the grain boundaries(inter-crystallineshrinkage), or
between the dendrite arms (interdendritic shrinkage).

136
 FIG.6.4.Doubleprobe scanningofcastironforfilamentaryshrinkage.

Using a compression wave probe technique, the indications on the CRT screen from micro-
shrinkage tend to be grass-like, that is, a group of relatively small poorly resolved echoes
extending over some portion of the time base Figure 6.5. The existence of a backwall echo in
the presence of a defect echo will be to some extent dependent on the frequency chosen. For
instance there may be no back wallecho when using a 4-5 MHz probe due to scattering of the
beam. This might suggest a large angular type of defect. However, a change to a 1-2 MHz
probemay well encourage transmission throughthe defective region toadd a back wall echo to
the defect echoes and disproving the large cavity impression

FIG.6.5.ProbepositionsandtypicalCRTappearanceformicro-shrinkage.

Defectsassociatedwithhinderedcontractionduringcooling

a) Hottears
These are cracks which are discontinuous and generallyof a ragged form. Theyare caused by
stresses which develop near the solidification temperature when the contraction of the cooling
metal is restrained by a mould or core, or by an already solid thinner section. In Figure 6.6
some of the causes and locations of this type of cracking are shown.
b) Stresscracks
These are well defined, approximately straight cracks which are formed when the metal is
completelysolid. The location of hot tearsor stress cracks can rarelybe determinedaccurately
using a compression wave probe because of the orientation of the defects. The most
satisfactorytechnique is to use angled probes.

137
 HottearduetomouldresistancealongdirectionsAandB.

HottearduetocastingresistancealonglengthC.HottearduetochangeinsectionD.
FIG.6.6.Hot tears.

Defectsassociatedwithentrappedgas

a) Airlocks
When molten metal is poured into a mould, air may be trapped in the metal stream and may
appear in the subsequent casting as a cavity or several cavities just below and parallel to the
casting surface. They are normally best detected by twin crystal compression wave probes
Figure 6.7.
b) Gas holes
These defects are discrete cavities, usually greater than 1.5 mm in diameter which are caused
by the evolution of dissolved gases from the metal during solidification. A wormhole is the
name given to a tubular gas hole which is usually perpendicular to the casting surface. Since
gas holes may be close to the surface, twin crystal compression wave probes are the most
suitable probes to detect them Figure 6.8.

FIG.6.7.TypicalprobepositionsandresultingCRTscreenappearancefortestingofair locks

138
 FIG.6.8.TypicalprobepositionsandCRTscreenappearancefordetectionofgasholes

Ultrasonictestingofrolledproducts

Rolled products are mostly long and must sometimes be tested in the production line. This
nearly always means automatic ultrasonic testing at high transport speeds so that theproduction
flow is not slowed down in any way. It is always better to detect flaws while the product isin
the semi-finished state, in this way production of the defective part can be stopped thus saving
costs.

Tubetesting

For the testing of seamless tubes and welded tubes with the bead ground off there are two
different types of testing which can be used depending on the diameterof the tube. Tubeswith
an outside diameter of up to 180 mm are transported in a straight line through the testing
machine. Longitudinaland transverse flaw testing is carried out with probes housed in a water
chamber whichrotates around the tube. The allocationof further probes enables monitoringof
the geometrical data such as wall thickness, outside and inside diameter, ovality and
eccentricity. Large tubes with outside diameters of up to 600 mm are spirally transported via
water filled tanks which contain the probes (partial immersion technique). With the large tube
testingmachine upto40probestestforlongitudinal andtransverseflawsaswellas measuring the
wall thicknesses simultaneously.

139
 By distributing the probes optimally in a number of probe modules, testing ofshort untested
tube ends can be achieved.If wall thicknesses are tobe measured only over anumber of tracks
then in most cases the tube is transported through the measuring position without being rotated.

FIG.6.9.Typesofdefectsandmaindirectionoftestingin pipe

FIG.6.10.Longitudinaltestonpipesforlapsandtransversecracksusingzigzagwaves (only the

path of the wave on the pipe surface is shown)

Since the smallest possible angle is 35°, the ratio of wall thickness to tube diameter (d/D), at
which a testfor internal flaws is still possible, mustnotexceed 0.20. Should therebe a need
fortestingtubeswiththickerwall(i.e.d/D>0.2)forcracksontheirinternalsurface,the angle of
incidence must be less than 35°. This can be achieved by attaching an obliquely ground
Perspex shoe to a normal probe Figure 6.37. Since both longitudinal and transverse waves are
produced simultaneously, many interfering echoes which are not defect echo indications
appear on the screen. Fortunately, these can be distinguished from flaw echoes when the probe
or the tube is rotated, since flaw echoes move across the CRT screen whereas the interfering
echoes remain stationary.

Calculationofmaximumpenetrationthicknessforthickwallpipes

Thenormal rangeof transverse waveanglebeam probes(45°,60°and 70°)when usedon thick wall

pipes maynot penetrateto the bore ofthe pipe, but cut across to the outside surface again, as
shown in Figure 6.12 and miss the defect.

140
 FIG.6.11.Testingmethodfordetectinglongitudinalsurfacedefectsoninternalsurfacesof thick
wall tubes using normal probes.

FIG.6.1.2.Diagramshowinghowthedefectslyingontheinnersurfaceofathick-wallpipe may be
missed by an angle beam probe.

For a given probe angle, the maximum wall thickness of a pipe that allows the centre of the
beam to reach the bore of the pipe can be calculated fromthe followingformula:

t=d(1−sinθ)/2 (6.6)

Where,
t= Maximumwallthickness
d= Outerdiameter(OD)ofthepipe
θ= Probeangle
Equation6.6canberewrittentodeterminethebestangleforagivenwallthicknessas:

(6.7)
6.1.7.2.Rodtesting

There is hardly any difference between testing round billets and bars for cracks, shrinkage or
inclusions. To find defects in the core, it is sufficient to scan along at least two longitudinal
tracks using a normal or an SE probe depending on the rod diameter. As in round billets,
defects are detected with oblique transverse waves or with surface waves when the surface is
sufficiently smooth. The use of a twin-angle probe in one housing, allowing a flowing water
coupling, enables barstobe tested with increased speed.Abar without a surfaceflaw will give a
large echo on the CRT screen Figure 6.39. This echo is caused by the sound beam, emitted
byone oscillator, being received bythe other and vice versa.

Both sonic pulses have tocover the same distance corresponding toa circular measure of
about360°.Sincetheflawdetectorisadjustedtohalf-soundpaths,thecommonechowill

141
 appear on the screen at a distance corresponding to 180°. As the length of the sound path
between the oscillators does not alter when shifting the twin-angle probe or rotating the bar,
provided the bar diameter is constant, the so called central echo position on the CRT screen
remains constant. Hence, any longitudinal surface flaw can easily be distinguished from this
echo, since the flaw echo position on the screen is not constant. When the probe is moved in
the direction of a surface flaw, the flaw echo arriving at the nearest oscillator and appearing
between the transmissionpulse and the central echo will move towards the transmissionpulse
Figure 6.14. The echo arriving at the farther crystal isvisible atthe rightof the central echo and
moves in the opposite direction. This echo is rather small and therefore is not usually
employedforflaw detection.If theprobe orrodismoved until thehigh flaw echoisexactly in the
middle between transmission pulse and central echo, the flaw must be located exactly one-
fourth of the bar circumference from the probe.

FIG.6.13.Testingofroundbarwithtwin-angleprobe.

6.1.2.3.Platetesting
Flaws in plates such as laminar defects and inclusions can, if the plate is further processed,lead
to new flaws. If, for example, defective plates are cut and then welded to other components
then welding defects in the area of the cut edge of the plate can often be traced back to an
inclusion. Also it is a fact that defects alreadyinthe basic material veryoften cause rejects at the
sheet table when the plate is rolled to formsheets.

The standard procedure which is used to test for laminations in plates and pipes, which are to
be welded or machined, is given below:

(i) Calibratethetimebasetoallowatleasttwobackwallechoestobedisplayed.
(ii) Place probeon the laminationfree portionoftest specimenand adjust the gaincontrol so
thatthe second back wall echo is at full screenheight.
Scanthe test specimen looking forlaminationindicationswhichwill showup at halfspecimen
thickness together with a reduction in back wall echo amplitude. In some cases a reduction in
the amplitude of the second back wall echo may be noticed without a lamination echo being
present. Care must be taken to ensure that this reduction in amplitude is not due to poor
coupling or surface condition.

Lamination testing of plate or pipe less than 10mm in wall thickness may be difficult usingthe
standard procedure because multiple echoes are so close together that it becomes impossibleto
pick out lamination echoes between back wall echoes.

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 FIG.6.14.Locationof surfaceflawon rodusingtwin-angleprobe.

In such cases a technique, called the multiple echo technique, using a single crystalprobe can
be used. The procedure is as follows:

(i) Placethe probe on a lamination free portion of the test specimen or on the calibration
block.
(ii) Adjustthe time base and gain controls to obtain a considerable number of multiple
echoes in a decaypattern over the first half ofthe time base Figure 6.15a.
(iii) Scanthe test specimen.The presence ofa laminationwill be indicatedbya collapse of the
decay pattern such as the one shown in Figure 6.15b. The collapse occurs because each
of the many multiple echoes is closer to its neighbour in the presence of a lamination.
(iv) Theabove mentioned flaws can be ultrasonically detected by using straight beam
probes. With the exceptionof randomtesting it is not advisableto carryout a plate test
manually. Due to the simple geometry of the test object an automatic test in the
production line is the best solution. However, the selection of the most suitable testing
machine is determined by the plate thickness, the number of plates to be tested, the
maximum test time and the conditions at the test location (is the testing machine to be
integrated into the production line (on-line) or is the test to be made external to the
production line (off-line)).

