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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

𝐔𝐧𝐢𝐭 𝐈 ∶ Single Variable Calculus

𝐑𝐨𝐥𝐥𝐞’𝐬 𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐦:
Let f(x) be a function defined in [a, b]
i) function f(x) is continuous on the closed interval [a, b]
ii) differentiable on the open interval (a, b)
iii) f(a) = f(b)
then there exists at least one point 𝑥 = 𝑐 in the
open interval (a, b) such that f′(c) = 0.
𝐆𝐞𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐜 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
There is a point c on the interval (𝑎, 𝑏) where
the tangent to the graph of the function is horizontal.

𝐋𝐚𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞’𝐬 𝐌𝐞𝐚𝐧 𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐦:

Let f(x) be a function defined in [a, b]
i) Function f(x) is continuous on a closed interval [a , b]
ii) Function f(x) differentiable on the open interval (a, b)
then there is at least one point x = c on this interval (a, b), such that
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) =
𝑏−𝑎
𝐆𝐞𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐜 𝐈𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
The chord passing through the points of the
graph corresponding to the ends of the
segment a and b has the slope equal to 𝑘=
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
tan 𝛼 =
𝑏−𝑎

Then there is a point 𝑥 = 𝑐 inside the interval [a , b] where the tangent to the
graph is parallel to the chord.

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

𝐂𝐚𝐮𝐜𝐡𝐲’𝐬 𝐌𝐞𝐚𝐧 𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐦:

Let f(x) be a function defined in [a, b]
i) Function f(x) and g(𝑥) is continuous on a closed interval [a , b]
ii) Function f(x) and g(𝑥) differentiable on the open interval (a, b)
iii) g ′ (𝑥) ≠ 0 for all value of x in (a, b)
then there is at least one point x = c on this interval (a, b), such that
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) 𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
=
g ′ (𝑐) g(𝑏) − g(𝑎)
***********
Example 1: Verify Rolle’s Mean Value theorem for 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟒 𝑖𝑛 [𝟏, 𝟒]

Solution : 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 4
𝐴𝑠 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 4 is a polynomial
Every polynomial is continuous and differentiable everywhere
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 4 is continuous in [1 , 4] and differetiable in (1, 4)
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 4
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(1) = 12 − 5(1) + 4 = 1 − 5 + 4 = 0
𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑓(4) = 42 − 5(4) + 4 = 16 − 20 + 4 = 0
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)
All condition of Rolle’s Mean Value theorem satisfied.
then their exist at least one c ∈ (1, 4) such that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 4
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 5
put 𝑥 = 𝑐
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 2𝑐 − 5
5
∴ 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0 ⇒ 2𝑐 − 5 = 0 ∴ 2𝑐 = 5 ∴ 𝑐 = = 2.5
2

∴ 𝑐 = 2.5 ∈ (1, 4) hence Lagrange’s Mean Value theorem verified.

**********

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

Example 2: Verify Rolle’s Mean Value theorem for

𝜋 5𝜋
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) 𝑖𝑛 [ , ]
4 4

Solution : 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥)

𝐴𝑠 𝑓(𝑥) is a combination of exponational and sine, cosine functions

Exponational and Sine, Cosine function are continuous and differentiable

𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) is continuous in [ , ] and differetiable in ( , )
4 4 4 4

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) =

𝜋 𝜋
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 1 1
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓 ( ) = 𝑒 4 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) = 𝑒 4 ( − )=0
4 4 4 √2 √2

5𝜋 5𝜋
5𝜋 5𝜋 5𝜋 1 1
𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑓 ( ) = 𝑒 4 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 )=𝑒4 (− − (− )) = 0
4 4 4 √2 √2

𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)

All condition of Rolle’s Mean Value theorem satisfied.

𝜋 5𝜋
then their exist at least one c ∈ ( , ) such that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0
4 4

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥)

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥) + 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥)

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥

put 𝑥 = 𝑐

𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 2𝑒 𝑐 sin 𝑐

∴ 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0 ⇒ 2𝑒 𝑐 sin 𝑐 = 0

∴ sin 𝑐 = 0 ∴ 𝑐 = sin−1 0 ∴ 𝑐 = 𝑛𝜋 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3 ….

𝑐 = 0, 𝜋, 2𝜋, 3𝜋, 4𝜋 …

𝜋 5𝜋
∴𝑐=𝜋 ∈( , ) hence Rolle’s Mean Value theorem verified.
4 4

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

Example 3: Verify Lagrange’s Mean Value theorem for

𝒇(𝒙) = (𝒙 − 𝟏)(𝒙 − 𝟐)(𝒙 − 𝟑) 𝑖𝑛 [𝟎 𝟑]

Solution : 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3)

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 − 6
𝐴𝑠 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) is a polynomial
Every polynomial is continuous and differentiable everywhere
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) is continuous in [0, 3] and differetiable in (0 3)
All condition of Lagrange’s Mean Value theorem satisfied.
𝑓(𝑏)− 𝑓(𝑎)
then their exist at least one c ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) such that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) =
𝑏−𝑎

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 − 6
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(0) = (0)3 − 6(0)2 + 11(0) − 6 = −6
𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑓(3) = (3)3 − 6(3)2 + 11(3) − 6 = 27 − 54 + 33 − 6 = 0
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 11
put 𝑥 = 𝑐
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 3𝑐 2 − 12𝑐 + 11
𝑓(𝑏)− 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) =
𝑏−𝑎
0−(−6) 6
∴ 3𝑐 2 − 12𝑐 + 11 = =
3−0 3

∴ 3𝑐 2 − 12𝑐 + 11 = 2
∴ 3𝑐 2 − 12𝑐 + 11 − 2 = 0
∴ 3𝑐 2 − 12𝑐 + 9 = 0
∴ 𝑐 2 − 4𝑐 + 3 = 0
∴ 𝑐 2 − 3𝑐 − 𝑐 + 3 = 0
∴ 𝑐(𝑐 − 3) − 1(𝑐 − 3) = 0
∴ (𝑐 − 3)(𝑐 − 1) = 0 ∴ 𝑐 = 3 ,1
∴ 𝑐 = 1 ∈ (0, 3) hence Lagrange’s Mean Value theorem verified.

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

Example 4: Verify Lagrange’s Mean Value theorem for 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙 𝑖𝑛 [𝟏, 𝒆]
Solution : 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥

𝐴𝑠 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 is a logarithmic function

Every logarithmic function is continuous and differentiable in its domain

∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 is continuous in [1, e] and differetiable in (1 e)

All condition of Lagrange’s Mean Value theorem satisfied.

𝑓(𝑏)− 𝑓(𝑎)
then their exist at least one c ∈ (1 e) such that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) =
𝑏−𝑎

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥

𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(0) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 1 = 0

𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑒 = 1

1 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = put 𝑥 = 𝑐 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) =
𝑥 𝑐

1 1−0
= ∴𝑐 = 𝑒−1
𝑐 𝑒−1

∴ 𝑐 = 𝑒 − 1 ∈ (1 e) hence Lagrange’s Mean Value theorem verified.

***********
Example 5: Verify Cauchy’s Mean value theorem theorem for

𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐠(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟒 𝑖𝑛 [𝟎 𝟐]

Solution : 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 and g(𝑥) = 𝑥 4

𝐴𝑠 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 and g(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 are a polynomials

Every polynomial is continuous and differentiable everywhere

∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 and g(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 is continuous in [0, 2] and differetiable in (0 2)

As g(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 g ′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 ≠ 0 for 𝑥 in (0, 2)

All condition of Cauchy’s Mean Value theorem satisfied.

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈
𝑓′ (𝑐) 𝑓(𝑏)− 𝑓(𝑎)
then their exist at least point c ∈ (0, 2) such that =
g′ (c) g(𝑏)− g(𝑎)

𝐴𝑠 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 and g(𝑥) = 𝑥 4

𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑓(2) = 23 = 8 and g(𝑏) = g(2) = 24 = 16

𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(0) = 0 and g(𝑎) = g(0) = 0

f ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 and g ′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥 3

Put x = c

f ′ (𝑐) = 3𝑐 2 and g ′ (𝑐) = 4𝑐 3

3𝑐 2 8− 0
=
4𝑐 3 16 − 0

3 1 6 3
= ∴ 4c = 6 ∴ c= ∴ c=
4𝑐 2 4 2

3
∴ c= ∈ (0, 2) hence Cauchy’s Mean value theorem verified.
2

***********

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐅𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝐓𝐚𝐲𝐥𝐨𝐫 ′ 𝐬 𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐦:
Statement ∶ Let 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) be a function of h which can be expanded in powers of h

and let the expansion be differentiable term by term any number of times w. r. t. h

ℎ2 ℎ3 ℎ𝑛
then 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑎) + ℎ 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) + 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) + 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑎) + … … + 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎)+ . ..
2! 3! 𝑛!

𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐟(𝐱 + 𝐡) 𝐢𝐧 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 ′𝐡′

ℎ2 ℎ3 ℎ𝑛
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑥) + ℎ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) + 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) + 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) + … … . . + 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥) + … ….
2! 3! 𝑛!

𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐟(𝐱 + 𝐡) 𝐢𝐧 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 ′𝐱′

𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥𝑛
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 𝑓(ℎ) + 𝑥 𝑓 ′ (ℎ) + 𝑓 ′′ (ℎ) + 𝑓 ′′′ (ℎ) + … … . . + 𝑓 𝑛 (ℎ) + … ….
2! 3! 𝑛!

𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟(𝐱) 𝐢𝐧 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 (𝐱 − 𝐚) = 𝟎 𝐨𝐫 𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝐚

(𝑥 – 𝑎)2 (𝑥 – 𝑎)3 (𝑥 – 𝑎)𝑛

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎) 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) + 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) + 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑎) + … + 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎) ….
2! 3! 𝑛!

********

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

Example 1: Using Taylor’s theorem express

(x − 2)4 − 3(x − 2)3 + 4(x − 2)2 + 5 in powers of x

Solution: Let f(x + h) = (x − 2)4 − 3(x − 2)3 + 4(x − 2)2 + 5

Here 𝑥 + ℎ = 𝑥 − 2 ∴ ℎ = −2

By using Taylor’s theorem, 𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐟(𝐱 + 𝐡) 𝐢𝐧 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐱

′ (ℎ)
𝑥 2 ′′ 𝑥 3 ′′′ 𝑥 4 ′𝑣
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 𝑓(ℎ) + 𝑥 𝑓 + 𝑓 (ℎ) + 𝑓 (ℎ) + 𝑓 (ℎ) + … … … …
2! 3! 4!
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
𝑓(𝑥 − 2) = 𝑓(−2) + 𝑥 𝑓 ′ (−2) + 𝑓 ′′ (−2) + 𝑓 ′′′ (−2) + 𝑓 ′𝑣 (−2) + … … (𝐴)
2! 3! 4!

∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 5

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 5 ∴ 𝑓(ℎ) = 𝑓(−2) = 61

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ′ (ℎ) = 𝑓 ′ (−2) = −84

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 12𝑥 2 − 18𝑥 + 8 ∴ 𝑓 ′′ (−2) = 𝑓 ′′ (−2) = 92

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 24𝑥 − 18 ∴ 𝑓 ′′′ (−2) = 𝑓 ′′′ (−2) = −66

𝑓 ′𝑣 (𝑥) = 24 ∴ 𝑓 ′𝑣 (−2) = 𝑓 ′𝑣 (−2) = 24

𝑓 𝑣 (𝑥) = 0 ∴ 𝑓 𝑣 (−2) = 𝑓 𝑣 (−2) = 0

Equation (A) becomes

𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
𝑓(𝑥 − 2) = 61 + 𝑥 (−84) + (92) + (−66) + (24)
2 6 24

𝑓(𝑥 − 2) = 61 − 84𝑥 + 46𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4

*********

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

Example 2: Using Taylor’s theorem express

(𝑥 + 2)4 + 3(𝑥 + 2)3 + (𝑥 + 2) + 7 in powers of x

Solution: Let 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = (𝑥 + 2)4 + 3(𝑥 + 2)3 + (𝑥 + 2) + 7

Here 𝑥 + ℎ = 𝑥 + 2 ∴ℎ=2

By using Taylor’s theorem, 𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐟(𝐱 + 𝐡) 𝐢𝐧 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐱

′ (ℎ)
𝑥 2 ′′ 𝑥 3 ′′′ 𝑥 4 ′𝑣
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 𝑓(ℎ) + 𝑥 𝑓 + 𝑓 (ℎ) + 𝑓 (ℎ) + 𝑓 (ℎ) + … … … …
2! 3! 4!
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
𝑓(𝑥 − 2) = 𝑓(2) + 𝑥 𝑓 ′ (2) + 𝑓 ′′ (2) + 𝑓 ′′′ (2) + 𝑓 ′𝑣 (2) + … … (𝐴)
2! 3! 4!

∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 + 𝑥 + 7

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 + 𝑥 + 7 ∴ 𝑓(2) = 49

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 + 1 ∴ 𝑓 ′ (2) = 69

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 12𝑥 2 + 18𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ′′ (2) = 84

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 24𝑥 + 18 ∴ 𝑓 ′′′ (2) = 66

𝑓 ′𝑣 (𝑥) = 24 ∴ 𝑓 ′𝑣 (2) = 24

𝑓 𝑣 (𝑥) = 0 ∴ 𝑓 𝑣 (2) = 0

Equation (A) becomes

𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
𝑓(𝑥 + 2) = 49 + 𝑥 (69) + (84) + (66) + (24) + 0
2 6 24

𝑓(𝑥 + 2) = 49 + 69𝑥 + 42𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4

**********

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

Example 3: Using Taylor’s theorem express

49 + 69𝑥 + 42𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 in powers of (𝑥 + 2)

Solution: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 49 + 69𝑥 + 42𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4

Here 𝑥−𝑎 =𝑥+2 ∴ −𝑎 = 2 ∴ 𝑎 = −2

By using Taylor’s theorem, 𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟(𝐱) 𝐢𝐧 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 (𝐱 − 𝐚) 𝐨𝐫 𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝐚

(𝑥 – 𝑎)2 (𝑥 – 𝑎)3 (𝑥 – 𝑎)𝑛

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎) 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) + 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) + 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑎) + … + 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎) ….
2! 3! 𝑛!

(𝑥 + 2)2 (𝑥 + 2)3 (𝑥 + 2)4

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓(−2) + (𝑥 + 2)𝑓 ′ (−2) + 𝑓 ′′ (−2) + 𝑓 ′′′ (−2) + 𝑓 ′𝑣 (−2) … . (𝐴)
2 6 24

∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = 49 + 69𝑥 + 42𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4

𝑓(𝑥) = 49 + 69𝑥 + 42𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 ∴ 𝑓(−2) = 7

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 69 + 84𝑥 + 33𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 3 ∴ 𝑓 ′ (−2) = 1

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 84 + 66𝑥 + 12𝑥 2 ∴ 𝑓 ′′ (−2) = 0

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 66 + 24𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ′′′ (−2) = 18

𝑓 ′𝑣 (𝑥) = 24 ∴ 𝑓 ′𝑣 (−2) = 24

𝑓 𝑣 (𝑥) = 0 ∴ 𝑓 𝑣 (−2) = 0

Equation (A) becomes

(𝑥 + 2)2 (𝑥+2)3 (𝑥+2)4

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 7 + (𝑥 + 2)1 + (0) + 18 + 24
2 6 24

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 7 + (𝑥 + 2) + 3(𝑥 + 2)3 + (𝑥 + 2)4

**********

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

Example 4: Using Taylor’s theorem express 𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6 in powers of (𝑥 − 3)

Solution:
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6
Here 𝑥 − 𝑎 = 𝑥 − 3 ∴𝑎=3
By using Taylor’s theorem, 𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟(𝐱) 𝐢𝐧 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 (𝐱 − 𝐚) 𝐨𝐫 𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝐚

(𝑥 – 𝑎)2 (𝑥 – 𝑎)3 (𝑥 – 𝑎)𝑛

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎) 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) + 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) + 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑎) + … + 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎) ….
2! 3! 𝑛!

(𝑥 – 3)2 (𝑥 – 3)3 (𝑥 – 3)4

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(3) + (𝑥 − 3)𝑓 ′ (3) + 𝑓 ′′ (ℎ) + 𝑓 ′′′ (3) + 𝑓 ′𝑣 (3)+.. .(A)
2! 3! 4!

∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6 ∴ 𝑓(3) = 87

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 14𝑥 + 1 ∴ 𝑓 ′ (3) = 70

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 6𝑥 + 14 ∴ 𝑓 ′′ (3) = 32

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 6 ∴ 𝑓 ′′′ (3) = 6

𝑓 ′𝑣 (𝑥) = 0 ∴ 𝑓 ′𝑣 (3) = 0

Equation (A) becomes

(𝑥 − 3)2 (𝑥 − 3)3
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 87 + (𝑥 − 3)69 + 32 + 6
2 6

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 87 + 70(𝑥 − 3) + 16(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑥 − 3)3

**********
Example 5: Using Taylor’s theorem express (𝑥 − 1)4 − 3(𝑥 − 1)3 + 4(𝑥 − 1)2 + 5 in
powers of x.
Example 6: Using Taylor’s theorem express 2(𝑥 − 2)3 + 19(𝑥 − 2)2 + 53(𝑥 − 2) + 40
in powers of x.
Example 7: Using Taylor’s theorem express 3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6 in powers of 𝑥 − 2
Example 8: Using Taylor’s theorem express 1 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 3 in powers of 𝑥 + 1

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

𝐌𝐚𝐜𝐥𝐚𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐧′ 𝐬 𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐦:
𝐒𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭: Let f(x) be a function of x which can be expanded in ascending powers
and let the expansion be differentiable term by term any number of times then

′ (0)
𝑥 2 ′′ 𝑥 3 ′′′ 𝑥𝑛 𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥 𝑓 + 𝑓 (0) + 𝑓 (0) + … … . . + 𝑓 (0) + … ….
2! 3! 𝑛!

𝐍𝐨𝐭𝐞:

1) If y = f(x) then f(0) = (y)0 , f ′ (0) = (y1 )0 , f ′′ (0) = (y2 )0 … … f n (0) = (yn )0

Maclaurin′ s Theorem stated as

x2 x3 xn
y = (y)0 + x(y1 )0 + (y2 )0 + (y3 )0 + … … . . + (yn )0 + … ….
2! 3! n!

xn n
2) The (n + 1)𝑡ℎ term of expansion f (0) is called general term.
n!

ex + e−x ex − e−x
3) cosh x = sinh x =
2 2

d
4) (cosh x) = sinh x
dx

d
5) (sinh x) = cosh x
dx

6) ∫ sinh x 𝑑𝑥 = cosh 𝑥 + c

7) ∫ cosh x 𝑑𝑥 = sinh 𝑥 + c

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

Example : Expansion of ex

Solution : 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥

by Maclaurin′ s theorem

′ (0)
𝑥 2 ′′ 𝑥 3 ′′′ 𝑥𝑛 𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥 𝑓 + 𝑓 (0) + 𝑓 (0) + ……..+ 𝑓 (0) + … ….
2! 3! 𝑛!

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓(0) = 𝑒 0 = 1

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ′ (0) = 𝑒 0 = 1

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ′′ (0) = 𝑒 0 = 1

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = 𝑒 0 = 1

𝑓 ′𝑣 (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ′𝑣 (0) = 𝑒 0 = 1

𝑓 𝑣 (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 𝑣 (0) = 𝑒 0 = 1

…………..

𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 𝑛 (0) = 𝑒 0 = 1

by Maclaurin′ s Theorem:

′ (0)
𝑥 2 ′′ 𝑥 3 ′′′ 𝑥𝑛 𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥 𝑓 + 𝑓 (0) + 𝑓 (0) + … … . . + 𝑓 (0) + … ….
2! 3! 𝑛!

𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 1 + 𝑥 (1) + 1 + 1 + … … . . + 1 + … ….
2! 3! 𝑛!

𝑥
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 = 1 + 𝑥 + + + ……..+ + … ….
2! 3! 4! 𝑛!

**********

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

Example : Expansion of e−x

Solution : 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥

by Maclaurin′ s Theorem:

′ (0)
𝑥 2 ′′ 𝑥 3 ′′′ 𝑥𝑛 𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥 𝑓 + 𝑓 (0) + 𝑓 (0) + ……..+ 𝑓 (0) + … ….
2! 3! 𝑛!

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥 ∴ 𝑓(0) = 𝑒 0 =1

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = −𝑒 −𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ′ (0) = −𝑒 0 = −1

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ′′ (0) = 𝑒 0 =1

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = −𝑒 −𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = −𝑒 0 = −1

𝑓 ′𝑣 (𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ′𝑣 (0) = 𝑒 0 =1

𝑓 𝑣 (𝑥) = −𝑒 −𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 𝑣 (0) = −𝑒 0 = −1

…………..

𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥) = (−1)𝑛 𝑒 −𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 𝑛 (0) = (−1)𝑛 𝑒 0 = (−1)𝑛

by Maclaurin′ s Theorem:

′ (0)
𝑥 2 ′′ 𝑥 3 ′′′ 𝑥𝑛 𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥 𝑓 + 𝑓 (0) + 𝑓 (0) + … … . . + 𝑓 (0) + … ….
2! 3! 𝑛!
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 1 + 𝑥 (−1) + 1+ (−1) + … … . . + (−1)𝑛 + … ….
2! 3! 𝑛!

−𝑥
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑛
𝑥𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 = 1 − 𝑥 + − + − … … . . +(−1) + … ….
2! 3! 4! 𝑛!

**********

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

Example : Expansion of sin x

Solution : 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥

by Maclaurin′ s Theorem:

′ (0)
𝑥 2 ′′ 𝑥 3 ′′′ 𝑥𝑛 𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥 𝑓 + 𝑓 (0) + 𝑓 (0) + ……..+ 𝑓 (0) + … ….
2! 3! 𝑛!

𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓(0) = sin 0 =0

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = cos 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ′ (0) = cos 0 = 1

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = − sin 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ′′ (0) = − sin 0 =0

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = − cos 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = − cos 0 = −1

𝑓 ′𝑣 (𝑥) = sin 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ′𝑣 (0) = sin 𝑥 =0

𝑓 𝑣 (𝑥) = cos 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 𝑣 (0) = cos 0 = 1

by Maclaurin′ s Theorem:

𝑥 2 ′′ 𝑥3 𝑥𝑛 𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥 𝑓 ′ (0) + 𝑓 (0) + 𝑓 ′′′ (0) + … … . . + 𝑓 (0) + … ….
2! 3! 𝑛!
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
𝑓(𝑥) = 0 + 𝑥 (1) + (0) + (−1) + (0) + (1) … ….
2! 3! 4! 5!

𝑥 3 𝑥 5 𝑥 7 𝑥 9 𝑥 11
𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − + − − … … ..
3! 5! 7! 9! 11!

***********

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

Example : Expansion of sinh x

Solution : 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓(𝑥) = sinh x

by Maclaurin′ s Theorem:

′ (0)
𝑥 2 ′′ 𝑥 3 ′′′ 𝑥𝑛 𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥 𝑓 + 𝑓 (0) + 𝑓 (0) + … … . . + 𝑓 (0) + … ….
2! 3! 𝑛!
𝑓(𝑥) = sinh x ∴ 𝑓(0) = sin 0 =0
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = cosh 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ′ (0) = cos 0 = 1
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = sinh x ∴ 𝑓 ′′ (0) = sin 0 =0
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = cosh 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = cos 0 = 1
𝑓 ′𝑣 (𝑥) = sinh x ∴ 𝑓 ′𝑣 (0) = sin 𝑥 =0
𝑓 𝑣 (𝑥) = cosh 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 𝑣 (0) = cos 0 = 1
by Maclaurin′ s Theorem:

′ (0)
𝑥 2 ′′ 𝑥 3 ′′′ 𝑥𝑛 𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥 𝑓 + 𝑓 (0) + 𝑓 (0) + … … . . + 𝑓 (0) + … ….
2! 3! 𝑛!
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
𝑓(𝑥) = 0 + 𝑥 (1) + (0) + (−1) + (0) + (1) … ….
2! 3! 4! 5!

𝑥 3 𝑥 5 𝑥 7 𝑥 9 𝑥 11
𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 + + + + + − … … ..
3! 5! 7! 9! 11!
**********
𝐒𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐝 𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬:
x2 x3 x4 x5
1) ex = 1 + x + + + + + …………
2! 3! 4! 5!

x2 x3 x4 x5
2) e−x = 1 − x + − + − + …………
2! 3! 4! 5!

x3 x5 x7 x9
3) sin x = x − + − + − …………
3! 5! 7! 9!

x3 x5 x7 x9
4) sinh x = x + + + + + …………
3! 5! 7! 9!

x2 x4 x6 x8
5) cos x = 1 − + − + − …………
2! 4! 6! 8!

x2 x4 x6 x8
6) cosh x = 1 + + + + + …………
2! 4! 6! 8!

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈
x3 2x5 17x7
7) tan x = x + + + + …………
3 15 315

x3 2x5 17x7
8) tanh x = x − + − + …………
3 15 315

x2 x3 x4 x5
9) log(1 + x) = x − + − + − …………
2 3 4 5

x2 x3 x4 x5
10) log(1 − x) = −x − − − − − …………
2 3 4 5

n(n−1)x2 n(n−1)(n−2)x3
11) (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + + + ………………
2! 3!