143
 FIG.6.15.Multipleechodecaypatternfrom plate;
(a) Withoutlamination,(b)Withlamination.

FIG.6.16.UT inspectionofrailaxle

6.1.2.5.Austeniticmaterials

It is difficult to test cast stainless steel to high degree ofreliabilitybecause of the coarse grain
and highly variable microstructureof the material Figure 6.17.

Cast stainless steel can have a well defined equiaxed grain structure, a well defined columnar
grain structure or mixed grain structure Figure 6.18. Because ultrasonic beam distortions are
related to the material microstructure and the selected test procedure, the ability to interpret
data depends on knowledge of the microstructure. Because the microstructurecan be obtained
by measuring the velocity of sound, this is an effective and reliable way to non-destructively
assess the inspectabilityof a component, even under field conditions.

(a) beforenormalizing

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 (b) afternormalizing
FIG.6.16.GrainsizeandCRTscreendisplay;(a)beforenormalizing,(b)after normalizing.

(a) (b)
FIG.6.17.Acoarsegrainformation;(a)afteranausteniticweldstructure,(b)afterheat treatment.

When caststainless steeliscomposedofisotropic equiaxed grainthe variation invelocity with

propagation direction is small (less than 2 percent). For an anisotropic material composed of
columnar grains the variation in velocity may be large, as much as 100 percent forshear
wavesFigure6.18.Themagnitudeofthesoundvelocitymayalsobeusedasameasure of anisotropy.
Relatively low longitudinal wave velocity indicates a columnar grain structure and high
velocities indicate an equiaxed structure. Intermediate values indicate thepresenceof both
microstructures.

FIG.6.18.Ananisotropicstructure.

Ultrasonic angle beam shear waves travel easily from wrought base metal through low alloy
carbonsteelwelds. Inausteniticstainlessandhighnickelalloyswelds, theshear beammaybe
reflected at the fusion line or deflected in the weld metal because of velocity and grain
structure differences. Discontinuity indications from the reflective fusion line may appear to
befromincompletefusion. Reflectivefusion line indicationscancausetheunnecessaryrepair of
good welds. For this reason reflective interface indications are tested with a longitudinal
wave beam of the same angle. The longitudinal wave angle beam may not reflect from the
interface but does reflect from incomplete fusion permitting identificationof the indication.
Improved austenitic weld tests have been reported at low frequencies (1.5 MHz) with short
pulse lengths. Focusingor dualtransducers improvethe signal-to-noiseratio. A narrowsound
beamcan have favourableeffectswithregard to testing austeniticwelds. Theratio canalso be
improved by using longitudinal wave angle beams that are not sensitive to grainstructure.

145
 Forgedworkpieces

Manufacturing defects occurring in such semi-finished products can either be internal defects
or surface defects. Some internal defects originate from ingot defects in the core such as
shrinkage cavities and inclusions which are elongated during rolling, forging or drawing.
Others arerolling anddrawing defects suchascracksinthecore,radial incipientcracks on the rod
surface or spills which penetrate to the surface at a small angle. Since most flaws in rods
orbillets extendinthelongitudinal direction, thisrequires thatthe axisof thesound beam be in a
cross sectional plane Figure 6.19 either normal or oblique to the surface. Also used are surface
waves in the circumferentialdirection.

FIG.6.19.Typesofdefectsinroundstockandmaindirectionsof testing.

Billets.

These often have longitudinally directed flaws in the core zone (pipings, cracks andinclusions)
or on the surface (cracks).

The core flaws are detected by using two normal probes connected in parallel, as shown in
Figure 6.20 for square billets. In this test, a great part of the billet is not tested Figure 6.21
owing to the beam position as well as the dead zones of the probes. Therefore, when testing
square billets with sides shorter than 100 mm, double crystal probes are used. It goes without
saying that twin probes with heavily inclined oscillators cannot be used since their maximum
sensitivity isjustbelow thesurface.Normally the twincrystal probeswithvery very small root
angle are used.Longitudinal surface flaws on square billets are practically impossible to detect
with normal, twin even angle probes.

FIG.6.20.Testingbilletswithtwoprobesconnectedinparallel.

FIG.6.21.Incompletecoveragebynormalprobesusedfortestingofsquarebillets.

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The testing procedure with normal probes for core flaws mentioned earlier is also applicable
for round billets but with more difficulty, especially when testing by hand, because of the
curved surface which reduces contact area and probe sensitivity Figure 6.22. The contact area
can be increased by using a perspex shoe whose front curvature fits closely to the round billet
Figure 6.23.

Because divergence of the sonic beam, even with a probe with a shoe, gives rise to disturbing
echoes between the first and second back-wall echoes, core flaws in round billets are usually
checked with twin crystal probes.

FIG.6.22.Difficultyintestingroundbilletswithnormalprobes due to
reduced contact area.

FIG.6.23.Increaseincontactareabyusingperspexshoe.

Longitudinal surface flaws in round billets can be detected with angle probes provided the
surface is not too rough. For a 45° or 60° angle probe which is suitably ground as shown in
Figure 6.24,the broadbeam, after afewreflections,fillsazone under the surface uptoa depth of
about one-fifth of the diameter. If a longitudinally oriented surface flaw is present Figure 6.25,
an echo will be visible on the CRT screen; otherwise no echo is visible. It is possible to miss a
flaw thatis at an acute angle to the surface Figure 6.26. Therefore, in order to be able to detect
all surface flaws, the angle probe must be turned round by 180° and also moved around
thebillet or the billetitself must beturned. Theflaw echothen willmove across the screen with
alternating heights, having a peak height just before the transmission pulse.
FIG.6.24.Depthofpenetrationofobliquetransversewavesinround billets.

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 FIG.6.25.Detectionoflongitudinalsurfaceflawsinround billetsusingangleprobes.

FIG.6.26.Possibilityofmissinglongitudinalsurfaceflawsinroundbilletsusingangle
probes.

With the billet rotating and the angle probe advancing longitudinally, a spiral scan can be
performed, enabling all of the billet to be tested.

Miscellaneousforgings

Thetesting of forgings is in manyways more straight forward thanthe testing of castings. For
one thing, the grain is far more refined, giving much lower attenuation and less noise, and
allowing a higher frequency to be used.

Secondly, defects such as cavities and inclusions in the original billet are flattened and
elongated during the forging/rolling or extrusion process to become better reflectors by
becoming parallel to the outer surface. The one exception to this might be cracks which may
not be parallel to the scanning surface.

Much of the testing of forgings can be accomplished with compression waves using single or
twin crystal probes at frequencies between 4-6 MHz and occasionally up to 10 MHz. Angle
shear wave probes are used to explore defects detected by the compression waves and tosearch
for defects which might not be suitably oriented for compression waves. In the testingof
forgings, particularlythose which have been in service for a period of time, it is veryoften
possible to predict where defects will be, if they exist, and for this reason manyspecifications
onlycall for a limited scan looking for one particulardefect inone location.

The flaws of interest in large forgings are fatigue or strain cracks and those originating fromthe
production processes. Production flaws are searched for as soon as possible before the forgings
undergo expensive finishing.

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Letfirstvalueof‘x’chosenbe‘X1’andsecondvaluebe2X1andthetransittime corresponding to these be
‘T1’ and ‘T2’ respectively then

InspectionofComposites

Composites are inhomogeneous materials usually consisting of layers of different materialsthat

are bonded together or embedded in a matrix. Frequently, composite consists of layers of fibers
with the fibers oriented in various directions. This situation causes major changes in ultrasonic
properties in different portions of the laminate. Examples of composites that are ultrasonically
tested include graphite/epoxy, glass/epoxy and plastic/epoxy. Composites may also include
layers of homogeneous materials such as aluminium sheet/glassepoxy.

Discontinuities

Discontinuities that are commonly found in composites include eliminations, voids, porosity
and ply gaps.

VoidsandPorosity

Voidsandporosity arecausedby outgassingofvolatilechemical componentsintheresin that are

trapped during curing. Theyare typicallylocated adjacent to the fibers in the matrix.

Delamination

Delamination can result from improper curing, but most are due to impact damage, hole
drilling, or other sources of excess transverse tensile, or shear stresses. Delamination’s canalso
result from foreign material inclusions that contaminate layer surfaces during the layup
process.
Inclusions may be introduced from the ply carrier film, release paper, or peel plies, and they
may be difficult to resolve due to low reflectivity.

Plygaps

Ply gaps are caused by the misalignment of composite tapes during layup and are difficult to
detect because theyare filled with resin during the processing of the composite.

The strength/life of a composite is seriously affected by delimitations or ply gaps in the

composite structure. These planar discontinuities can propagate under normal service loadsand
result in component failure.

Composites are generally tested using a straight beam or through transmission squirter
technique at frequencies between 5 MHz and 25 Mhz for materials less than 6mm. C scans or
digital computer imaging are often used for display and recording.

Integrity of bond in adhesive bonded joints is determined by using commercially available

bond testers. These machines use frequencies in therange of2.25 to 25 MHz. The bond tester
functionsby transmitting aseries of pulsesintothematerial. Adhesivebond discontinuities are
detected by comparing the signal amplitude of ultrasound wave from the test piece to the
ultrasoundwaveofareferencebondintegritystandard.Itisimportantthatthereference

149
 standard resemble the test piece, especially in material composition and bond joint shape.
Reference standards aremanufactured in nearly thesame way as the test pieces.Delaminations
and inclusions are simulated by implanting non-metallic films in the reference standard to
simulate the low reflectivityof foreign materialdiscontinuities.

Weldedworkpieces

In the welding process, two pieces of metal are joined together. Molten filler metal from the
welding rod blends with the molten parentmetal at the preparedfusion faces,andfusesthe two
pieces together as the weld cools and solidifies. Some of the defects occur because the fusion
faces do not melt properlyor blend with the filler metal(lack of penetrationand lack of fusion
defects). Some defects occur because the scale or slag which forms at the top of each pass of
the welding, is not chipped away completely before the next pass is made (slag inclusions).
Some defects occur because the welding electrode dips into the molten weld and bits of copper
or tungsten drop into the weld (dense metal inclusions). Some defects occur in much the same
way as casting defects (porosity, piping, wormholes, shrinkage, etc.). Some defects
occurbecause of thethermal stresses,setupby having partof thecomponentat molten temperature,
and the rest of the parent material at much lower temperatures (cracks, tears, etc.).