1
12) = (1 + x)−1 = 1 − x + x 2 − x 3 + x 4 − x 5 + … … … … …
(1+x)

1
13) = (1 − x)−1 = 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + x 4 + x 5 + … … … … …
(1−x)

1 x3 1 3 x5 1 3 5 x7
14) sin−1 x = x + + + + …………
2 3 24 5 246 7

1 x3 1 3 x5 1 3 5 x7
15) sinh−1 x = x − + − + …………
2 3 24 5 246 7

π 1 x3 1 3 x5 1 3 5 x7
16) cos −1 x = – [x + + + + …………]
2 2 3 24 5 246 7

x3 x5 x7
17) tan−1 x = x − + − + …………
3 5 7

x3 x5 x7
18) tanh−1 x = x + + + + …………
3 5 7

*********

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

Examples: Expand of ex cos x in ascending powers of x upto a term in 𝑥 4

Solution: Let f(x) = ex cos x

We know that

x
x2 x3 x4
e = 1 + x + + + + …………
2! 3! 4!
x2 x4 x6 x8
cos x = 1 − + − + − … … … …
2! 4! 6! 8!
x
x2 x3 x4 x2 x4
f(x) = e cos x = (1 + x + + + + ⋯ ) (1 − + … … … … )
2! 3! 4! 2! 4!
x2 x4 x2 x4 x2 x2 x4
ex cos x = 1 (1 − + … ) + x (1 − + …)+ (1 − 2! + 4! … ) +
2! 4! 2! 4! 2!
x3 x2 x4 x4 x2 x4
3!
(1 − 2! + 4! … ) + 4! (1 − 2! + 4! … )
x2 x4 x2 x4 x2 x2 x4
ex cos x = 1 (1 − + … ) + x (1 − + …)+ (1 − + …) +
2 24 2 24 2 2 24
x3 x2 x4 x4 x2 x4
6
(1 − 2
+
24
…)+
24
(1 − 2
+
24
…)

x x2 x4 x3 x2 x4 x3 x4
e cos x = 1 − + +x− + − + +
2 24 2 2 4 6 24
x3 x4
ex cos x = 1 + x − −
3 6
OR
Examples: Expand of 𝑒 𝑥 cos x in ascending powers of x upto a term in 𝑥 4

Solution: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 cos x

by Maclaurin′ s Theorem
𝑥 2 ′′ 𝑥3 𝑥 4 ′𝑣 𝑥𝑛 𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥 𝑓 ′ (0) + 𝑓 (0) + 𝑓 ′′′ (0) + 𝑓 (0) … … . . + 𝑓 (0) + … ….
2! 3! 4! 𝑛!
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 cos x ∴ 𝑓(0) = 𝑒 0 cos 0 =1

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 cos x − 𝑒 𝑥 sin x ∴ 𝑓 ′ (0) = 𝑒 0 cos 0 − 𝑒 0 sin 0 = 1

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 cos x − 𝑒 𝑥 sin x − 𝑒 𝑥 cos x − 𝑒 𝑥 sin x = −2𝑒 𝑥 sin x ∴ 𝑓 ′′ (0) = 0

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = −2𝑒 𝑥 sin x − 2𝑒 𝑥 cos x ∴ 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = −2

𝑓 ′𝑣 (𝑥) = −2𝑒 𝑥 sin x − 2𝑒 𝑥 cos x + 2𝑒 𝑥 sin x − 2𝑒 𝑥 cos x ∴ 𝑓 ′𝑣 (0) = −4

by Maclaurin′ s Theorem:
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥 𝑓 ′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′′ (0) + 𝑓 ′𝑣 (0) + … ….
2! 3! 4!
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
𝑓(𝑥) = 1 + 𝑥 (1) + (0) + (−2) + (−4)
2 6 24
𝑥3 𝑥4
𝑓(𝑥) = 1 + 𝑥 − −
3 6

***********
Examples : Expand √1 + sin 𝑥 in ascending powers of x upto a term in 𝑥 6

𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 ∶ 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓(𝑥) = √1 + sin 𝑥

𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = √sin2 ( ) + cos 2 ( ) + 2 sin ( ) cos ( )
2 2 2 2

𝑥 𝑥 2
𝑓(𝑥) = √(sin ( ) + cos ( )) ∵ (𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2
2 2
𝑥 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = √1 + sin 𝑥 = sin ( ) + cos ( )
2 2
We know that
x3 x5 x7 x9
sin x = x − + − + − …………
3! 5! 7! 9!
x2 x4 x6 x8
cos x = 1 − + − + − …………
2! 4! 6! 8!
x
Put x = in above expansion
2
x x 1 x 3 1 x 5
sin ( ) = − ( ) + ( ) − … … … …
2 2 3! 2 5! 2
x 1 x 2 1 x 4
cos ( ) = 1 − ( ) + ( ) − … … … …
2 2! 2 4! 2
𝑥 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = √1 + sin 𝑥 = sin ( ) + cos ( )
2 2
x 1 x 3 1 x 5 1 x 2 1 x 4 1 x 6
𝑓(𝑥) = − ( ) + ( ) − … … … + 1 − ( ) + ( ) − ( ) … …
2 3! 2 5! 2 2! 2 4! 2 6! 2
3 5 2 4
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x6
𝑓(𝑥) = − ∗ + ∗ − ……… + 1 − ∗ + ∗ − ∗ ……
2 6 8 120 32 2 4 24 16 720 64
x x2 x3 x4 x5 x6
𝑓(𝑥) = 1 + − − + + −
2 8 48 384 3840 46080

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

Type: Expansions of functions by using substitution:-

2𝑥
Ex.1 – Expand sin−1 ( ) in ascending powers of x
1 + 𝑥2

Solution:
2x
Let f(x) = sin−1 ( )
1 + x2

Put x = tanθ (∴ θ = tan−1 x)

2 tan θ
∴ f(x) = sin−1 ( )
1 + tan2 θ

= sin−1 (sin 2θ)

=2θ
=2(tan−1 x) (If x = tanθ then θ = tan−1 x)
x3 x5 x7
We know that tan−1 x = x − + − + …………
3 5 7
2x x3 x5 x7
∴ sin−1 ( ) =2 [ x − + − + … … … …]
1+x2 3 5 7

*********
1 1 x3 1 3 x5
Ex.2- Prove that sec −1 [ 2
] = 2 [x + + …..]
1−2𝑥 2 3 24 5

Solution:
1
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = sec −1 [ ]
1 − 2𝑥 2

Put 𝑥 = sin 𝜃 (∴ 𝜃 = sin−1 𝑥)

1
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = sec −1 [ ]
1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
1
=sec −1 [ ]
cos 2𝜃

= sec −1 [sec 2𝜃]

=2𝜃 (𝐼𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜃 = sin−1 𝑥)
=2 sin−1 𝑥
1 1 x3 1 3 x5
sec −1 [ 2
] = 2 [x + + … . . ] Hence Proved.
1−2𝑥 2 3 24 5

**********

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

Ex.3 – Expand cos −1 (4𝑥 3 − 3𝑥) in ascending powers of x .

Solution:
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = cos −1 (4𝑥 3 − 3𝑥)
Put 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑓(𝑥) = cos −1 (4𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 − 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
= cos −1 (𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃)
=3𝜃
= 3 cos −1 𝑥 (𝐼𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜃 = cos −1 𝑥 )
π 1 x3 1 3 x5 1 3 5 x7
= 3 [ – (x + + + + … … … … )]
2 2 3 24 5 246 7
π 1 x3 1 3 x5 1 3 5 x7
=3 – 3 [x + + + + …………]
2 2 3 24 5 246 7

**********
3𝑥 − 𝑥 3 𝜋 x3 x5 x7
Ex.4- Prove that cot −1 ( ) = 2 − 3 (x − + − + …………)
1 − 3𝑥 2 3 5 7

x3 3x5
Ex.5- Prove that sin−1 (3𝑥 − 4𝑥 3 ) = 3 (x + + + …………)
6 40

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

𝐈𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐬
𝐃𝐞𝐟𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: Let f(x) and g(x) be any two function of x such that f(a) = 0 and g(a) = 0
f(x) 0
then the ratio is said to be the indeterminate form at x = a
g(x) 0
0 ∞
There are several Indeterminate Forms , , 0 × ∞, ∞ − ∞, 00 , ∞0 , 1∞
0 ∞

𝐓𝐫𝐮𝐞 𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 (𝐋𝐢𝐦𝐢𝐭):

The limiting value of an indeterminate form is called its true value.
𝟎
𝐓𝐲𝐩𝐞 𝐈 ∶ 𝐈𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐦 (𝐋′ 𝐇𝐨𝐬𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐑𝐮𝐥𝐞)
𝟎
Let f(x) and g(x) be any two function of x such that f(a) = 0 and g(a) = 0
f(x) f ′ (x)
If lim f(x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0 then lim = lim ′
x→a x→a x → a g(x) x → a g (x)

∞
𝐓𝐲𝐩𝐞 𝐈𝐈 ∶ 𝐈𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐦
∞
f(x) ∞ 0
If lim f(x) = ∞ and lim g(x) = ∞ then lim in form then reduces to by
x→a x→a x→a g(x) ∞ 0
f(x) 1/f(x)
= and L′ Hospital Rule is applicable.
g(x) 1/g(x)

′
∞ f(x) f ′ (x)
L Hospital Rule is applied to the form Thus lim = lim ′
∞ x → a g(x) x → a g (x)

𝐓𝐲𝐩𝐞 𝐈𝐈𝐈 ∶ 𝐈𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐦 𝟎 × ∞

If lim f(x) = 0 and lim g(x) = ∞ then lim f(x) ∙ g(x) takes 0 × ∞
x→a x→a x→a
f(x) g(x) 0 ∞
f(x) ∙ g(x) = 1 or 1 and the limit reduces to either form or form
0 ∞
g(x) f(x)

and L′ Hospital Rule is applicable.

𝐓𝐲𝐩𝐞 𝐈𝐕 ∶ 𝐈𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐦 ∞ − ∞

If lim f(x) = ∞ and lim g(x) = ∞ then lim [f(x) − g(x)] takes ∞ − ∞
x→a x→a x→a
0 ∞
simplify the expression f(x) − g(x) and the limit reduces to either form or form
0 ∞

and L′ Hospital Rule is applicable.

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

𝐍𝐨𝐭𝐞:
𝐟𝟏 (𝐱) 𝐠 𝟏 (𝐱) 𝐟𝟏 (𝐱)𝐠 𝟐 (𝐱) − 𝐠 𝟏 (𝐱)𝐟𝟐 (𝐱) 0
1) If 𝐥𝐢𝐦 − in ∞ − ∞ form then 𝐥𝐢𝐦 is in
𝐱 → 𝐚 𝐟𝟐 (𝐱) 𝐠 𝟐 (𝐱) 𝐱→𝐚 𝐟𝟐 (𝐱)𝐠 𝟐 (𝐱) 0
2) If f ′ (x), f ′′ (x) … … f n−1 (x) and g ′ (x), g ′′ (x) … … g n−1 (x) all are zero,
f(x) fn (x)
But f n (x)and g n (x)are not both zero then lim = lim
x → a g(x) x → a gn (x)

3) Use of L′ Hospital Rule ∶ Differentiate numerator and denominator separately and

then put x = a. If this reduces to indeterminate form then apply the rule again.
4) If logrithmic term is present in 0 ∗ ∞ form then keep logritmic term in numerator

𝐓𝐲𝐩𝐞 𝐕 ∶ 𝐈𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐦 𝟎𝟎 , ∞𝟎 , 𝟏∞

1) If lim f(x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0 then lim {f(x)}g(x) takes 00
x→a x→a x→a

2) If lim f(x) = ∞ and lim g(x) = 0 then lim {f(x)}g(x) takes ∞0

x→a x→a x→a

3) If lim f(x) = 1 and lim g(x) = ∞ then lim {f(x)}g(x) takes 10

x→a x→a x→a

If the true value of limit is denoted by L

Then L = lim {f(x)}g(x)
x→a

Taking Log on both sides

log L = log lim {f(x)}g(x)

x→a

log L = lim g(x) log f(x)

x→a

limit can be determined by 0 × ∞ form, true value is b

log L = b

L = eb

𝐍𝐨𝐭𝐞: e∞ = ∞ e−∞ = 0

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

𝐒𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐝 𝐋𝐢𝐦𝐢𝐭𝐬:
sin x tan x
1) lim =1 3) lim =1 6) lim (1 + x)1/x = e
x→0 x x→0 x x→0

sin−1 x tan−1 x 1 x
2) lim =1 4) lim =1 7) lim (1 + ) = e
x→0 x x→0 x x →∞ x
sinh x ex − 1 x
a −1
3) lim =1 5) lim =1 8) lim = log a
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x
**********