Many of the defects which can occur in welds do not significantly alter the strength of theweld;
others do in varying degrees. However, planar defects (cracks, lack of penetration / fusion)
particularlythose breaking the surface of the welded joint, give rise to the most severe
reductions of weld strength.

6. 2.1.Typesofweldjoints

Mostwelds fall intooneofthefollowingcategories:

i) Butt welds
ii) T-welds
iii) Nozzlewelds

Abuttweldisachievedwhentwoplatesorpipesofusuallyequalthicknessesarejoined together using any of

the weld preparations given in Figure 6.27.

Figure 6.28aillustrates the weldpreparation foratypical singlevee weldandthe terms used to

describe various parts of the prepared weld area. The same weld after welding is shown in
Figure 6.28b showing the original preparation and the number of passes made to complete the
weld.

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 FIG.6.27Variousweldconfigurationsfor buttwelds.

A T-weld is achieved when two plates are joined at right angle to each other. A T-weld may
be partially penetratedor fullypenetrated Figure 6.28a & b.

Nozzleweldsarethose in whichonepipeis joinedto anotherasabranch,eitherat right angle or

some other angle. As with T-joints,the weld maybe fullyor onlypartiallypenetrated.

FIG.6.28a:Termsusedtodescribevariouspartsofweldarea.

FIG.6.28b.Originalpreparationofweldandnumberofpassesmadetocompletetheweld.

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 FIG.6.29(a)Partialpenetrationweld,(b)Fullypenetratedweld

Some typical weld preparations for nozzle welds are shown in Figure 6.30a, b, c & d. In the
diagrams thewall of themain pipe or vessel (called "shell"), and the wall of thebranch, stub, or
nozzle (called"branch") have been identified. Figure 6.31 shows the nozzle joints.

FIG.6.30a. Fully penetrated Figure6.30b.Partiallypenetrated

"set on" weld "set in"weld.

FIG.6.30c. Fully penetrated FIG.6.30d.Partiallypenetrated

"set through" weld "set through" weld

FIG.6.31.Nozzleweldsandpipejoint welds

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 Generalprocedureforultrasonictestingofwelds

Theprocedurefor theultrasonictestingofweldsoutlinedbelow, ifadheredto, willresult in a

speedy and efficient ultrasonic inspection of welds.

a) Collectionofinformationpriortothetestingofweld

Theinformationwhichhastobecollectedpriortotestingaweldincludesthefollowing:

(i) Parentmetalspecifications.
(ii) Weldjoint preparation.
(iii) Weldingprocesses.
(iv) Parentmetalthicknessadjacenttotheweld.
(v) Anyspecialdifficultyexperiencedbythe welderduring welding.
(vi) Locationofanyrepairwelds.
(vii) Acceptancestandards.

b) Selectionoftheprobeangle

The initial choice of probe angle for the weld body scan depends upon the weld preparation
angle. The angle should be chosen to meet any lack of sidewall fusion at right angle for
maximum response. The exact angle to meet this fusion face at right angle can be calculated
from:

rooeangle=90°−e/2 (6.1)

Where,
e=Weldpreparationangle

Example(i):
Weldpreparationangle= 60°
Requiredprobeangle=90°-60°/2=90°- 30°=60°

Example(ii):
Weldpreparationangle= 45°
Requiredprobeangle=90°-45°/2=90°-22.5°=67.5°

In the first case, clearlywe would use 60° probe, but in the case of the 45° weld preparation
angle, it is not likelythat we will have a 67.5° probe, so we would choose the nearest, i.e. a
70° probe. Table 6-I shows the relativechange in probe angle for different materials.

c) Selectionofprobefrequency

The nominal frequency shall be from 1 MHz to 5 MHz unless variables, such as production
materials grain structure, require the use of other frequencies to assure adequatepenetrationor
better resolution. In general,high frequency probes provide greater accuracy in determining the
size of the flaw. A lower frequency is better on a rough surface from the point of view of

153
coupling efficiency. High frequency probeshave superior resolution characteristics, sothat
small flaws can be found more readily, than with low frequencyprobes.

Table6-I:Relativechangeinprobeanglesfordifferentmaterials
Beamangle(Degree)
Material
35 45 60 70 80
Steel 35 45 60 70 80

Aluminium 33 42.4 55.5 63.4 69.6

Copper 23.6 29.7 37.3 41 43.4

Greycastiron(meanvaluefor 23 28 35 39 41
lamellar cast iron)

d) Visualinspection

A visual check should be carried out prior to the commencement of testing to make sure that
the surface is free from weld spatter and smooth enough for scanning. Some defects, e.g.
undercut, etc., may show at the surface and be noticed during the visual examination. If these
defects are in excess of the acceptancestandard, then they should be remedied before carrying
out the ultrasonic inspection.

Identificationofweldexaminationarea

Weld locations and their identification shall be recordedon a weld map or in an identification
plan.Ifweldsaretobepermanently marked,lowstressstampsand/orvibratoolingmaybe used.
Markings applied after final stress relief of the component shall not be any deeper than
3/64in.(1.2mm).Eachweldshall be located andidentified by a system of reference points.
Thesystemshallpermitidentificationofeachweldcenterlineanddesignationofregular intervals
along the length of the weld.

Figure 6.32 defines the half-skip distance (HSD), full-skip distance (FSD), half-skip-beam
length (HSBPL) and full-skip-beam-length (FSBPL) for an angle beam probe of refraction
angle.
DistanceAB=Half-SkipDistance(HSD)
Distance AC = Full-Skip Distance (FSD)
Distance AD = Half-Skip-Beam-Path-Length(HSBL)
DistanceAD+DC=Full-Skip-Beam-Path-Length(FSBL)

FIG.6.32.Variousskipdistancesandbeampathlengthsforananglebeamprobe.

154
The relations used to calculateHSD,FSD,HSBPL and FSBPL for a specimenof thickness t, are
given below:

HSD=t×tanθ (6.2)
FSD=2t×tanθ (6.3)
HSBPL=t/cosθ (6.4)
FSBPL =2t/cosθ (6.5)

6.2.4.Parentmetalexamination

The parent metal should be examined with a normal beam probe to detect anydefects such as
laminations, etc., which might interfere with the subsequent angle beam probe examinationof
the weld, and also to assess the thicknessof the parent metal.

The examination should be over a band which is greater than the full skip distance for the
shallowest angle beam probe (usually 70° probe) tobe used, Figure 6.15illustrates what would
happen if a large lamination were present in the parent metal. The presence of a lamination
causes the beam toreflect up to the cap giving a signal which mightbe mistaken for a
normalroot bead, and atthe same time, misses the lack ofpenetrationdefect.

FIG.6.15.Effectofalargelaminationon theultrasonicexamination.

For parent metal examination either a single crystal or a twin crystal probe with a frequency
thatlies between 2 to6MHz can be used. Thehighest frequency in this rangeispreferred. The
setting of sensitivity for this examination should be in accordance with the relevant
specification or code of practice.

6.2.5.Criticalrootexamination

The nextstep is tomake a careful inspection of the weld root area. This is because itis the root
area in which defects are most likely to occur and where their presence is most detrimental. It
is also the region in which reflections occur fromthe weld bead in a good weld and root defect
signalswill appear veryclose to the standardbead signal, i.e. it is the region in

155
which theinspectoris most likelyto beconfused. Root examinationfor singleveeanddouble vee
welds are discussed below.

ExaminationofRoot inSingleVeeButtWelds

Thescanningprocedurefortheexaminationoftherootconsistsofthefollowingsteps:
(i) Selectionofprobeangle.
(ii) Calibration of time base on I.I.W V1 or V2 block for a suitable range. For parent
metalthicknesses up to about 30 mm, a time base range of100 mmis suitable.
(iii) MarkingtheprobeindexontheprobeusingI.I.WV1orV2block.
(iv) DeterminationofthecorrectprobeangleusingI.I.WV1or V2block.
(v) Calculationof1/2skipdistanceand1/2skipbeam pathlength(1/2skipBPL)forthe
selectedprobe.
(vi) Markingof the scan lines at 1/2 skip distance from the weld centre line on both sides of
weld Figure 6.34a.
(vii) SettingthegainsensitivityforscanningandevaluationasperDACcurve.

FIG.6.34.Scanprocedureforrootof singleveebuttweld.

(viii) With the probe index on the scanning line,a lack of penetration echo will occur at the half
skip beam path range. If the weld is a good one, a root bead echo will occur at a small
distance (depending on how big the weld bead is) away from the anticipated spot for a
lack of penetration echo Figure 6.35a. If there is some root shrinkage or undercut, the
echo from these defects will occur at a slightly shorter range than the critical range
Figure 6.35b.

(a) (b)
FIG.6.35:Rootscanning;(a)foragoodweld,(b)forrootshrinkage.

156
(ix) Inaddition, todetermine whether an echooccurring during the rootscan isdue tolack of
penetration, root undercut, root shrinkage, or root bead, the following points should also
be taken into consideration.
· Since lack of penetrationis a good corner reflector, the echo from it is quite big
compared to an echo from root undercut or root shrinkage.
· With a lack of penetration echo there will be no weld bead echo, whereas with
root undercut, there almost always is.
· The echoes from root undercut and root shrinkage maximize when the probe is
moved backwards from the scanning line.
· Ifthe weld bead echo varies a lot inamplitudeand position, thenthere is a great
probability of defects in the root area.
(x) Afterhavingcarefully examinedtheroot,probingfromonesideoftheweldcentre line, a
second scan is similarly done from the other side of the weld centre line toconfirm the
findings of the first scan.

In addition, the second scan willalso help in interpreting two other types of defects in the root
area. The first one of these is shown in Figure 6.36.It is a small slag inclusion or gas just above
the root.

FIG.6.36.Rootscanningfordefectsjustabovetheroot.

This defect might appear just short of the half skip beam path length when doing scan 1,
leading to the guess that it might be root undercut or root shrinkage. If this were so scan 2
should put it just further than the critical range. But in fact the inclusion will show about the
same place, i.e. just short again. Furthermore,from undercut the echo is expectedto maximize
when the probe is moved backwards in scan 1,butin the same scan the echo from the inclusion
will maximize when the probe is moved forward. The echo from the inclusion will also
maximizewhen the probe is moved forward in scan 2.

Thesecond defect mentioned above is shown in Figure 6.37. This shows a crack starting from
the edge of the root bead. From side 1 a large echo will appear just where the echo from
undercutisexpected andthere will be noaccompanying beadecho.From side 2,however,it is
possible to get a bead echo as wellas the defect echo.

FIG.6-37.Scanningfora defectstartingfromtheedgeoftherootbead.

ExaminationofRootinDoubleVeeButtWelds

ThetypicalweldpreparationforadoubleveeweldisshowninFigure6.20.A70°orany other suitable

probeispositionedat1/4skipdistancefrom the weldcentreline, tocarry out

157
the critical root scan. The anticipated time base range for an echo from lack of penetration
cannot be predicted as preciselyas for single-vee welds, but, of course, echoes fromroot bead
or undercut do not occur in this type of weld configuration. The rest of the procedure for the
root examinationof double-vee butt weld is similar to that of single-vee butt weld.

FIG.6.38

Weldbodyexamination

After an examinationof the weld root, the bodyof the weld is thenexamined for defects using
suitable angle beam probes. Weld body for single vee and double vee welds are discussed
below.

ExaminationofWeld BodyofaSingleVeeButtWeld

After the root examination is complete, the weld body examination is then done using the
following procedure:

(i) Selectionofanappropriateprobe angle.

(ii) Calculation of the 1/2skip and full skip distances and 1/2 skip and full skip BPLs for the
selected probe angle.
(iii) Marking the parent metalon both sides of the weld with lines parallelto the weld centre
line and at distance of ½ skip and full skip + ½ cap width.
(iv) Calibrationofthetimebaseforanappropriaterange.
(v) Setting the sensitivity of the probe/flaw detector system for the maximum testing range
which in this case is the full skip BPLas per DAC curve.
(vi) Scanning the specimen in a zigzag pattern betweenthe marked scan limits Figure 6.39.
Each forward scan should be at right angle to the weld centre line, and the pitch of the
zigzag should be a half probe width to ensure full coverage.

FIG.6.39.Zigzagscanningofweldbody.

(vii) Mark the areas, in which defect echoes occur, for subsequent location, establishment of
nature and sizing of the defects. The probemovement such as in Figure 6.40 may beused
to help in establishing the nature and size of defects.

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 FIG.6.40.Probemovementsforestablishingthenatureandsizeofdefects.

ExaminationofWeldBodyofaDoubleVeeButtWeld

The weldbody examination ofdouble-vee weldsismuchthesameasforsingleveewelds,

butthistime thescanstartsat1/4skipdistancefrom theweldcentre andgoesbacktofull skip plus half
weld cap width Figure 6.41. In this type of weld configuration there are four fusion faces to be
examined.

FIG.6.41Markingscanareafor double-veewelds.

Examinationfortransversecracks

After having examined both the weld root and the weld body the next step is to detect
transverse cracks breaking either top or bottom surfaces. Magnetic particle inspection is
obviously a quick and effective method for detecting top surface cracks and therefore often
ultrasonicinspection isdoneonly todetectcracksbreaking thebottomsurface.Iftheweld cap has not
been dressed, this scan is done parallel to the weld centre line alongside the weld cap with the
probe inclined towards the centre. Since a crack tends to have a ragged edge, it is likely that
some energy will be reflected back to the transmitter. A safer technique is to use a pair of
probes, one transmitting and the other receiving. This is also shown in Figure 6.42. If the
weldis dressed, a scan along the weldcentre line and several scans parallel toand on either side
of the weld centre line, from each direction, are done to give a full coverage of the weld.

FIG.6.42.Longitudinalscanningofa weld.
(a)foralldefecttypesexcepttransversecracks.b)Fortransversecracks

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 Determinationoflocation,sizeandnatureofthedefect

If anydefect is found as a result oftheseexaminations the next step is to explore the defect as
thoroughly as possible to determine:

(i) Itsexact locationintheweld.

(ii) Itssizeparallelwiththeweld axis(i.e.lengthofthedefect).
(iii) Itssizethroughtheweldthickness.
(iv) Itsnature(slag,porosity,crack,etc.).
(v) Evaluation

Testreport

In order that results of ultrasonic examination may be fully assessed, it is necessary that the
inspector's findings are systematicallyrecorded. The report should contain details of the work
underinspection,theequipmentusedandthecalibration andscanning procedures.Besides the probe
angle, the probe positions and flaw ranges should be recorded in case the results of the report
need to be repeated.

ExaminationofT-welds

In the case of a T-weld configuration, for complete inspection of the weld, access to several
surfaces isrequired.Inpractice,access tomorethanonesurfacemay notbeavailable and thus
onlylimited inspection of the weld can be carried out.

The inspection procedure for both partially penetrated and fully penetrated T-welds is muchthe
same, but for partiallypenetrated welds monitoring ofthe non-fused portion of the weld is
needed to ensure that it is not longer than the design permits. For an ideal case where all
surfaces are readily accessible, the scans to be made for the complete inspection of a T-weld
are illustrated in Figure 6.43. Scan 1 is done with a normal beam probe to detect laminations,
lack of fusion and lamellar tearing. Scan 2 is done with an angle beam probe to detect weld
bodydefects and toe cracks and scan 3 is an angle beam probe scan to detect weld defects and
lack of side wall fusion.

As with the previously discussed weld configurations, probe angles and frequencies are to be
chosen to suit the particular job. For scan 3 it is useful to choose a probe angle which will
produce a beam center line parallel to the weld cap Figure 6.44 to reduce the tendency for
confusing cap echoes.

FIG.6.43.Typicalscanpositionsfor"T"welds.

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 FIG.6.44.Anglebeamprobescantodetectwelddefectsandlackofsidewallfusion.

Examinationofnozzlewelds

As with T-welds, for the complete inspection of nozzle welds access to all the scanning
surfaces may not be possible. The following scans are given for fully penetrated set in nozzle
welds, and either partiallyor fullypenetratedset through nozzle welds.

The choiceof probe angle and frequency, as discussed earlier, depends upon the particular job
to be carried out.

Fullypenetratedset onwelds

The scans tobe carried outfor this type of weldare shown inFigure 6.45. Scans 1 and 2are
normal beam probe scans of shell and branch respectivelyto determine:
a) Thicknessoftheshelland branch.
b) Laminationsinshelland branch.
c) Lackoffusionofshellwall.
d) Weldbodydefects.
Scan 3 is a critical root scan. Scan 4 is the scan made by moving the probe between half skip
and full skip limits. This scan is done to determine lack of side wall fusion and weld body
defects.

FIG.6.45.Scansforfullypenetrated"seton"welds.

Partiallypenetratedsetinwelds

The scans are similar to those shown in Figure 6.45. However, in this case it is necessary to
checktheactual penetration achieved andtomakesurethatthehorizontalfusionfaceis fused. This
can be achieved, with practice, by very carefullyplotting the root echoes.

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 Examinationofbrazedand bondedjoints

Brazedjoints
If the wall thickness permits clear separation between back wall echoes, brazed joints can
beexaminedusingthestandardprocedureforlaminationtesting.However,sincethebrazed
metalseparatingthetwobrazedwallswillhaveslightly differentacousticimpedancefrom
thatofthebrazedwalls,asmallinterferenceechowillbepresentforagoodbraze.The techniqueis,
therefore, to look for anincreasein this interface echo amplitudeFigure 6.46 a, b & c.

FIG.6.46(a,b,c).Ultrasonicinspectionof brazedjoints.

Ifthetwobrazedwallthicknessesaretoothintopermitclearbackwallechoes,amultiple echo, as
described for lamination testing, can be used.

Bonded joints
These mayinclude metalto metalglued joints and metalto non-metalglued joints (e.g. rubber
blocks bonded to steelplates). The technique used is a multiple echo technique. Each time the
pulse reaches a bonded interface, a portion of the energy will be transmitted into the bonded
layer and absorbed. Each time a pulse reaches an unbonded layer, all the energy will be
reflected. The decay of the multiple echo pattern for a good bond would, therefore, be short
because of the energy loss at each multiple echo into the bond Figure 6.47. However, for an
unbonded layer each multiple echo will be slightly bigger because there is no interface loss,
and the decaypattern will be significantly longer Figure 6.48.

FIG.6.47.Echopatternindicatinggoodbondedjoint.

162
FIG.6.48.Echopatternshowinglackofbonding.

163
 7. CODES,STANDARDS,SPECIFICATIONSANDPROCEDURES

CODES,STANDARDS,SPECIFICATIONSRELATEDTOULTRASONICTESTING
Different definitions related to codes, standards and specifications have already
beenexplainedinchapter-1.Theprocessofstandardizationasexplainedinchapter-1,highlightedthe
importanceandneedofstandardsinviewoflargenumberofvariableswhichneedtobecontrolled
toachievereliableandreproducibleresultsfromNDTtestsincludingultrasonictesting.Thisthen
canbesaidtobetheunderlyingneedand reason fortheexistenceofdifferentstandards. Inthis
chaptermoreinformation willbeprovided onthesubjectofstandardsspeciallythoserelatedto
ultrasonic testing of materials.

Examination,testingandinspection

Examinationandtesting

Examination and testing are those quality control functions which are carried out, during the
fabrication of an industrial product, by quality persons who are employees of
themanufacturer.Testing mayalso be defined as the physical performance of operations
(tests)to determine quantitative measures of certain properties. Most of the non-destructive
testing is performed under this heading.