𝐱𝐞𝐱 − 𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝟏 + 𝐱)
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝟏) 𝐄𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝐱→𝟎 𝐱𝟐
xex − log(1 + x)
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐨𝐢𝐧: Let L = lim … … … … (1)
x→0 x2
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
(0)e0 − log(1 + 0) 0(1) − log 1 0−0 0 0
L = = = = ∴ form
02 0 0 0 0
1
xex + ex −
(1 + x)
From (1) L = lim … … … … (2)
x→0 2
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
1 1
(0)e0 + e0 − 0(1) + 1 −
L = 1+0 = 1−0 = 0 ∴
0
form
2(0) 2(0) 0 0
−1
xex + ex + ex −
(1 + x)2
From (2) L = lim
x→0 2
1
xex + ex + ex +
(1 + x)2
L = lim … … … … (3)
x→0 2
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
1
(0)e0 + e0 + e0 +
(1 + 0)2
L =
2
0+1+1+1 3
L= =
2 2
"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 (𝛑𝐱)
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝟐) 𝐄𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟐𝐱
𝐱 → 𝐞 − 𝟐𝐱𝐞
𝟏
𝟐

cos 2 πx
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐨𝐢𝐧: Let L = lim 2x … … … … (1)
x → e − 2xe
1
2
𝟏 𝟏
𝐱 → 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 =
𝟐 𝟐
cos 2 π(1/2) 0 0
L = 2(1/2) = =
e − 2(1/2)e e−e 0
2 cos πx (− sin πx) π
From (1) L = lim ∵ sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x
x→
1 2e2x − 2e
2

− π sin(2πx)
L = lim … … … … (2)
x→
1 2e2x − 2e
2
𝟏 𝟏
𝐱 → 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 =
𝟐 𝟐
− π sin(2π/2) − π(0 ) 0
L = = =
2e2(1/2) − 2e 2e − 2e 0
– π cos(2πx) (2π)
L = lim 2x − 0
… … … … (3)
x→
1 4e
2
𝟏 𝟏
𝐱 → 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 =
𝟐 𝟐
– 2π2 cos(2π/2)
L =
4e2(1/2)
– 2π2 (−1)
L =
4e
2π2 π2
L = =
4e 2e
**********

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝐱
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝟑) 𝐄𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝐱→𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐱
log sin 2x
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐨𝐢𝐧: Let L = lim … … … … (1)
x→0 log sin x
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
log sin 2(0) log 0 ∞
L = = = from
log sin (0) log 0 ∞
1
cos 2x (2) d 1
From (1) L = lim sin 2x ∵ log x =
x→0 1 dx x
cos x
sin x
2 cot 2x cos x 1
L = lim ∵ = cot x = tan 𝑥
x → 0 cot x sin x cot x
2
2 tan x
L = lim tan 2x = lim … … … (2)
x→0 1 x → 0 tan 2x
tan x
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
2 tan 0 0
L = = from
tan 20 0
2 sec 2 x 2 sec 2 0 1
L = lim = = =1
x → 0 sec 2 2x (2) 2 sec 2 2(0) 1
OR

𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝐱
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝟑) 𝐄𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝐱→𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐱
log sin 2x
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐨𝐢𝐧: Let L = lim … … … … (1)
x→0 log sin x
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
log sin 2(0) log 0 ∞
L = = form
log sin (0) log 0 ∞
1
cos 2x (2)
L = lim sin 2x
x→0 1
cos x
sin x

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

2 cos 2x sin x
L = lim
x → 0 sin 2x cos x

2 cos 2x sin x
L = lim ∵ sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x
x → 0 2 sin x cos x cos x

cos 2x
L = lim ∵ cos 2x = cos 2 x − sin2 x
x → 0 cos 2 x

cos 2 x − sin2 x
L = lim
x→0 cos 2 x
cos 2 x sin2 x
L = lim −
x → 0 cos 2 x cos 2 x
L = lim 1 − tan2 𝑥
x→0

𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
L = 1 − tan2 0 L=1−0=1
∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∗

𝐞𝐱 − 𝟏 − 𝐱
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝟒) 𝐄𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 (𝟏 + 𝐱) − 𝐱

ex − 1 − x
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐨𝐢𝐧: Let L = lim … … … … (1)
x → 0 log (1 + x) − x

𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
e0 − 1 − 0 1−1 0
L = = form
log (1 + 0) − 0 log (1) 0
ex − 0 − 1
From (1) L = lim … … … … (2)
x→0 1
−1
1+x
e0 − 0 − 1 0
L= form
1 0
−1
1+0
ex
From (2) L = lim … … … … (3)
x→0 −1
(1 + x)2
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
e0
L= −1 = −1
(1+0)2

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

𝐱 (𝟏 + 𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐱) − 𝐛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐱
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝟓) 𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐚 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐛 𝐢𝐟 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟏
𝐱→𝟎 𝐱𝟑
x(1 + acos x) − bsin x
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐨𝐢𝐧: Let L = lim … … … … (1)
x→0 x3
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
(0)(1 + a cos 0) − b sin 0 0
L = 3
= form
0 0
x (0 − a sin x) + (1 + a cos x) − bcos x
From (1) L = lim
x→0 3x 2
−a x sin x + 1 + a cos x − bcos x
L = lim … … … … (2)
x→0 3x 2
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
0 (0 − a sin 0) + (1 + a cos 0) − b cos 0 (1 + a ) − b
L = = =∞
3(0)2 0
(1 + a ) − b
but limit is finite i. e. 1 1≠ =∞
0
0 (1 + a ) − b 0
∴ For Finite limit it should be from = from
0 0 0
∴ (1 + a ) − b = 0 ∴ a − b = −1 … … … (A)
– a x cos x − a sin x + 0 − a sin x + b sin x
From (2) L = lim … … … … (3)
x→0 6x
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
– a (0) cos (0) − a sin(0) − a sin (0) + b sin(0) 0
L = =
6(0) 0
a x sin x – a cos x − a cos x − a cos x + b cos x
From (3) L = lim … … … … (4)
x→0 6
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
a(0) sin(0) – a cos (0) − a cos(0) − a cos (0) + b cos(0)
L =
6
0 –a− a− a + b
L =
6
– 3a + b
L = but limit value L = 1 is given
6

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

– 3a + b
but limit is finite 1 ∴1 =
6
∴ – 3a + b = 6 … … … (B)
∴ a − b = −1 … … … (A)
Solving (A) and (B) a − b = −1 – 3a + b = 6
5
Add (A) and (B) −2a=5 ∴ a=−
2
5 5 3
Put a = − in (A) ∴ − −b=1 ∴b=−
2 2 2
5 3
∴a=− 𝑏=−
2 2
**********

𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝟔) 𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐚 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐛 𝐢𝐟 𝐥𝐢𝐦 [𝐱 −𝟑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐱 + 𝐚𝐱 −𝟐 + 𝐛] = 𝟎

𝐱→𝟎

𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐨𝐢𝐧: Let L = lim [x −3 sin x + ax −2 + b]

x→0
sin x a
L = lim [ 3 + 2 + b]
x→0 𝑥 𝑥
sin x + ax + bx 3
L = lim [ ] … … … . (1)
x→0 𝑥3
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
sin (0) + a(0) + b(0)3 0
L= = form
(0)3 0
cos x + a + 3x 2 b
From (1) L = lim [ ] … … … . (2)
x→0 3𝑥 2
cos (0) + a + 3x(0)2 b 1+a
L= = =∞
3(0)2 0
but limit is finite L = 0
0 1+a 0
∴ For Finite limit it should be ∴ =
0 0 0
∴ 1+a=0 ∴ a = −1

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

−sin x + 6xb
From (2) L = lim [ ] … … … . (3)
x→0 6𝑥
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
−sin (0) + 6(0)b 0
L= form
6(0) 0
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
−cos x + 6b
From (3) L = lim [ ] … … … . (4)
x→0 6
−cos (0) + 6b
𝐿=
6
−1 + 6b
𝐿=
6
−1 + 6b
but limit is finite 0 ∴ =0
6
1
∴ −1 + 6b = 0 𝑏=
6
1
∴ a = −1 𝑏=
6
**********
a cos x − a + bx 2 1
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝟕) Find a and b if lim =
x→0 x4 12
a cos x − a + bx 2
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐨𝐢𝐧: Let L = lim … … … . (1)
x→0 x4
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
a cos (0) − a + b(0)2 a −a 0
L= = form
(0)4 0 0
−a sin x + 2xb
From (1) L = lim … … … . (2)
x→0 4x 3
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
−a sin (0) + 2(0)b 0
L= form
4(0)3 0
– a cos x + 2b
From (2) L = lim [ ] … … … . (3)
x→0 12𝑥 2

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
– a cos(0) + 2b −a + 2b 1
L= = ≠
12(0)2 0 12
1
but limit is finite
12
0
∴ For Finite limit it should be
0
∴ −a + 2b = 0 … … … . (A)
a sin x
From (3) L = lim [ ] … … … . (3)
x→0 24𝑥
a sin x
L= lim [ ]
24 x → 0 𝑥
1 a
= (1)
12 24
𝑎=2
∴ −a + 2b = 0 ∴ −2 + 2b = 0 𝑏=1
𝑎 = 2 and 𝑏 = 1
********
a sin2 x + b log cos x 1
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝟖) Find a and b if lim = −
x→0 x4 2
sin 2x + p sin x
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝟗) If lim is finite then find the value of p
x→0 x3

and hence find the value of limit

**************

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝟏𝟎) 𝐄𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐱 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐱

𝐱→𝟎

𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: Let L = lim sin x log x … … … … (1)

x→0

𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
L = sin 0 log 0 𝟎 × ∞ 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦
log x log x
L = lim = lim … … … … . (2)
x→0 1 x → 0 cosec x
sin 𝑥
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
log 0 ∞
L= 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦
cosec 0 ∞
1/x
From (2) L = lim
x → 0 −cosec x cotx

sinx tan x
L = lim
x→0 −x
sinx tan x 𝟎
L = lim 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 … … … … … . (𝟑)
x→0 −x 𝟎
sin x sec 2 x + tan x cos x
From (3) L = lim … … … … … (4)
x→0 −1
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
sin(0) sec 2 (0) + tan(0) cos(0)
L=
−1
L= 0
**********

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝟏𝟏) 𝐄𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟏 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐱)𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝐱

𝐱 → 𝛑/𝟐

𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: Let L = lim (1 − sin x) tan x … … … … (1)

x → π/2

𝐱 → 𝛑/𝟐 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝛑/𝟐

L = (1 − sin π/2)tan π/2 0 × ∞ form
(1 − sin x) (1 − sin x)
From (1) L = lim = lim … … … . . (2)
𝐱 → 𝛑/𝟐 1 𝐱 → 𝛑/𝟐 cot x
tan x
𝐱 → 𝛑/𝟐 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝛑/𝟐
(1 − sin π/2) 0
L= form
cot π/2 0
– cos x
From (2) L = lim
𝐱 → 𝛑/𝟐 −cosec 2 x

𝐱 → 𝛑/𝟐 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝛑/𝟐

– cos π/2
L=
−cosec 2 π/2
0
L=
12
L= 0
*****************
𝛑 𝛑
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝟏𝟐) 𝐄𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐥𝐢𝐦 [ − ]
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝟒𝐱 𝟐𝐱(𝐞𝛑𝐱 + 𝟏)
π π
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 ∶ Let L = lim [ − ] … … … … (1)
x → 0 4x 2x(eπx + 1)
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
π π
L= − ∞ − ∞ form
4(0) 2(0)(eπ0 + 1)
2xπ(eπx + 1) − 4xπ
From (1) L = lim [ ]
x→0 8x 2 (eπx + 1)
π(eπx + 1) − 2π
L = lim [ ]
x→0 4x(eπx + 1)

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

πeπx + π − 2π
L = lim [ ]
x→0 4x(eπx + 1)
πeπx − π
L = lim [ ] … … … . . (2)
x→0 4x(eπx + 1)
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
πe0x − π π −π 𝟎
L= = 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦
4(0)(eπ0 + 1) 0 𝟎
π2 eπx
From (2) L = lim [ ]
x→0 4x(πeπx + 0) + 4(πeπx + 1)
π2 eπ0
L=
4(0)(πe0 + 0) + 4(e0 + 1)
π2
L=
4(1 + 1)
π2
L=
8
*******************

𝟏 𝟏
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝟏𝟑) 𝐄𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐥𝐢𝐦 [ − 𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 (𝟏 + 𝐱)]
𝐱→𝟎 𝐱 𝐱
Solution:
1 1
Let L = lim [ − 2 log (1 + x)] … … … … (1)
x→0 x x
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
1 1 0
L= − log(1 + 0) ∞ − form
0 0 0
x 1
From (1) L = lim [ 2 − 2 log (1 + x) ]
x→0 x x
x ∗ x 2 − x 2 log(1 + x)
L = lim [ ]
x→0 x2x2
x 2 (x − log(1 + x))
L = lim [ ]
x→0 x2x2
x − log(1 + x) 0
L = lim [ ] form … … … … (1)
x→0 x2 0

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

1
1−
From (1) L = lim [ 1+x] … … … (2)
x→0 2x

𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
1
1− 𝟎
L= 1+0 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦
2(0) 𝟎
−1
0−
(1 + x)2
From (2) L = lim [ ]
x→0 2

𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
1
(1 + 0)2
L =
2
1
L=
2
********************
𝟏 𝟐
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝟏𝟒) 𝐄𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐥𝐢𝐦 [ − 𝟐 ]
𝐱→𝟏 𝐱 − 𝟏 𝐱 −𝟏
1 2
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 ∶ Let L = lim [ − 2 ] … … … … (1)
x→1 x − 1 x −1
𝐱 → 𝟏 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟏
1 2 1 2
L= − 2 = − ∞ − ∞ 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦
1−1 1 −1 0 0
(x 2 − 1) − 2(x − 1)
From (1) L = lim [ ]
x→0 (x − 1)(x 2 − 1)
(x − 1)(x + 1) − 2(x − 1)
L = lim [ ]
x→0 (x − 1)(x 2 − 1)
(x + 1) − 2
L = lim [ ]
x→0 (x 2 − 1)
x−1
L = lim [ 2 ]
x→0 (x − 1)

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

x−1
L = lim [ ]
x→0 (x − 1)(x + 1)
1
L = lim [ ]
x→0 (x + 1)
𝐱 → 𝟏 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟏
1
L=
1+1
1
L=
2
***********

𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝟏𝟓) 𝐄𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐥𝐢𝐦 {𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐱}𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝐱

𝐱→𝟎

𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: Let L= lim {sin x}tan x … … … … (1)

x→0

𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
L = {sin 0}tan 0 𝟎𝟎 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦
Taking log on both sides
log L = log lim {sin x}tan x
x→0

log L = lim log{sin x}tan x ∵ log an = n ∗ log a

x→0

log L = lim tan x log sin x … … … … (2)

x→0

𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
log L = tan 0 log sin 0 = tan 0 log 0 𝟎 × ∞ 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦
log sin x
From (2) log L = lim
x→0 1/ tan x
log sin x 1
log L = lim ∴ = cot 𝑥 … … … … (3)
x→0 cot x tan x
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
log sin 0 ∞
log L = 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦
cot 0 ∞
1 d cos x
( ) sin x
From (3) log L = lim sin x dx2 = sin x 2
x→0 −cosec x −cosce x

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈
cot x ∞
log L = lim 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 … … … . (𝟒)
x→0 −cosec 2 x ∞
−cosec 2 x d
From (4) log L = lim ∵ x n = nx n−1 (x)
x → 0 −2cosec 1 x cosec x cot x dx
1 1
log L = lim = lim tan x
x → 0 2 cot x x→0 2

𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
1
log L = tan 0
2
log L = 0
elog L = e0 L = e0 = 1
******************

𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝟏𝟔) 𝐄𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐥𝐢𝐦 {𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝐱}𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐱

𝐱→𝟎

𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: Let L= lim {cot x}sin x

x→0

𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
L= lim {cot 0}sin 0 ∞𝟎 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 … … … … (1)
x→0

Taking log on both sides

log L = log lim {cot x}sin x
x→0

log L = lim log {cot x}sin x

x→0

log L = lim sin x log cot x … … … … (2)

x→0

𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
log L = sin 0 log cot 0 𝟎 × ∞ 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦
log cot x
From (2) log L = lim
x→0 1/ sin x
log cot x 1
log L = lim ∵ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 … … … … (3)
x→0 cosec x sin x
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
log cot 0 ∞
log L = 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦
cosec 0 ∞

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

– cosec 2 x / cot x
From (3) log L = lim
x→0 −cosec x cot x
cosec x ∞
log L = lim 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 … … … . (𝟒)
x → 0 cot 2 x ∞
tan2 x 𝟎
From (4) log L = lim taking reciprocal 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦
x → 0 sin x 𝟎
2 tan x sec 2 𝑥 𝐝
log L = lim ∵ 𝐱 𝐧 = 𝐧𝐱 𝐧−𝟏 (𝐱)
x→0 cos x 𝐝𝐱
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
2 tan 0 sec 2 0 0
log L = =
cos 0 1
log L = 0
L = e0 = 1
*************

𝐚𝐱 + 𝐛𝐱 𝟏/𝐱
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝟏𝟕) 𝐄𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐥𝐢𝐦 [ ]
𝐱→𝟎 𝟐
ax + bx 1/x
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: Let L = lim [ ]
x→0 2
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
1/0
a0 + b0 1+1 ∞
L= [ ] =[ ] 𝟏∞ 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 … … … … (1)
2 2
Taking log on both sides
ax + bx 1/x
log L = log lim [ ]
x→0 2
ax + bx 1/x
log L = lim log [ ]
x→0 2
ax + bx
log [
2 ]
log L = lim ∵ log an = n log a … … (2)
x→0 x
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
a0 + b0 𝟎
log L = log [ ] /0 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦
2 𝟎

1 (ax log a + bx log b)

From (2) log L = lim [ x ] /1
x→0 a + bx 2
2

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

2 (ax log a + bx log b)

log L = lim x
x → 0 a + bx 2
ax log a + bx log b
log L = lim
x→0 ax + b x
𝐱 → 𝟎 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐱 = 𝟎
a0 log a + b0 log b
log L =
a0 + b 0
log a + log b
log L =
1+1
log(a b)
log L = ∵ 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐚 + 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐛 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐚𝐛
2
1
log L = log ab
2
1
log L = log(ab)2
1
L = (ab)2
************

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

𝐅𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝐒𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬
𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐨𝐝𝐢𝐜 𝐅𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬:
For every real f(𝑥) and there exists some positive number 𝑇 such that
𝐹(𝑥 + 𝑛𝑇) = 𝐹(𝑥) is callled Periodic Function.
𝑇 is called permitive period or fundamental period of 𝑓(𝑥)
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞: The fundamental period of 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 , 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 is 2𝜋
and 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥, 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 is 𝜋

𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧 𝐅𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: Function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is defined in − 𝑙 < 𝑥 < 𝑙 is said to be even if

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓(−𝑥) Example: 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 , 𝑥 2

𝐎𝐝𝐝 𝐅𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: Function 𝑓(𝑥 ) is defined in − 𝑙 < 𝑥 < 𝑙 is said to be odd if

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = −𝑓 (−𝑥 ) Example: 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 , 𝑥 3 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
𝐍𝐨𝐭𝐞:
1) If 𝑓(𝑥 ) is even, the values of 𝑦 for − 𝑥 and 𝑥 are same, therefore graph of y = 𝑓 (𝑥 )
is symmetric about 𝑥 − axis. 2) If 𝑓(𝑥 ) is odd, the values of 𝑦 for −
𝑥 and 𝑥 differ by sign only therefore graph
of y = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is symmetric about origin(opposite quadrants).
a a
3) If 𝑓(𝑥 ) is Even function of 𝑥, ∫−a 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫0 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥

a
4) If 𝑓(𝑥 ) is Odd function of 𝑥, ∫−a 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 0

5) Any function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) can be expressed as sum of even and odd functions

𝑓(𝑥)+ 𝑓(−𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(−𝑥)

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = [ ]+[ ]
2 2

6) + ×
Sr. No 𝑓 (𝑥 ) g(𝑥 ) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) g(𝑥 ) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) g(𝑥 )
− ÷
1) Even Even Even Even
2) Odd Odd Odd Even
3) Even Odd Neither Odd nor Even Odd
4) Odd Even Neither Odd nor Even Odd
"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

Formula:
𝑑𝑢
1) ∫ 𝑢𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢 ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ [ ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
1
2) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
2
∫[cos(1 − 𝑛)𝑥 − cos(1 + 𝑛) 𝑥 ] 𝑑𝑥
1
3) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
2
∫[cos(1 + 𝑛)𝑥 + cos(1 − 𝑛) 𝑥 ] 𝑑𝑥
1
4) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
2
∫[sin(1 + 𝑛)𝑥 + sin(1 − 𝑛) 𝑥 ] 𝑑𝑥
1
5) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
2
∫[sin(1 + 𝑛)𝑥 + sin(1 − 𝑛) 𝑥 ] 𝑑𝑥

6) cos 𝑛𝜋 = (−1)𝑛 cos 2𝑛𝜋 = 1

7) sin 𝑛𝜋 = 0 sin 2𝑛𝜋 = 0
𝑒 𝑎𝑥
8) ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 sin 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 2 [𝑎 sin 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑏 cos 𝑏𝑥 ]
𝑎 +𝑏
𝑒 𝑎𝑥
9) ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 cos 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 2 [𝑎 cos 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑏 sin 𝑏𝑥 ]
𝑎 +𝑏
10) ∫ 𝑢𝑣𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣1 − 𝑢′ 𝑣2 + 𝑢′′ 𝑣3 − 𝑢′′′ 𝑣4 + 𝑢′′′′ 𝑣5 − 𝑢′′′′′ 𝑣6 + … … … ..

where dashes(′ ′′ ′′′ ′′′′ … )indicate derivitives and suffixes (1,2,3. . )indicates integrals

𝐃𝐢𝐫𝐜𝐡𝐥𝐞𝐭 ′ 𝐬 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:

Let 𝑓(𝑥 ) be function defined in 𝐶 < 𝑥 < 𝐶 + 2𝐿 such that

C+2L
i) 𝑓(𝑥 )is defined and single valued in the given interval also ∫C 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 exits
ii) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) may have finite number of finite discontinuities in the interval.
iii) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) may have finite number of maxima or minima in the given interval.

𝐅𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝐒𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 ∶
Let 𝑓(𝑥 ) be periodic function of period 2𝐿 defined in the interval 𝐶 < 𝑥 < 𝐶 + 2𝐿 and
satisfies Dirchlet ′ s Conditions then 𝑓(𝑥 ) can be expressed as
𝑎0 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 cos ( ) + 𝑏𝑛 sin ( )
2 𝐿 𝐿
where a0 , an , bn are called Fourier constants or Fourier coeficients and given by
1 C+2L
𝑎0 = ∫C 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝐿
1 C+2L 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑎𝑛 = ∫C 𝑓 (𝑥 ) cos ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 𝐿
1 C+2L 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑏𝑛 = ∫C 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 𝐿

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

𝐅𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝐒𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐅𝐨𝐫 𝐝𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐥

𝐅𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝐒𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐥 (𝟎, 𝟐𝐋) 𝐅𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝐒𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐥 (𝟎, 𝟐𝛑)
∞ ∞
𝑎0 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑎0
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + ∑ [𝑎𝑛 cos ( ) + 𝑏𝑛 sin ( )] 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + ∑ [𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥 ]
2 𝐿 𝐿 2
𝑛=1 𝑛=1

1 2π
1 2L 𝑎0 = ∫0 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 π
𝐿 0
1 2π
1 2L 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑎𝑛 = ∫0 𝑓 (𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) cos ( ) 𝑑𝑥 π
𝐿 0 𝐿
1 2π
1 2L 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑏𝑛 = ∫0 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑏𝑛 = ∫0
𝑓(𝑥 ) sin ( ) 𝑑𝑥 π
𝐿 𝐿

𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆: 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 −𝑥 ; 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑥 + 2𝜋) = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: The Fourier series of 𝑓(𝑥 ) in 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋 is given by
∞
𝑎0
𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑ [𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥]
2
𝑛=1

𝟏 𝟐𝛑 𝟏 𝟐𝛑 𝟏 𝟐𝛑
𝐚𝟎 = ∫𝟎 𝐟(𝐱)𝐝𝐱 𝐚𝐧 = ∫𝟎 𝐟(𝐱) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐧𝐱 𝐝𝐱 𝐛𝐧 = ∫𝟎 𝐟(𝐱) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐧𝐱 𝐝𝐱
𝛑 𝛑 𝛑

𝟏 𝟐𝝅
𝒂𝟎 = ∫𝟎 𝒆−𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝝅

1 1 1 1
= (−e−x )2π
0 = [−e−2π − (−e0 )] = [−e−2π + 1] = [1 − e−2π]
π π π π

𝟏 𝟐𝝅
𝒂𝒏 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝝅

1 2𝜋 𝒆𝒂𝒙
𝑎𝑛 = ∫0 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ∵ ∫ 𝒆𝒂𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒃𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = [𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒃 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒃𝒙]
𝜋 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐

𝒂 = −𝟏 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝒃 = 𝒏

1 𝑒 −𝑥 2𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = [ 2
(− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥)]
𝜋 1+𝑛 0

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈
1 𝑒 −2𝜋 𝑒0
𝑎𝑛 = {[ 2
(− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑛𝜋 + 𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑛𝜋)] − [ (− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 + 𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 0)]}
𝜋 1+𝑛 1+ 𝑛2

1 𝑒 −2𝜋 1
𝑎𝑛 = {[ (−1 + 0)] − [ (−1 + 0)]} ∵ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒏𝝅 = 𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒏𝝅 = 𝟎
𝜋 1+𝑛2 1+𝑛2

1 −𝑒 −2π −1 −𝑒 −2π + 1 1 − 𝑒 −2π

𝑎𝑛 = {[ ]−[ ]} = =
π 1 + 𝑛2 1 + 𝑛2 π(1 + 𝑛2 ) π(1 + 𝑛2 )