Inspection

Inspectionsarethequalitycontrolfunctionswhicharecarriedout, duringthefabricationofan
industrial product byan authorized inspector. They include measuring, examining, testing,
gaugingorotherwisecomparing thefindingswithapplicable requirements. Anauthorized
inspectorisa person who is not the employeeofthe manufacturerofan industrialproduct but
whoisproperlyqualifiedandhastheauthoritytoverifytohissatisfactionthatall
examinationsspecifiedintheconstructioncodeoftheproducthavebeenmadetotherequirements of
the referencing section of the construction code.

Standards,codes, specificationsandprocedures

Guidesandrecommendedpractices

Guides and recommendedpracticesare standardsthat areofferedprimarilyas aids totheuser.

Theyuse verbs suchas "should"and "may" because their use is usuallyoptional. However, if
these documents are referenced by codes or contractual agreements, their use may become
mandatory. If the codes or agreements contain non-mandatory sections or appendices, the use
of referenced guides and recommendedpractices bythem, are at the user's discretion.

Standards

Standards are documents that govern and guide the various activities occurring during the
production of an industrial product. Standards describe the technical requirements for a
material, process, product, system or service. They also indicate as appropriate, theprocedures,
methods, equipment or tests to determinethat the requirements have been met.

164
Codesandspecifications

Codes and specifications are similar types of standards that use the verbs "shall" or "will" to
indicate the mandatory use of certain materials or actions or both. Codes differ from
specifications in that their use is mandated with the force of law by governmentaljurisdiction.
The use of specifications becomes mandatory only when they are referenced by codes or
contractual documents. A prime example of codes is the ASMEboiler and pressure vesselcode
which is a set of standards that assure the safe design, construction and testing of boilers and
pressure vessels.

Procedure

In non-destructive testing, a procedure is an orderly sequence of rules or instructions which

describe in detailed terms where, how and in which sequence an NDT method should be
applied to a production.

Protocols,reportsandrecords

Protocols

The rules, formalities, etc., of any procedure, group, etc. (The Concise Oxford Dictionary8th
Edition).

Report

A report of anon-destructive examination orof testingisadocumentwhichincludes allthe necessary

information required to be able to:
(a) Takedecisionsontheacceptanceofthe defects by
the examination.
(b) Facilitaterepairsofunacceptabledefects.
(c) Permit theexaminationortestingto be
repeated.

Records

Records are documents which will give, at any time in the future, the following information
about a non-destructive testing examination, (i) the procedure used to carry out the
examination, (ii) the data recording and data analyzing techniquesused, and (iii) the results of
the examination.

Standardizationorganizations

One of the criteria for any document such as a guide or a recommended practice to qualify to
become a standard is that it should be issued by a reputed organizationwhich is recognized at
national, regional or international level. Some of the organizations whose standards are
commonlyused in NDT internationallyare:

165
 a) ASME : AmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers
b) ASTM : AmericanSocietyforTestingandMaterials
c) IIW : InternationalInstituteofWelding
d) ISO : InternationalOrganizationfor Standardization
e) EN : EuropeanCommitteeforStandardization
f) DIN : GermanStandardsInstitution(DeutschesInstitutfur
Normung)
g) BSI : BritishStandardsInstitution
h) JSA : JapaneseStandardsAssociation
i) AFNOR : FrenchStandardizationBody(AssociationFrancaise
Denormalization)

j) SAI : StandardsAustraliaInternational
k) CSA : CanadianStandardsAssociation
l) ASNT : AmericanSocietyfor Non-destructiveTesting
m) JSNDI : JapaneseSocietyforNon-destructiveInspection.

n) API : AmericanPetroleumInstitute
o) AWS : AmericanWeldingSociety
p) SAE : SocietyforAutomotiveEngineering
q) KSA : KoreanStandardsAssociation

Typesofstandards

Generallythe standards belonging to NDT can be grouped into various categories such as the
standards for terminology, equipment, testing method, education, training and certification,
acceptance and rejection and accreditation, etc. These are briefly described below with
examples.

Standardsfor terminology

Theseare the standards which explain themeanings ofvarious technical terms and conceptsas
employed in NDT. These are therefore essential for avoiding failure to reach an agreement
between the user and purchaser of the NDT services. Some examples of such standards are:

166
 a) ISO 5577 Non-destructivetesting-ultrasonicinspection
vocabulary
b) Article-30 of ASME Boiler and Terminologyfornon-destructivetesting
Pressure Vessel Code (B & PV) examinationstandard
Section-V
c) DIN54119 Termsandconceptsinultrasonicinspection
d) BS 3683: Part 4 Glossaryoftermsusedinultrasonicflaw
detection
e) ASTM E-1316 Standardterminologyfornon-destructive
testing examination
f) JSA Z 2300 Glossaryoftermsusedinnon-destructive
testing
g) EN 1330-4 Non-destructivetestingterminology-
part4:termsusedinultrasonictesting

Standardsfor equipment

A prerequisite to standardization of inspection techniques is a regularized method of ensuring

that the equipment in use is either inherently capable of or can be adjusted to give a certain
predetermineddegree of sensitivityand performance. Some of the standards of this type are:

a) ASTM-1065 Standardguideforevaluatingcharacteristicsof
ultrasonic search units
b) ISO-2400 Weldinsteel-referenceblockforthecalibrationof
equipment for ultrasonic testing
c) JSA 2352 Method for assessing overall performance
characteristicsofultrasonicpulseechotesting
instrument
d) BS2704 Calibrationblocksandrecommendationsfortheir use
in ultrasonic flaw detection
e) IIS/IIW278-67 Recommendedproceduresforthedeterminationof
certainultrasonic pulse echo characteristicsbythe
IIWcalibrationblock

f) ASTME-428 Standard practice for fabrication and control of

steelreferenceblockusedinultrasonicinspection
g) DIN25450-90 Ultrasonicequipmentformanualtesting
h) JSA 2345 Standardtestblocksforultrasonictesting
i) EN 12668 Non-destructive testing- characterization &
verificationofultrasonicexaminationequipment
j) SAIAS2083 Calibrationblockandtheirmethodofusein
ultrasonictesting
k) KSAB0534 Methodforassessingtheoverallperformance
characteristicsofultrasonicpulseechoinstrument

167
 Standards fortestingmethods

These standards, usually, entitled as Recommended Practice or Method are issued in order to
select an optimaltest technique for a particular job. In other words these will help in selectinga
techniquewhich revealsonlythose defects which maybe considered harmful without giving
prominence to secondary features. Use of these standards will help in obtaining reliable and
reproducible results fromthe tests. Some of the standards of this categoryare:

a) API RP 5UE Recommendedpracticeforultrasonicevaluation

of pipe imperfections
b) AWS C3.8 Specificationfortheultrasonicexaminationof
brazed joints
c) BS3923 Methodsforultrasonicexaminationofwelds
d) JSA 0801 Ultrasonicexaminationofsteelplatesforpressure
vessels
e) DIN54125 Ultrasonictestingofweldedjoints
f) ASTM A 388 Standardpracticeforultrasonicexaminationof
heavy steel forging
g) Article-4ofASMEB&PV Ultrasonicexaminationmethodsforwelds
Section V

h) ISO 17640 Non-destructivetestingofwelds-ultrasonictesting of

welded joints
i) EN583 Non-destructivetesting-ultrasonicexamination

Standardsforeducation,trainingandcertificationofNDT personnel

To avoid unreliable results of an NDT examination besides using standardized equipment and
test methods, the persons carrying out the examinationmust also be properlyeducated,trained
and certified in the method. Various standards are available to cater for this requirement.Lately
there is an effort to harmonize the education, training and certification both at the regionalas
wellas internationallevel. Some of the standardsof this type are:

a) DIN54160 Requirementsfornon-destructivetestingpersonnel
b) IIS/IIW-589 Recommendationsrelatingtothetrainingofnon-
destructivetestingpersonnel
c) ISO 9712 General standard for the qualification and
certificationofnon-destructivetestingpersonnel
d) SNT-TC-1A Recommendedpracticefornon-destructivetesting
personnelqualificationandcertification
e) EN 473 Generalprinciplesforqualificationandcertification of
NDT personnel
f) ANSI/ASNT.CP-189 Standardforqualificationandcertificationofnon-
destructivetestingpersonnel
g) HAF602 Managementregulationsonthequalificationofnon-
destructiveexaminationpersonnelforcivilnuclear
safetyequipment

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 Standardsforacceptanceandrejection

After the defects have been investigated by NDT in terms of their nature, size and location,itis
important to evaluate their acceptance or rejection. This is done with the help of standards,
some examples of which are the following:

a) ISO5948 Railwayrollingstockmaterial-ultrasonicacceptance
testing
b) BS 5500 Specificationforunfiredfusionweldedpressure
vessels
c) JSA0587 Methodsfor ultrasonicexaminationforcarbonand
lowalloysteelforgings
d) EN 1712 Non-destructiveexaminationofwelds-acceptance
criteria for ultrasonicexaminationofwelded joints
e) SAIAS2824 Non-destructivetesting-ultrasonicmethods-
evaluationandqualityclassificationofmetalbearing
bonds
f) ASMESec t ion V Ultrasonicexaminationofwelds(UT)
I I I , Division I
Appendix-12

Accreditationstandards

These standards help in judging the capability and suitability of NDT laboratories and
institutions for undertaking different types of NDT work as well as for educationand training
of NDT personnel. Examples are:

a) ASTM-E543 Standardpracticefordeterminingthequalification
ofnon-destructivetestingagencies.

b) EN 45002 Generalcriteriafortheassessmentoftesting
laboratories
c) EN 45013 Generalcriteriaforcertificationbodiesoperating
certification of personnel
d) ASTME994 Guideforlaboratoryaccreditationsystems
e) ASTMA880-89 Practice for criteria for use in evaluation of testing
laboratories and organizations for examination and
inspectionof steel, stainlesssteeland related alloys

169
 ASMEboilerandpressurevesselcode

Establishmentprocessandfeatures

ASME boiler and pressure vessel code, an American national standard, is being extensively
used around the world either directly or by adoption. Therefore some of its features are given
here in some detail.
Initial enactment of the code was in 1914. It was established by a committee set up in 1911
with members fromutilities, states, insurance companies and manufacturers. Whether or not it
is adopted in the USA is left to the discretion of each state and municipality. In any event its
effectiveness in reducing human casualties due to boiler accidents since adoption is widely
recognized.
Rules fornuclear reactor pressurevessels wereincludedinthe codein1953,andnowthe codeis
adopted by almost all states of theUnitedStates and theprovinces ofCanada.After theinitial
establishment,revisions areissuedonceevery threeyears,sothatcurrently effective is the
2013,edition. One of the features of the ASME code is that partial revisionsare issued twice a
year, the summer addenda (July 1st), and the winter addenda(January1st).
These addenda used to be made effective six months after the date of issue, but now they are
effective immediately upon issuance. Any question about interpretation of rules may be
submitted to the committee in a letter of inquiry, and answers from the committee are
published as code cases from time to time.

ConstitutionofASMEcode

Thefollowingcontentsconstitute theASMEcode,2010edition.Rulesfornon-destructive
examinationarecollectivelyprescribed inSection V.Other sections forindividual
components(SectionI,IIIorVIII)refertoSectionVorotherapplicablerulesfor
examinationmethods,andSNT-TC-1A(ASNTrecommendedpracticeforqualificationof non-
destructive examination personnel).Acceptance criteria arespecified in eachsection,or
insomecasesarequotedfromASTM.Varioussectionsofthe2010versionoftheASME code are:

170
Section Title

I Rulesforconstructionofpowerboilers

II Materials
Part A: Ferrous materials
specificationsPartB:Non-
ferrousmaterialsspecifications
PartC:Weldingrods,electrodesandfillermetals Part
D: Properties (Customary)
PartE:Properties(Metric)

III Rules for construction of nuclear facility components

SubsectionNCA:Generalrequirementsfordivision1and
division 2
Division1
Subsection NB: Class 1 components
Subsection NC: Class 2 components
Subsection ND: Class 3 components
SubsectionNE:ClassMCcomponents
Subsection NF: Supports
Subsection NG: Core support structures
SubsectionNH:Class1componentsinelevated
Temperature services appendices
Division2:Codeforconcretecontainments
Division3: Containmentsfortransportationandstorageof
spent nuclear fuel and high level radioactive material and
waste.

IV Rulesforconstructionofheatingboilers

V Non-destructiveexamination

VI Recommendedrulesforcareandoperationofheating
boilers
VII Recommendedguidelinesforcareofpower boilers

VIII Rulesforconstructionofpressurevessels
Division 1: Pressure vessels
Division2:Alternativerules
Division3:Alternativerulesforconstructionofhigh
pressure vessels

IX Weldingandbrazingqualifications

171
 X Fibre-reinforcedplasticpressurevessels

XI Rulesforin-serviceinspectionofnuclearpowerplant
components

XII Rulesforconstructionandcontinuedserviceoftransport tank

ASME codeisavailableinbothboundand loose-leafversions.Eitherversionmaybeused for

ASME certification.

ASMEboiler&pressure vesselcodesectionV

This Section contains 24 articles. Article 1 is introductory and covers general requirements
such as manufacturer’s examination responsibility, duties of the authorized inspector, written
procedures, inspection and examination and qualificationof personnel. The balance of Section
V is organized into two subsections A and B, (Mandatory Appendix and Non-Mandatory
Appendix). Subsection A (Articles 2 to 20) defines the specific NDE methods required bythe
ASME Code.
Subsection B (Articles 21 to 31) contains the basic standards, procedures, and recommended
practice documents for each of the NDE techniques as adopted from the American Societyfor
Testing and Materials (ASTM). For example ASTM E 96 becomes SE-94 and ASTM A 609
becomes SA-609.
DifferentarticleofASMECoderelatedtonon-destructivetesting
NDTTechnique ASMECode Article
GeneralRequirement Article1
Radiographic Testing Article2and22
UltrasonicTesting Article4,5and23
LiquidPenetrantTesting Article6and24
MagneticParticleTesting Article7and25
EddyCurrentTesting Article8and26
VisualTesting Article9
LeakTesting Article10

InASMECodesSectionV,UltrasonicexaminationisaddressedinArticles4,5and23.

Article4:UltrasonicExaminationMethodsforWelds

This Article provides or reference to requirementsfor weld examination, which are to be used
in selecting and developing ultrasonic examination procedures when examination to any partof
this Article is a requirement of a referencing Code Section.

172
These procedures are to be used for the ultrasonic examinationof welds and the dimensioning
of indications for comparison with acceptance standards when required by the referencing
Code Section.
ThereferencingCodeSectionshallbeconsultedforspecificrequirementforthefollowing:
i) Personnelqualification/certificationrequirements
ii) Procedurerequirement/demonstration,qualification,acceptance
iii) Examinationsystemcharacteristics
iv) Retentionandcontrolofcalibrationblocks
v) Extentofexaminationand/orvolumetobescanned
vi) Acceptancestandards
vii) Retentionofrecords
viii) Reportrequirements

Article5:UltrasonicExaminationMethodsforMaterials

This Article provides or reference to requirements, which are to be used in selecting and
developing ultrasonic examination procedures for parts, components, materials, and all
thickness determinations. When SA, SB and SE documents are referenced, they are located in
Article 23.
i) The referencing Code Section shall be consulted for specific requirement for the
following:
ii) Personnelqualification/certificationrequirements
iii) Procedurerequirement/demonstration,qualification,acceptance
iv) Examinationsystemcharacteristics
v) Retentionandcontrolofcalibrationblocks
vi) Extentofexaminationand/orvolumetobescanned
vii) Acceptancestandards
viii) Retentionofrecords
ix) Reportrequirements

Article23:UltrasonicStandards

Article 23 includes various ultrasonic examination standards for materials such as large
forging, steel plates, casting etc, and for each general ultrasonic technique such as straight
beam & angle beam. This article also includes standard practice for ultrasonic thickness
measurement.
ASTMstandardsadoptedintoASMEstandardsastheyareorwithsomemodification.Theyare
assignedthesamenumberasASTMwithaprefixSadded.ForexampleASTMstandards

173
A-388, A-577, A-548, E-114, E-213,E-214andE-273, etc. willrespectivelybe designated by
ASMEasSA-388,SA-577,SA-578,SA-548,SE-114,SE-213,SE-214andSE-273.etc.

SA-388 Standardpracticefor ultrasonicexaminationofheavysteelforging

SA-435 Standardspecificationfor straight-beamultrasonicexaminationofsteelplates
SA-577 Standardspecificationforangle-beamultrasonicexaminationofsteelplates
SA-578 Standardspecificationforstraight-beamultrasonicexaminationofrolledplates for
Steel special applications
SA-609 Standardpracticeforcastings,carbon,low-alloyandmartensiticstainlesssteel
ultrasonicexamination
SA-745 Standardpracticeforultrasonicexaminationofausteniticsteelforgings
SB-548 Standardmethodforultrasonicinspectionofaluminum-alloyplateforpressure
vessels
SE-114 Standardpracticeforultrasonicpulse-echostraight-beamexaminationby
contact method
SE-213 Standardpracticeforultrasonicexaminationofmetalpipeandtubing
SE-273 Standard practice for ultrasonic examination of the weld zone of welded pipe
and tubing
SE-797 Standardpracticeformeasuringthicknessbymanualultrasonicpulse-echo
contact method
SE-2491 Standardguideforevaluatingperformancecharacteristicsofphased-array
ultrasonic examination instruments and systems

Acceptancecriteria

As alreadystated, acceptancecriteria are not specified in Section V, but each code section has to
be consulted tofind the acceptance criterion forspecificcases. The examinationis therefore
conducted in accordance with the appropriate Article, and acceptance or rejection is
determined in accordance with the referencing code section. As an example, acceptancecriteria
for welds as specified in section-VIII, Division-I, Appendix-12.
a) Discontinuities are unacceptable if the amplitude exceeds the reference level, and
discontinuities have lengths which exceed:
(i) 1/4in. (6 mm) for tupto3/4in. (19mm), inclusive.
(ii) 1/3tfortfrom3/4in.(19mm)to2-1/4in.(57mm),inclusive.
(iii) 3/4in.(19mm)fortover2-1/4in.(57 mm).
b) Wherediscontinuitiesareinterpretedtobecracks,lackoffusion,orincomplete
penetration,theyare unacceptableregardlessofdiscontinuityor signalamplitude.

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 8. RECORDINGANDEVALUATIONOFTEST RESULTS

SIGNIFICANCEOFDEFECTSANDNEEDFORPROPEREVALUATIONOF RESULTS

Most material failures take place due to already present defects which during service reach
dangerous sizes such that the remaining parts of materials cannot withstand the stresses to
which theyare subjected and therefore fail in a ductile or brittle manner. There is, therefore, a
need firstly todetect these flaws and secondly to characterize them in terms of their nature, size
and location. A further step should be to assess as to how severe and dangerous theseflaws are
in their present state and whether they need to be removed by repairing the tested component
or whether the component is to be scrapped or can the product with these known flaws still be
allowed to go into service? This process of judgment and decision is termed as "evaluation"
and is, in fact, replacing the concept of non-destructive testing (NDT) by non- destructive
evaluation (NDE).

Evaluation should really mean two things. First to make sure that no components with
unacceptable level of defects are able to escape inspection and go into service because this, as
hasbeensaidearlierat numerousplaces,canleadto catastrophicfailures.Second,itis
equallyimportant that components known to have such defects which are not considered to be
dangerous for the particular service are not stopped from going into service as this can mean
colossal production and material losses. Accordingly there are two basic requirements, firstlyto
find reliably and accurately the defects in terms of their nature, size and location and secondly
to make judgment and decision on their further treatment. The first requirement ismet by
utilizing appropriate NDT methods for detection and determination of nature, size and location
of defects while for the second the judgment of suitability or fitness for purpose is exercised
with the help of acceptance standards. The judgment is also made by following a more
rigorous fracture mechanics approach wherein the size of the flaw specially a crack is studied
undervariousload conditions anditsbehaviorresponsepredicted through calculations.