𝟏 𝟐𝛑
𝒃𝒏 = ∫ 𝒇(𝒙) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒏𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝛑 𝟎

1 2π 𝒆𝒂𝒙
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ∵ ∫𝒆 𝒂𝒙
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒃𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟐 [𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒃𝒙 − 𝒃 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒃𝒙]
π 0 𝒂 + 𝒃𝟐

𝑎 = −1 and 𝑏 = 𝑛

1 𝑒 −𝑥 2𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = [ 2
(− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥 − 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥)]
𝜋 1+𝑛 0

1 𝑒 −2𝜋 𝑒0
𝑏𝑛 = {[ 2
(− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑛𝜋 − 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑛𝜋)] − [ (− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 0 − 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0)]}
𝜋 1+𝑛 1+𝑛2

1 𝑒 −2𝜋 1
𝑏𝑛 = {[ (0 − 𝑛)] − [ (0 − 𝑛)]} ∵ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒏𝝅 = 𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒏𝝅 = 𝟎
𝜋 1+𝑛2 1+𝑛2

1 −𝑛𝑒 −2π −𝑛 −𝑛𝑒 −2π + 𝑛 𝑛(1 − 𝑒 −2π)

𝑏𝑛 = {[ ]−[ ]} = =
π 1 + 𝑛2 1 + 𝑛2 π(1 + 𝑛2 ) π(1 + 𝑛2 )
∞
𝑎0
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + ∑[𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥]
2
𝑛=1

∞
−𝑥
1 − e−2π 1 − 𝑒−2π 𝑛(1 − 𝑒−2π)
𝑒 = + ∑[ cos 𝑛𝑥 + sin 𝑛𝑥]
2π π(1 + 𝑛2 ) π(1 + 𝑛2 )
𝑛=1

**************

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞: Find the Fourier series of the functions 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 ; 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋

and 𝑓 (𝑥 + 2𝜋) = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: The Fourier series of 𝑓(𝑥 ) in 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋 is given by
∞
𝑎0
𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑[𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥]
2
𝑛=1
𝟏 𝟐𝝅 𝟏 𝟐𝝅 𝟏 𝟐𝝅
𝒂𝟎 = ∫ 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 𝒂𝒏 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒃𝒏 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝝅 𝟎 𝝅 𝝅
𝟏 𝟐𝝅
𝒂𝟎 = ∫𝟎 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝝅

1 𝑥 3 2𝜋 1 (2𝜋)3 1 8𝜋 3 8𝜋 2
= ( ) = [ − 0) = [ ] =
𝜋 3 0 𝜋 3 𝜋 3 3
𝟏 𝟐𝝅
𝒂𝒏 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝝅

1 2𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ∫0 𝑥 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋

1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥 2𝜋

𝑎𝑛 = {𝑥 2 − (2𝑥) ( ) + (2) ( )}
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛∗𝑛 𝑛∗𝑛∗𝑛 0

1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑛𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑛𝜋 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑛𝜋

𝑎𝑛 = {(2𝜋)2 + (2 ∗ 2𝜋) ( ) + (2) ( )}
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛3

𝑠𝑖𝑛 0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 0

− {(0)2 + (2 ∗ 0) ( 2 ) + (2) ( )}
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛3
1 4𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = {0 + + 0} − {0 − 0 + 0} ∵ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒏𝝅 = 𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒏𝝅 = 𝟎
𝜋 𝑛2

4
𝑎𝑛 =
𝑛2

𝟏 𝟐𝝅
𝒃𝒏 = ∫ 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝝅 𝟎

1 2𝜋 2
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 0

1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 2𝜋

𝑏𝑛 = {𝑥 2 ( ) − (2𝑥 ) ( ) + (2) ( ) − 0}
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛∗𝑛 𝑛∗𝑛∗𝑛 0

1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑛𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑛𝜋

𝑏𝑛 = {(2𝜋)2 ( ) + (2 ∗ 2𝜋) ( ) + (2) ( )}
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛3

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈
𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0
− {(0)2 + (2 ∗ 0) ( ) + (2) ( )}
𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛3

1 4𝜋 2 2 2
𝑏𝑛 = {− +0+ } − {0 + 0 + } ∵ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒏𝝅 = 𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒏𝝅 = 𝟎
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛3 𝑛3

1 4𝜋 2 2 2
𝑏𝑛 = {− + 0 + 3 − 3}
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

4𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = −
𝑛
∞
𝑎0
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + ∑ [𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥 ]
2
𝑛=1

∞
2
8𝜋2 4 4𝜋
𝑥 = + ∑ [ 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥]
3 𝑛 𝑛
𝑛=1

**********************

𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞: Find the Fourier expansion of the periodic function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = cos 𝑎𝑥 (0,2𝜋)
a is not an integer
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: 𝑓(𝑥 ) = cos 𝑎𝑥 (0,2𝜋) 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 2𝜋
∞
𝑎0
The Fourier series of 𝑓(𝑥 ) is given by 𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑[𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥] … … . (1)
2
𝑛=1

𝟏 𝟐𝝅 𝟏 𝟐𝝅 𝟏 𝟐𝝅
𝒂𝟎 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 𝒂𝒏 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒃𝒏 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
𝟏 𝟐𝝅
𝒂𝟎 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙
𝝅
1 2𝜋
= ∫ cos 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 0

1 sin 𝑎𝑥 2𝜋
= [ ]
𝜋 𝑎 0
1 sin 2𝜋𝑎 sin 0
= [ − ]
𝜋 𝑎 𝑎
sin 2𝜋𝑎 0 sin 2𝜋𝑎
= − =
𝑎𝜋 𝑎 𝑎𝜋
𝟏 𝟐𝝅
𝒂𝒏 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝝅

1 2𝜋 𝟏
𝑎𝑛 = ∫0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ∵ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝑨 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝑩 = [𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝑨 + 𝑩) + 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝑨 − 𝑩)]
𝜋 𝟐

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

𝑨 = 𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩 = 𝒏𝒙
1 2𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ [cos(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑛𝑥 ) + cos(𝑎𝑥 − 𝑛𝑥 )]𝑑𝑥
2𝜋 0

1 2𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ [cos(𝑎 + 𝑛)𝑥 + cos(𝑎 − 𝑛)𝑥 ]𝑑𝑥
2𝜋 0

1 sin(𝑎 + 𝑛)𝑥 sin(𝑎 − 𝑛)𝑥 2𝜋

𝑎𝑛 = [ + ]
2𝜋 (𝑎 + 𝑛) (𝑎 − 𝑛) 0

1 sin(𝑎 + 𝑛)2𝜋 sin(𝑎 − 𝑛)2𝜋 sin(𝑎 + 𝑛)0 sin(𝑎 − 𝑛)0

𝑎𝑛 = { + − − }
2𝜋 (𝑎 + 𝑛) (𝑎 − 𝑛) (𝑎 + 𝑛) (𝑎 − 𝑛)

1 sin 2𝑎𝜋 sin 2𝑎𝜋

𝑎𝑛 = { + } ∵ sin(𝑎 + 𝑛) 2𝜋 = sin 2𝑎𝜋 , sin(𝑎 − 𝑛) 2𝜋 = sin 2𝑎𝜋
2𝜋 (𝑎 + 𝑛) (𝑎 − 𝑛)

sin 2𝑎𝜋 1 1
𝑎𝑛 = { + }
2𝜋 (𝑎 + 𝑛) (𝑎 − 𝑛)

sin 2𝑎𝜋 (𝑎 – 𝑛) + (𝑎 + 𝑛)
𝑎𝑛 = { (𝑎 } ∵ (𝒂𝟐 − 𝒃𝟐 ) = (𝒂 + 𝒃)(𝒂 − 𝒃)
2𝜋 + 𝑛)(𝑎− 𝑛)

sin 2𝑎𝜋 2𝑎 𝑎 sin 2𝑎𝜋

𝑎𝑛 = { }=
2𝜋 𝑎2 − 𝑛 2 𝜋(𝑎2 − 𝑛2 )

𝟏 𝟐𝝅
𝒃𝒏 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝝅

1 2𝜋 𝟏
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥 cos 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ∵ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝑨 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝑩 = [𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝑨 + 𝑩) + 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝑨 − 𝑩)]
𝜋 0 𝟐
1 2𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ [sin(𝑛𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 ) + sin(𝑛𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥 )]𝑑𝑥
2𝜋 0
1 2𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ [sin(𝑛 + 𝑎)𝑥 + sin(𝑛 − 𝑎)𝑥 ]𝑑𝑥
2𝜋 0

1
−cos(𝑛+ 𝑎)𝑥 −cos( 𝑛−𝑎)𝑥 2𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = [
(𝑛+𝑎)
+ ]
2𝜋 (𝑛 − 𝑎) 0

1 −cos (𝑛+ 𝑎)2𝜋 −cos(𝑛−𝑎)2𝜋 − cos(𝑛 + 𝑎)0 cos(𝑛−𝑎)0

𝑏𝑛 = {[ (𝑛+𝑎)
+ ]−[ (𝑛+𝑎)
− ]}
2𝜋 (𝑛 − 𝑎) (𝑛 − 𝑎)

∵ 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒏 + 𝒂) 𝟐𝝅 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝒂𝝅, 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒏 − 𝒂) 𝟐𝝅 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝒂𝝅

1 −cos 2𝑎𝜋 −cos 2𝑎𝜋 1 1

𝑏𝑛 = { (𝑛+𝑎)
+ + + }
𝜋 (𝑛 − 𝑎) (𝑛+𝑎) (𝑛 − 𝑎)

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈
1 1 − cos 2𝑎𝜋 1−cos 2𝑎𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = { (𝑛+𝑎)
+ }
𝜋 (𝑛 − 𝑎)

1 − cos 2𝑎𝜋 1 1
𝑏𝑛 = {(𝑛+𝑎) + }
2𝜋 (𝑛 − 𝑎)

1 − cos 2𝑎𝜋 (𝑛 − 𝑎)+(𝑛 + 𝑎)

𝑏𝑛 = { (𝑛 }
2𝜋 + 𝑎)(𝑛 − 𝑎)

1 − cos 2𝑎𝜋 2𝑛 𝑛(1 − cos 2𝑎𝜋)

𝑏𝑛 = { }=
2𝜋 𝑛2 −𝑎2 𝜋(𝑛2 − 𝑎2 )
∞
𝑎0
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + ∑ [𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥 ]
2
𝑛=1
∞
1 sin 2𝜋𝑎 𝑎 sin 2𝑎𝜋 𝑛(1 − cos 2𝑎𝜋)
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = +∑[ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥]
2 𝑎𝜋 2
𝜋(𝑎 − 𝑛 )2 𝜋(𝑛2 − 𝑎2 )
𝑛=1

******************
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞: Find the Fourier expansion of the periodic function
−𝜋 0<𝑥<𝜋
𝑓(𝑥 ) = {
𝑥−𝜋 𝜋 < 𝑥 < 2𝜋
State the value of the series at 𝑥 = 𝜋 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑓(𝜋)
−𝜋 0<𝑥<𝜋
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: 𝑓(𝑥 ) = { here (0, 2𝜋)
𝑥−𝜋 𝜋 < 𝑥 < 2𝜋
∞
𝑎0
The Fourier series of 𝑓(𝑥 ) is given by 𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑[𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥]
2
𝑛=1

𝟏 𝟐𝝅 𝟏 𝟐𝝅 𝟏 𝟐𝝅
𝒂𝟎 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 𝒂𝒏 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒃𝒏 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
𝟏 𝟐𝝅
𝒂𝟎 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙
𝝅
1 𝜋 2𝜋
𝑎0 = {∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝜋 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 }
𝜋
1 𝜋 2𝜋
= {∫0 (−𝜋)𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝜋 (𝑥 − 𝜋)𝑑𝑥 }
𝜋
1 𝜋 2𝜋
= {(−𝜋) ∫0 𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝜋 (𝑥 − 𝜋)𝑑𝑥 }
𝜋
2𝜋
1 (𝑥 − 𝜋)2
= {[−𝜋𝑥 ]𝜋0 + [ ] }
𝜋 2 𝜋
1 (2𝜋 − 𝜋)2 (𝜋 − 𝜋)2
= {[(−𝜋 ∗ 𝜋) − (0)] + [ − ]}
𝜋 2 2

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈
1 𝜋2 𝜋2 1
= {−𝜋 2 + − 0} = {−1 + }
𝜋 2 𝜋 2
𝜋2 1
= {− }
𝜋 2
𝜋
=−
2
𝟏 𝟐𝝅
𝒂𝒏 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝝅

1 𝜋 2𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = {∫0 (−𝜋) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝜋 (𝑥 − 𝜋) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 }
𝜋

1 −𝜋 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝜋 sin 𝑛𝑥 −cos 𝑛𝑥 −sin 𝑛𝑥 2𝜋

𝑎𝑛 = {[ ] + [((𝑥 − 𝜋) ) − ((1 − 0) ) + (0) ] }
𝜋 𝑛 0 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛3 𝜋

−𝜋 sin 𝑛𝜋 −𝜋 sin 0 sin 2𝜋𝑛 −cos 2𝜋𝑛

1
− + [((2𝜋 − 𝜋) )−( )]
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛2
𝑎𝑛 = { }
𝜋 sin 0 −(−1)𝑛
− [((𝜋 − 𝜋) )−( )]
𝑛 𝑛2

1 (−1) 1 𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = {0 − 0 + [((𝜋) 0) + 𝑛2 ] − [(0) + ( 2 )]} ∵ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏𝝅 = (−𝟏)𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏𝝅 = 𝟎
𝜋 𝑛

1 1 (−1)𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = { 2
− }
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2

1 1 − (−1)𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = { }
𝜋 𝑛2

𝟏 𝟐𝝅
𝒃𝒏 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝝅

1 𝜋 2𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = {∫ (−𝜋) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑥 − 𝜋) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 }
𝜋 0 𝜋

𝜋 2𝜋
1 (−𝜋)(− cos 𝑛𝑥) − cos 𝑛𝑥 −sin 𝑛𝑥
𝑏𝑛 = {[ ] + [((𝑥 − 𝜋) ( )) − ((1 − 0) ( 2 ))] }
𝜋 𝑛 0
𝑛 𝑛 𝜋

𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜋 𝜋 cos 0 − cos 2𝑛𝜋 −sin 2𝑛𝜋

1 – + (2𝜋 − 𝜋 ) ( ) + ( 2 )
𝑏𝑛 = { 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 }
𝜋 − cos 𝑛𝜋 −sin 𝑛𝜋
−(𝜋 − 𝜋) ( )−( )
𝑛 𝑛2
1 𝜋(−1)𝑛 𝜋 −1 (−1)𝑛 −2
𝑏𝑛 = { – + (𝜋) ( ) + 0 − 0 + 0} 𝑏𝑛 =
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈
∞
𝑎0
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + ∑ [𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥 ]
2
𝑛=1

𝜋 1 1 − (−1)𝑛 (−1)𝑛 −2
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = − + ∑∞
𝑛=1 [ { } 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥] … … … … … (1)
4 𝜋 𝑛2 𝑛

−𝜋 0<𝑥<𝜋
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑓 (𝜋) ∶ 𝑓(𝑥 ) = { here (0, 2𝜋)
𝑥−𝜋 𝜋 < 𝑥 < 2𝜋

𝑓 (𝜋 − ) = log 𝑥→𝜋− −𝜋 = −𝜋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝜋 + ) = log 𝑥→𝜋+ 𝑥 − 𝜋 = 𝜋 − 𝜋 = 0

As 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 𝜋,
𝑓 (𝜋 − ) + 𝑓 (𝜋 + ) −𝜋 + 0 −𝜋
𝑓 (𝜋 ) = = =
2 2 2
***********************
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞: Find the Fourier expansion of the function ∶ 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ; 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: 𝑓(x) = 2x − x 2 ; 0≤x≤3
Here 0 ≤ x ≤ 3 i. e. 0 ≤ x ≤ 2L
3
2L = 3 ⇒ L =
2

The Fourier series of 𝑓(𝑥 ) in 0 ≤ x ≤ 2L is given by

∞
𝑎0 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑ [𝑎𝑛 cos ( ) + 𝑏𝑛 sin ( )]
2 𝐿 𝐿
𝑛=1

𝟏 𝟐𝑳 𝟏 𝟐𝑳 𝒏𝝅𝒙 𝟏 𝟐𝑳 𝒏𝝅𝒙
𝒂𝟎 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 𝒂𝒏 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( ) 𝒅𝒙 𝒃𝒏 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( ) 𝒅𝒙
𝑳 𝑳 𝑳 𝑳 𝑳

𝟏 𝟐𝑳
𝒂𝟎 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙
𝑳

1 3
= ∫ (2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥
3/2 0

2 2𝑥 2 𝑥3 3 2 2 𝑥3 3
= [ − ] = [𝑥 − ]
3 2 3 0 3 3 0

2 33 03 2
= {[32 − ] − [02 − ]} = [9 − 9]
3 3 3 3

𝑎0 = 0

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

𝟏 𝟐𝐋 𝐧𝛑𝐱
𝐚𝐧 = ∫ 𝐟(𝐱) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( ) 𝐝𝐱
𝐋 𝟎 𝐋
3
1 nπx
an = ∫ (2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) cos ( ) dx
3/2 0 3/2

2 3 2nπx
= ∫ (2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) cos ( ) dx
3 0 3
3
2nπx
2) 2nπx 2nπx
2 (2𝑥 − 𝑥 sin ( 3 ) (2 − 2𝑥 ) [−cos (
3
)] (0 − 2) [−sin (
3
)]
= { − + − (0)}
3 2nπ 2nπ 2 2nπ 3
3 ( ) ( )
3 3 0

3
2nπx
2) 2nπx 2nπx
2 (2𝑥 − 𝑥 sin ( 3 ) (2 − 2𝑥 ) cos (
3
) 2 sin (
3
)
= { + + }
3 2nπ 2nπ 2 2nπ 3
3 ( ) ( )
3 3 0

2 2nπ(3) 2nπ(3) 2nπ (3)

2 (2(3) − 3 ) sin ( 3
) (2 − 2(3)) cos (
3
) 2 sin (
3
)
= { + +
3 2nπ 2nπ 2 2nπ 3
3 ( ) ( )
3 3
(2(0) − 02 ) sin(0 ) (2 − 2(0)) cos( 0 ) 2 sin(0 )
− − − }
2nπ 2nπ 2 2nπ 3
3 ( ) ( )
3 3

2 (−3) sin(2nπ ) (−4) cos(2nπ ) 2 sin(2nπ ) (0) sin(0 ) (2) cos(0) 2 sin(0 )
= { + + − − − }
3 2nπ 2nπ 2
2nπ 3 2nπ 2nπ 2 2nπ 3
3 ( ) ( ) 3 ( ) ( )
3 3 3 3

2 (−4) 2
= {0 + + 0 − 0 − − 0} sin(2nπ ) = 0, cos 2n π = 1
3 2nπ 2 2nπ 2
( ) ( )
3 3

2 −4 2 2 −6
= { 2 – 2}= { }
3 2nπ 2nπ 3 2nπ 2
( ) ( ) ( )
3 3 3
−12 −9
= 4n2 π2
=
3( n2 π2
9 )

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

𝟏 𝟐𝐋 𝐧𝛑𝐱
𝐛𝐧 = ∫ 𝐟(𝐱) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( ) 𝐝𝐱
𝐋 𝟎 𝐋
3
1 nπx
bn = ∫ (2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) sin ( ) dx
3/2 0 3/2

2 3 2nπx
= ∫ (2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) sin ( ) dx
3 0 3
3
2) 2nπx 2nπx 2nπx
2 (2𝑥 − 𝑥 [−cos (
3
)] (2 − 2𝑥 ) [−sin (
3
)] (0 − 2) [cos (
3
)]
= { − + }
3 2nπ 2nπ 2 2nπ 3
3 ( ) ( )
3 3 0

3
2 2nπx 2nπx 2nπx
2 −(2𝑥 − 𝑥 ) cos ( 3 ) (2 − 2𝑥 ) sin (
3
) 2 cos (
3
)
= { + − }
3 2nπ 2nπ 2 2nπ 3
3 ( ) ( )
3 3 0

2 2nπ(3) 2nπ(3) 2nπ (3)

2 −(2(3) − 3 ) cos ( 3
) (2 − 2(3)) sin (
3
) 2 cos (
3
)
= { + −
3 2nπ 2nπ 2 2nπ 3
3 ( ) ( )
3 3
(2(0) − 02 ) cos(0 ) (2 − 2(0)) sin( 0 ) 2 cos(0 )
+ − + }
2nπ 2nπ 2 2nπ 3
3 ( ) ( )
3 3

2 −(−3) cos(2nπ ) (−4) sin(2nπ ) 2 cos(2nπ ) (0) cos(0 ) (2) sin( 0 )

= { + − + −
3 2nπ 2nπ 2 2nπ 3 2nπ 2nπ 2
3 ( ) ( ) 3 ( )
3 3 3
2 cos(0 )
+ }
2nπ 3
( )
3

2 3 2 2
= { + 0− +0− 0+ }
3 2nπ 2nπ 3
2nπ 3
3 ( ) ( )
3 3

2 3 2 2 2 3 3
= { − + } = =
3 2nπ 2nπ 3 2nπ 3 3 2nπ nπ
3 ( ) ( ) 3
3 3

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈
∞
a0 nπx nπx
f(x) = + ∑ [an cos ( ) + bn sin ( )]
2 L L
n=1

∞
0 −9 nπx 3 nπx
2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 = + ∑ [ 2 2 cos ( )+ sin ( )]
2 n π 3/2 nπ 3/2
n=1

∞
2
−9 2nπx 3 2nπx
2𝑥 − 𝑥 = ∑ [ cos ( ) + sin ( )]
n2 π2 3 nπ 3
n=1

***************
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞: Find the Fourier expansion of the function ∶
𝜋𝑥 0≤𝑥≤1
𝑓(𝑥 ) = {
𝜋(2 − 𝑥) 1≤𝑥≤2

𝜋𝑥 0≤𝑥≤1
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: 𝑓(𝑥 ) = {
2𝜋 − 𝑥𝜋 1≤𝑥≤2
Here 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 i. e. 0 ≤ x ≤ 2L
2L = 2 ⇒ L = 1
The Fourier series of 𝑓(𝑥 ) in (0, 2L) is given by
∞
𝑎0 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑ [𝑎𝑛 cos ( ) + 𝑏𝑛 sin ( )]
2 𝐿 𝐿
𝑛=1
𝟏 𝟐𝑳
𝒂𝟎 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙
𝑳

1 1 2
= {∫0 𝜋𝑥𝑑𝑥 + ∫1 (2𝜋 − 𝑥𝜋) 𝑑𝑥 }
1

𝜋𝑥 2 1 𝜋𝑥 2 2
= [ ] + [2𝜋𝑥 − ]
2 0 2 1

𝜋 𝜋(2)2 𝜋(1)2
= {[ − 0] + [2𝜋 (2) − − 2𝜋(1) + ]}
2 2 2

𝜋 𝜋
= { + 4𝜋 − 2𝜋 − 2𝜋 + }
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
= { + }
2 2
𝒂𝟎 = 𝜋

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

𝟏 𝟐𝐋 𝐧𝛑𝐱
𝐚𝐧 = ∫ 𝐟(𝐱) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( ) 𝐝𝐱
𝐋 𝟎 𝐋
1 2
an = ∫ 𝜋𝑥 cos(nπx ) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (2𝜋 − 𝜋𝑥) cos(nπx ) 𝑑𝑥
0 1

1 2
𝜋𝑥 sin(nπx ) −𝜋cos(nπx) (2𝜋 − 𝜋𝑥 ) sin(nπx ) (0 − 𝜋) (−cos nπx)
= { − } + { − }
nπ (nπ)2 nπ (nπ)2
0 1

1 2
𝜋𝑥 sin(nπx ) 𝜋cos(nπx ) (2𝜋 − 𝜋𝑥 ) sin(nπx ) 𝜋 cos nπx
= { + } + { − }
nπ (nπ)2 nπ (nπ)2
0 1

𝜋 sin(nπ) 𝜋cos(nπ) 𝜋(0) sin(0 ) 𝜋cos(0)

= { + − − }
nπ (nπ)2 nπ (nπ)2
(2𝜋 − 2𝜋) sin(2nπ ) 𝜋 cos 2nπ (2𝜋 − 𝜋) sin(nπ ) 𝜋 cos nπ
+{ − − + }
nπ (nπ)2 nπ (nπ)2

𝜋cos(nπ) 𝜋cos(0) 𝜋 cos 2nπ 𝜋 cos nπ

= {0 + − 0 − } + {0 − − 0 + }
(nπ) 2 (nπ)2 (nπ)2 (nπ)2

𝜋(−1)n 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋(−1)n
= − − + cos(nπ) = (−1)𝑛 cos 2nπ = 1
(nπ)2 (nπ)2 (nπ)2 (nπ)2

2 𝜋(−1)n 2𝜋 2 𝜋(−1)n − 2𝜋
= − =
(nπ)2 (nπ)2 (nπ)2

2(−1)n − 2
an =
π n2
𝟏 𝟐𝐋 𝐧𝛑𝐱
𝐛𝐧 = ∫ 𝐟(𝐱) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( ) 𝐝𝐱
𝐋 𝟎 𝐋
1 2
bn = ∫ 𝜋𝑥 sin(nπx ) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (2𝜋 − 𝜋𝑥) sin(nπx ) 𝑑𝑥
0 1
1
πx (−cos(nπx )) −πsin(nπx ) (2π − πx) (−cos(nπx )) (−π) (−sin nπx) 2
= { − } +{ − }
nπ (nπ)2 nπ (nπ)2
0 1