RECORDIBILITYOFDEFECTS

An ultrasonic flaw detector must be set at a minimumlevel of sensitivity since this is the only
means whereby echoes of otherwise uncertain significance can be translated into meaningful
information. In principle, the choice of a sensitivity level is based on the reflectivity of the
smallest flaw that is to be found at the maximumtest range.

Twosensitivitiesareusedduringaninspection:theevaluationsensitivityandthescanning sensitivity.
The evaluation sensitivity(or reference sensitivity) is the instrument setting which produces a
reproducible signal amplitude from a reference artificial reflector withwhich theinstrument
setting relating to a discontinuityecho can be compared. The evaluation sensitivity
canalsobecalledthePrimaryReferenceEcho(PRE)level.Scanningsensitivityisused during the
preliminaryscanning of a test piece to locate alldiscontinuityechoes which have to be
assessedatthe evaluation sensitivity stage.Itissetby increasing theamplification of the
instrumentfromtheevaluationsensitivityinstrumentsettingsbyaspecifiedamount,e.g.6 dB.

175
Whena defect is detected during the scan of the specimen, then the next step is that whether it
is recordable or not. This means that the defect should be further investigated in terms of its
location, size and nature or it should be ignored. For this purpose everystandard procedure of
ultrasonic testing specifies a certain record level.Record levels of most of the standards such as
ASME Code, API-1104 is 20% of the DAC curve or reference level.

In AWS D1.1 (2010), the recordibility of a defect depends on the weld thickness and probe
angle. In DGS diagram method any defect which gives an echo which is equal to or in excess
of the recording curve is recordable.

DATATOBERECORDEDINUT DURING FABRICATION

Accordingtomostoftheultrasonicstandardsusedduringfabricationwhenadefectis declared recordable,

the following characteristicsof the defect should be determined:
i) Natureofthe defect,
ii) Lengthofthedefect,and
iii) ItsreflectivityindBvalueaboveorbelowtheDAC curveorreferencelevel.

These characteristicsare required for acceptance or rejection of a defect. The determinationof

these characteristics is discussed in the following.

The ultrasonic standards which are used during pre-service inspection (PSI) or in-service
inspection (ISI) require more extensive data of the defect. The characteristics of the defect
which are required to be recorded accordingto ASME Section V Article-4 are:
i) Thenature,
ii) Thedepth,
iii) Theheightorthroughthickness,and
iv) The lengthofthedefect.
Table 8-I shows how the data is tobe recorded for 130% DAC reflector Figure 8.1 according to
Article-4 of ASME Section V for the reflector that requires measurement techniques to be
qualified & demonstrated.

FIG.8.1.Reflectorreading.

176
 Table8-I. DatatoberecordedaccordingtoASMECodeSectionVarticle4

BeamAng
SoundPat leand
Weld Ind.N Max.D Loc.(X) Pos. (Y) Calibration
h BeamDir CommentsandStatus
No. o. AC,% [in.(mm)] [in.(mm)] Sheet
[in.(mm)] ection,deg

XX 1 130 3.5 (88.9) 25.0(635) -5.0(-127) YY 45 (0) Slag

20 3.3 (83.8) 24.5(622) -4.8(-122) Minimumdepthposition

20 3.4 (86.5) 24.3(617) -5.0(-127) Leftend

20 3.7(94) 25.5(648) -5.4(-137) Maximumdepthposition

20 3.6 (91.4) 25.8(655) -5.3(-135) Rightend

Length=25.8in.–24.3in.=1.5in.(655
mm - 617 mm = 38 mm)

Throughwalldimension=
(3.7 in.-3.3in.)(cos45deg)=0.28in.
[(94 mm– 83.8 mm)(cos45 deg) =
7.2mm)]

GENERAL NOTE: Ind. No. = Indication Number; Loc. (X) = Location along X axis; Pos. (Y) = Position (Y)
from weld centerline; Beam Direction is towards 0, 90, 180, or 270

Searchunitlocation,position,and beamdirection

DEFECTCHARACTERIZATION

Defectlocation

Besides the above mentioned characteristics, flaw location is another parameter which is to be
reported. Thelocation ofadefectwhich hasbeendetected canbereaddirectly from the screen of a
flaw detector which has been properlycalibrated. In the case of normal probes the locationof a
defect below the surface is given directly as may be seen from Figure8.2. But in the case of
angle probes the location below the surface has to be calculated from a knowledge of the beam
path length and the probe angle.

FIG.8.2.Defectlocationwithanormalbeamprobe.

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For example in Figure 8.3, d/R = cosq, where ‘d’ is the depth of the defect below the surface,
‘q’istheprobeangleand"R"isthelength ofthesoundbeam path tothedefect.‘R’isalso
called‘range’andisreaddirectlyfromthecalibratedscreenbynotingthepositionofthe
defectecho.Thelocationofthedefectbelowthesurfacecanthenbedeterminedby calculating ‘d’.
Defect location can also be determined by producing an accurate sketch or by
calculation.Itisalsonecessarytoreportthelocationofthedefectalongthesurfaceofthe specimen with
respect to some drawn or reference point.

FIG.8.3.Defectlocationwithananglebeamprobealongwithdefectdepth.

Defectsizing

Defect sizing is generally done in terms of echo amplitudes. There are three methods
commonly used for the echo amplitude evaluation. These are reference block method, the
scanning method and the DGS diagram method.

In reference block method, the echo height in dB with respect to DAC is determined and
recorded. This is done by changing the setting of the gain controland bringing the echo height
to the level of DAC and noting down the value of the new gain controlsetting. The difference
between this new value and PRE (plus transfer loss and attenuation corrections, if any) is the
height in dB with respect to DAC. This difference has to be reported in the ultrasonic test
report.

In the DGS diagram method, the echo height in dB with respect to the recording curve is
determined by bringing the echo height to the level of recording curve using the gain control,
the value of new gain setting is noted and its difference with Grec is determined. Thedifference
in the echo height in dBwith respect to the recording curve is reported in ultrasonic test report.

8.4.2.1.6-dBdropmethod

The basic assumption in this method is that the echo height displayed, when the probe is
positioned for maximumresponse from the flaw, will fall by one half (i.e. by 6 dB and hence
thename)whentheaxisofthebeamisbroughtintolinewiththeedgeoftheflawas

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illustrated in Figure 8.4. The 6 dB method is suitable for the sizing of flaws which have sizesof
the same order or greater than that of the ultrasonic beam width but will give inaccurate results
with flaws of smaller sizes than the ultrasonic beam. It is therefore generally used to determine
flaw length but not flaw height.

The procedure to determine the dimension of a flaw parallel to the probe movement, i.e. the
flaw length, is as follows:

i) Positiontheprobetogetmaximumechofromthe flaw;
ii) Adjustthe height of the echo to some convenient scale on the CRT screen by using the
gain control of the flaw detector;

FIG.8.4.6dBdropmethod.

iii) Move the probe across the flaw in one direction until the echo height falls to one half of
the height adjusted in (ii);
iv) Markthecentreoftheprobeonthesurfaceofthetestspecimenforthisprobeposition;
v) Now move the probe in the opposite direction through the maximized echo position tothe
position when the echo height again falls to one half ofthe height adjustedin (ii);
vi) Marktheprobecentreatthispositionaswell;
vii) The distance between the two marks gives the dimension of the defect parallel to the
probe movement.
viii) If the reflectivity of the flaw varies considerably, the probe is moved until the last
significant echo peak is observed just before the echo drops off rapidly. This peak is
brought to full screenheight and then the probe is moved as in (iii). A similar procedure is
followed for the other end of the flaw.

8.4.2.2.20-dBdropmethod

This method utilizes, for the determinationof flaw size, the edge of the ultrasonicbeamwhere
theintensityfallsto10%(i.e.20dB)oftheintensityatthecentralaxisofthebeam Figure 8.5.

The detailed procedure to determine the size of the flaw with the 20 dB drop method is as
follows:

i) Positiontheprobetogetamaximumechoamplitudefromthe flaw.

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ii) Adjust the echo amplitude to some convenient scale on the CRT screen using the gain
control of the flaw detector.
iii) Move the probefirstacross the flawin onedirection until theechoamplitude fallsto 1/10th
of its original height (i.e. by 20 dB).

FIG.8.5. 20dBdropmethod.
iv) Markthepositionofthe probeindexonthesurfaceofthetestspecimenatthisposition.
v) Nowmovetheprobeintheoppositedirectionthroughthemaximizedechoposition until the
echo amplitude again falls to 1/10thof its original height.
vi) Markthepositionoftheprobe indexonthesurfaceatthisposition.
vii) Measurethedistancebetweenthetwomarkings(letitis‘P’).
viii) Determine the beam width f at the depth, d, of the flaw from the beam profile diagram
or from the equation 8.1.
ix) (vii)minus (viii) will thus give the dimension of the flaw parallel to the movement of
the ultrasonic beam, i.e. L = P - ∅.
∅=D+2(d−N)tanθ/2 (8.1)

Where,
∅ = BeamWidth
d = DefectDepth
N = NearFieldLength
D = ProbeDiameter

The 20 dB drop method gives more accurate results than the 6 dB drop method because ofthe
greater control one has on the manipulation of the ultrasonic beam. However, size estimation
using either the 6 dB or 20 dB drop method have inherent difficulties which must be
considered. The main problem is that the amplitude maydrop for reasons other than the beam
scanning past the end of the defect. Some of these reasons are:

i) The defect may taper in section giving a reduction in cross sectional area within thebeam.
If this is enough to drop the signal 20 dB or 6 dB, the defect may be reported as finished
while it, in fact, continues for an additionaldistance.
ii) The orientation of the defect may change so that the probe angle is no longer giving
maximumresponse; another probe may have to be used.

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iii) Theprobe maybe twistedinadvertently.
iv) Thesurfaceroughness maychange.

8.4.2.3.FlawLocationSlides

The School of Applied Non-Destructive Testing (SANDT) at Cambridge, UK,has developeda

flaw location slide for the location and sizing of defects in welds using the 6 dB or 20 dB drop
methods. The method is no more used in modernpractice.

DETERMINATIONOFNATUREOFDEFECTS

Response of the nature of a flaw is ascertained by a series of controlled movements of the

probe. Different types of probe movements are as shown in Figure 8.6.

FIG.8.6.Differenttypesofprobemovements;(a)Rotational,
(b)Orbital,(c)Lateral,(d)Transverse.

Ingeneral,forwelds, aflawcanbedifferentiatedasoneofthefollowingtypes.

Isolatedpore

A pore, normally being round, is a very poor reflector. Theoretically, only those rays of the
beam which hit the pore perpendicularly are reflected to the probe. All rays impacting at an
angle are dispersed. Thus, the reflected sound pressure is small as is the echo on the screen
Figure 8.7. The heightand shape of this echo does notchange when the probe is orbited around
the pore at a constant distanceeven fromthe other side of the weld seam.

FIG.8.7.Shapeof the echofromapore.

Porosity

This gives rise to a lot of tiny echoes, depending on the number and distribution of the pores
Figure8.8.Inmostcases,echofromporepocketscanbedistinguishedfromslaginclusions

181
because the former ones give much smaller echoes whereas the latter ones give high, pine
shaped echoes.

FIG.8.8.Shapeofechoesfromporosity.

Duringrotational,lateral andtransversescans, theecho risesandfalls quickly andsmoothly as the

beam scans through the discontinuity.

Slaginclusion

Theecho fromthis flaw can be as high as a crack or lack of fusion but the shape ofthe echo is
quite different. As a result of its rugged surface, which offers many small targets at different
distances, the echo rises likea pine tree fromthe zero lineof the screenFigure 8.9.

FIG.8.9. Shapeof echofromaslaginclusion.

When the probe is orbited around the flaw on both sides of the weld seam the echo height
usually will not change; only the branches of the pine tree will show a steady echo signalheight
over a significant lengthof scan while a depthscan willshow a sharp peak over a short distance.
Like pores, slag inclusions have no preferred location in the weld seam.

Planardefects

Examples of such defects are cracks andincomplete penetration. They reflect the soundenergy
totally in a particular direction. The echo height falls off drastically when the probe is orbited
around the defect or rotated about its own axis from its position of maximum echo signal
Figure 8.10. Therefore, it should be easy to distinguish a slag inclusion from a planar flaw.

Since cracks, lack of penetration and lack of side wall fusion are all planar flaws, they cannot
be differentiated from each other simply by the echo height and shape when being irradiated
fromone side of the seam. To determinethe nature of each flaw with certainty, the location of
the flaw in the weld has to be established. Since incomplete penetration and lack of side wall
fusion have preferred locations inthe weldseam, if a planar flaw is located at the center ofthe
weld in a single vee butt joint, this flaw will hardly be a lack of side wall fusion. If a planar
target is located at the edge of the bead it is probably a lack of side wall fusion. This can be
confirmed by irradiating the weld from the other side.

182
If the flaw is orientated vertically, the echo height will be nearly equal when checking from
either side. If it is inclined, the echo height will differ distinctly.

FIG.8.10.Shapeofanechofromaplanardefectw.r.t.toprobepositions1and2.

Miscellaneous

Althoughit is easyto recognizea line flaw it is oftendifficult to decidewhether such a flaw is

continuous or intermittent. If intermittent, it is even more difficult to determine the extent ofthe
gaps between various portions of the flaw chiefly because of beam spread and the consequent
overlapping of successive flaws. The echo height usually fluctuates, the extent of the rise and
fall being a function of the length of the gap. A continuous but ragged flaw has a similar effect
due to random reflection of the beam. But this can be detected by slight oscillation and
swivelling of the probe opposite the point of echo fall. There will then be several points where
the incidence of the beam is most favourable, and echo height will increase sharply. If,
however, the flaw is intermittent, the same movements will result in rapid decline of echo
height.

With practice, the study of echo response leads to a process of mental integration which
enables the UT operatorto classifyeach characteristicsequence with little conscious effort.

DGSDiagramMethod

The DGS diagram method makes use of the so-called DGS diagram, developed by
Krautkramer in 1958 by comparing the echoes from small reflectors, namely
differentdiameterflatbottomholeslocatedatvariousdistancesfrom theprobe,withtheechoof a large
reflector, a back wall reflector, also at different distances fromthe probe. The difference in the
amplitudeofechoes of the flat bottomholes and the back wallreflector is determined in decibels,
i.e. dB. This diagramrelates the distance ‘D’ from the probe (i.e. along the beam) in near field
units thus compensating for probes of different size and frequency, to the gain G in dB for a
flat bottom hole(f.b.h.) compared to a particular back wall reflector and the size S of the flat
bottomhole as a proportionof the probe crystaldiameter.

For evaluation of flaws using DGS diagrams it should be remembered that the natural flaws
such as porosity, foreign materials inclusions, cracks, etc. never have the geometry, shape or
orientation like that of the flat bottom holes. Also the echo amplitude of a particular flaw is
influenced not only by its size butalsoby itsshape andinclination with respect to the direction of
the incoming sound beam, the roughness and other probable parameters. This has given rise to
the need of defining the equivalent reflector size (ERS). This is a disc shape reflector such as a
flat bottomhole which, if lying perpendicularlyto the acousticalaxis of the sound beam, will
give the same echoheight on the screen as the unknown natural flaw. This

183
 Accept/rejectcriteriaforwelds,ASMESectionVIII (2010)
Acceptstandardsforwelds
All imperfections that produce an amplitude greater than 20% of the reference level shall be
investigated to the extent that the operator can determine the shape, identity, and location of
all such imperfections and evaluate them in terms of the acceptance standards given in (a)
and (b) below.

a) Indicationscharacterizedascracks,lackoffusionorincompletepenetration are
unacceptable regardless of length.

b) Otherimperfectionsare unacceptableiftheamplitudeexceedsthereferencelevel and the

length of the imperfection exceeds:

i) 1/4in. (6mm)fortup to 3/4 in.(19mm)

ii) 1/3t fortfrom 3/4 in. to2 ¼ in. (19mm to 57 mm)

iii) 3/4in. (19mm)fortover2 ¼ in. (57 mm)

Where,‘t’isthethicknessoftheweld,excludinganyallowablereinforcement.Fora buttweld
joining two members having different thicknesses at the weld, t is the thinner of these two
thicknesses. If a full penetration weld includes a fillet weld, the thickness of the throat of the
fillet shall be included in ‘t’.

Accept/rejectcriteriaofAPI-1104(2013)

8.6.3.1.AcceptanceStandards

General
Indicationsshallbeconsidereddefectsshouldanyofthefollowingconditionsexist:
i) Indicationsdeterminedtobecracks,
ii) Individual indications with a vertical height (through-wall) dimension determined to be
greater than one quarter of the wall thickness,
iii) Multiple indications at thesamecircumferentiallocation with a summed vertical height
(through-wall) dimension exceeding one quarter the wall thickness.
LinearSurface(LS)Indications
LSindications(otherthancracks)interpretedtobeopentotheIDorODsurfaceshallbe considered defects
should any of the following conditions exist:
i) TheaggregatelengthofLSindicationsinanycontinuous12in.(300mm)lengthof weld
exceeds 1 in. (25 mm),
ii) TheaggregatelengthofLS Indicationsexceeds8%oftheweldlength.

LinearBuried(LB)Indications
LB indications (other than cracks) interpreted to be subsurface within the weld and not ID or
OD surface connected shallbe considered defects should any of thefollowing conditionsexist:

184
i) The aggregate length of LB indications in any continuous 12 in. (300 mm) length of
weld exceeds 2 in. (50 mm),
ii) TheaggregatelengthofLBindicationsexceeds8 %oftheweldlength.
Transverse(T) Indications
T indications (other than cracks) shall be considered volumetric and evaluated using thecriteria
for volumetric indications. The letter T shall be used to designate all reportedtransverse
indications.
VolumetricCluster(VC)Indications
VC indications shall be considered defects when the maximum dimension of VC indications
exceeds 1/2 in. (13 mm).
VolumetricIndividual(VI)Indications
VI indications shall be considered defects when the maximum dimension of VI indications
exceeds 1/8 in. (3 mm).
VolumetricRoot(VR) Indications
VR indicationsinterpretedto beopento theIDsurfaceshall be considereddefectsshould any of
the following conditions exist:

i) ThemaximumdimensionofVR indicationsexceeds1/4 in.(6mm)orthespecifiedwall

thickness, whichever is less;
ii) ThetotallengthofVRindicationsexceeds1/2in.(13mm)inanycontinuous12in. (300 mm)
length.
Accumulation
Anyaccumulationofrelevant indicationsshallbeconsideredadefect whenanyofthe following
conditions exist:

i) Theaggregatelengthofindicationsaboveevaluationlevelexceeds2 in. (50 mm) in any 12

in. (300 mm) length of weld,
ii) Theaggregatelengthofindicationsaboveevaluationlevelexceeds8%oftheweld length.

BaseMaterialImperfections

Imperfectionsinthebasematerialdetectedbyultrasonictestingshallbereportedtothe company. the

dispositionof these imperfections shall be as directed bythe company.

185
ContributorsforDraftingandReviewofLevel-2
Ultrasonic Testing Training Notes

1. SHABBIRAHMED
UT-3(ISO-9712)

2. TAHIRNAZIR
UT-3(ASNT209996)

3. FAZAL-UR-REHMAN
UT-3(ASNT257152)

4. IMRANANWAR
UT-2(SNT-TC-1A)

5. LAIQ AHMAD
UT-2(ISO-9712)
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