1 2
−𝜋𝑥 cos(nπx ) 𝜋 sin(nπx ) −(2𝜋 − 𝜋𝑥 ) cos(nπx ) 𝜋 sin nπx
= { + } + { − }
nπ (nπ)2 nπ (nπ)2
0 1

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

−𝜋 cos(nπ) 𝜋sin(nπ) 𝜋(0) cos(0 ) 𝜋 sin(0)

= { + + − }
nπ (nπ)2 nπ (nπ)2
−(2𝜋 − 2𝜋) cos(2nπ ) 𝜋 sin 2nπ (2𝜋 − 𝜋) cos(nπ ) 𝜋 sin nπ
+{ − + + }
nπ (nπ)2 nπ (nπ)2

−𝜋(−1)n 𝜋(−1)n
= { + 0 + 0 − 0} + {0 + + 0 + 0}
nπ nπ

−𝜋(−1)n 𝜋(−1)n
= + =0
nπ (nπ)2
∞
a0 nπx nπx
f(x) = + ∑ [an cos ( ) + bn sin ( )]
2 L L
n=1
∞
𝜋𝑥 0≤𝑥≤1 𝜋 2(−1)n − 2
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = { = + ∑[ cos( nπx) + (0) sin( nπx) ]
𝜋(2 − 𝑥) 1≤𝑥≤2 2 πn2
n=1
∞
𝜋𝑥 0≤𝑥≤1 𝜋 2(−1)n − 2
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = { = +∑ cos( nπx)
𝜋(2 − 𝑥) 1≤𝑥≤2 2 πn2
n=1

****************

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

𝐅𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝐒𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐥 (−𝛑, 𝛑) 𝒐𝒓 (−𝑳, 𝑳)

𝐅𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝐒𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐥 (−𝐋, 𝐋) 𝐅𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝐒𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐥 (−𝛑, 𝛑)
𝐟𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐧𝐞𝐢𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧 𝐧𝐨𝐫 𝐨𝐝𝐝 𝐟𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐧𝐞𝐢𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧 𝐧𝐨𝐫 𝐨𝐝𝐝
𝑎0 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥 ∞
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + ∑∞
𝑛=1 [𝑎𝑛 cos ( ) + 𝑏𝑛 sin ( )] 𝑎0
2 𝐿 𝐿 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + ∑ [𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥 ]
2
𝑛=1
1 L
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 1 π
𝐿 −L 𝑎0 = ∫−π 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
π
1 L 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑎𝑛 = ∫−L 𝑓 (𝑥 ) cos ( ) 𝑑𝑥 1 π
𝐿 𝐿 𝑎𝑛 = ∫−π 𝑓 (𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
π
1 L 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑏𝑛 = ∫−L 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin ( ) 𝑑𝑥 1 π
𝐿 𝐿 𝑏𝑛 = ∫−π 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
π

𝐅𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝐒𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐥 (−𝐋, 𝐋) 𝐅𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝐒𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐥 (−𝝅, 𝝅)
𝐟(𝐱)𝐢𝐬 𝐄𝐕𝐄𝐍 𝐅𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟(𝐱)𝐢𝐬 𝐄𝐕𝐄𝐍 𝐅𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝐎𝐑 𝐇𝐚𝐥𝐟 𝐑𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐒𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 (𝟎 , 𝐋) 𝐎𝐑 𝐇𝐚𝐥𝐟 𝐑𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐒𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 (𝟎, 𝝅)
∞ ∞
𝑎0 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑎0
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + ∑ 𝑎𝑛 cos ( ) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + ∑ 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥
2 𝐿 2
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
Where
Where
2 𝜋
2 L 𝑎0 = ∫0 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝜋
𝑎0 = ∫0
𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝐿
2 𝜋
2 L 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑎𝑛 = ∫0 𝑓 (𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) cos ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 0 𝐿
𝑏𝑛 = 0
𝑏𝑛 = 0
𝐅𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝐒𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐥 (−𝐋, 𝐋) 𝐅𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝐒𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐥 (−𝝅, 𝝅)
𝐟(𝐱)𝐢𝐬 𝐎𝐃𝐃 𝐅𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟(𝐱)𝐢𝐬 𝐎𝐃𝐃 𝐅𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝐎𝐑 𝐇𝐚𝐥𝐟 𝐑𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐒𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 (𝟎 , 𝐋) 𝐎𝐑 𝐇𝐚𝐥𝐟 𝐑𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐒𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 (𝟎, 𝝅)
∞ ∞
𝑎0 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑎0
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + ∑ 𝑏𝑛 sin ( ) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + ∑ 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥
2 𝐿 2
𝑛=1 𝑛=1

𝑎0 = 0 𝑎𝑛 = 0
𝑎0 = 0 𝑎𝑛 = 0
2 𝜋
2 L 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑏𝑛 = ∫0 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = ∫0 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 𝐿

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

Remark :
Whenever the function is defined in the interval (– 𝜋, 𝜋) or (– 𝐿, 𝐿) we have to check
if the function is 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧 or 𝐨𝐝𝐝 or 𝐧𝐞𝐢𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧 𝐧𝐨𝐫 𝐨𝐝𝐝
************

𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞: Find the Fourier series for 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝜋 2 − 𝑥 2 𝑖𝑛 (−𝜋, 𝜋)and hence deduce that
1 1 1 𝜋2 1 1 1 𝜋2 1 1 1 𝜋2
i) 2 − 2 + 2 … … = 𝑖𝑖) 2 + 2 + 2 … … = 𝑖𝑖𝑖) 2 − 2 + 2 … … =
1 2 3 12 1 2 3 6 1 2 5 8

𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝜋 2 − 𝑥 2 𝑖𝑛 (−𝜋, 𝜋)

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝜋 2 − 𝑥 2 … … (1) 𝑓(−𝑥 ) = 𝜋 2 − (−𝑥)2 = 𝜋 2 − 𝑥 2 … … (2)
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(−𝑥 ) ∴ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is even function
∞
𝑎0
The Fourier series of 𝑓(𝑥 ) is given by 𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑ 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥
2
𝑛=1
2 𝜋 2 𝜋
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑏𝑛 = 0
𝜋 0 𝜋 0

𝟐 𝝅
𝒂𝟎 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙
𝝅

2 𝜋
𝑎0 = ∫0 (𝜋 2 − 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥
𝜋
𝜋
2 2 𝑥3 2 2 𝜋3 03
= [𝜋 𝑥 − ] = [𝜋 𝜋 − −0+ ]
𝜋 3 0 𝜋 3 3

2 3𝜋 3 − 𝜋 3
= [ ]
𝜋 3

2 2𝜋 3
= [ ]
𝜋 3

4𝜋 2
=
3
𝟐 𝝅
𝒂𝒏 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒏𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝝅

2 𝜋 2
an = ∫ (𝜋 − 𝑥 2 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 0

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈
𝜋
2 (𝜋 2 − 𝑥 2 ) sin 𝑛𝑥 (0 − 2𝑥 )(− cos 𝑛𝑥) (−2)(− sin 𝑛𝑥)
an = [ − + ]
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛3 0

2 (𝜋 2 − 𝜋 2 ) sin 𝑛𝜋 2𝜋(cos 𝑛𝜋) 2(sin 𝑛𝜋)

an = {[ − + ] − [0 − 0 + 0]}
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛3

2 2𝜋(−1)𝑛
an = {[0 − + 0] − [0 − 0 + 0]}
𝜋 𝑛2

4(−1)𝑛
an = −
𝑛2
𝐛𝐧 = 𝟎
∞
a0
f(x) = + ∑ an cos nx
2
n=1
∞
2𝜋 2 4(−1)𝑛
𝜋2 − 𝑥2 = + ∑− cos(nx) … … … (1)
3 𝑛2
n=1

𝑷𝒖𝒕 𝒙 = 𝟎 𝒊𝒏 (𝟏)
∞
2𝜋 2 4(−1)𝑛
𝜋2 = −∑ cos(0)
3 𝑛2
n=1
∞
2
𝜋2 4(−1)𝑛
𝜋 = −∑
3 𝑛2
n=1

𝜋2
2
4(−1)1 4(−1)2 4(−1)3 4(−1)4 4(−1)5
𝜋 − = −{ + + + + + ………… }
3 12 22 32 42 52

𝜋2 4 4 4 4 4
= − {− 2 + 2 − 2 + 2 − 2 + … … … … }
3 1 2 3 4 5
𝜋2 4 4 4 4 4
= 2 − 2 + 2 − 2 + 2 …………
3 1 2 3 4 5
𝜋2 1 1 1 1 1
= 2 − 2 + 2 − 2 + 2 + ………… … … … … … (𝐴)
12 1 2 3 4 5

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

𝑷𝒖𝒕 𝒙 = 𝝅 𝒊𝒏 (𝟏)
∞
2𝜋 2 4(−1)𝑛
0 = + ∑− cos(𝑛𝜋)
3 𝑛2
n=1
∞
2𝜋 2 4(−1)𝑛
− = ∑− 2
(−1)𝑛
3 𝑛
n=1
∞
2𝜋 2 4(−1)2𝑛
=∑
3 𝑛2
n=1

2𝜋 2 4(−1)2 4(−1)4 4(−1)12 4(−1)16 4(−1)20

= + + + + + …………
3 12 22 32 42 52
2𝜋 2 1 1 1 1 1
= 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + …………
(3)(4) 1 2 3 4 5

𝜋2 1 1 1 1 1
= 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ………… … … … … … (𝐵)
6 1 2 3 4 5
Adding (A)and (B)

𝜋2 𝜋2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ = 2 − 2 + 2 − 2 + 2 + …… 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + …………
12 6 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
18𝜋 2 2 2 2
= 2 + 2 + 2 + …………
72 1 3 5
𝜋2 2 2 2
= 2 + 2 + 2 + …………
4 1 3 5
𝜋2 1 1 1
= 2 + 2 + 2 + … … … … (𝐶)
8 1 3 5
****************

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞: Find the Fourier series for 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 𝑖𝑛 (−𝜋, 𝜋)and hence deduce that
1 1 1 𝜋2 1 1 1 𝜋2 1 1 1 𝜋2
i) 2 − 2 + 2 … … = 𝑖𝑖) 2 + 2 + 2 … … = 𝑖𝑖𝑖) 2 − 2 + 2 … … =
1 2 3 12 1 2 3 6 1 2 5 8

𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 𝑖𝑛 (−𝜋, 𝜋)

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 … … (1) 𝑓(−𝑥 ) = (−𝑥)2 = 𝑥 2 … … (2)
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(−𝑥 ) ∴ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is even function
∞
𝑎0
The Fourier series of 𝑓(𝑥 ) is given by 𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑ 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥
2
𝑛=1
2 𝜋 2 𝜋
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝜋 0
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 0
𝑏𝑛 = 0

𝟐 𝝅
𝒂𝟎 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙
𝝅

2 𝜋 2 𝑥3 𝜋 2 𝜋3 03 2𝜋 2
𝑎0 = ∫0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = [ ] = [ − ] =
𝜋 𝜋 3 0 𝜋 3 3 3

𝟐 𝝅
𝒂𝒏 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒏𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝝅

2 𝜋 2
an = ∫ 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 0
𝜋
2 𝑥 2 sin 𝑛𝑥 2𝑥(− cos 𝑛𝑥) 2(− sin 𝑛𝑥)
an = [ − + ]
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛3 0

2 𝜋 2 sin 𝑛𝜋 2𝜋(− cos 𝑛𝜋) 2(− sin 𝑛𝜋)

an = {[ − + ] − [0 − 0 + 0]}
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛3

2 2𝜋(−1)𝑛
an = {[0 + + 0] − [0 − 0 + 0]}
𝜋 𝑛2

4(−1)𝑛
an =
𝑛2
𝐛𝐧 = 𝟎
∞
a0
f(x) = + ∑ an cos nx
2
n=1
2 ∞
2
𝜋 4(−1)𝑛
𝑥 = +∑ cos(nx) … … … (1)
3 𝑛2
n=1

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

𝑷𝒖𝒕 𝒙 = 𝟎 𝒊𝒏 (𝟏)
∞
𝜋2 4(−1)𝑛
0 = +∑ cos(0)
3 𝑛2
n=1
∞
𝜋2 4(−1)𝑛
0 = +∑
3 𝑛2
n=1

𝜋2 4(−1)1 4(−1)2 4(−1)3 4(−1)4 4(−1)5

− = + + + + + …………
3 12 22 32 42 52
𝜋 2 −4 4 4 4 4
− = 2 + 2 − 2 + 2 − 2 + …………
3 1 2 3 4 5
𝜋2 1 1 1 1 1
= 2 − 2 + 2 − 2 + 2 + ………… … … … … … (𝐴)
12 1 2 3 4 5
𝑷𝒖𝒕 𝒙 = 𝝅 𝒊𝒏 (𝟏)
∞
𝜋2 4(−1)𝑛
𝜋2 = +∑ cos(𝑛𝜋)
3 𝑛2
n=1
∞
2
𝜋2 4(−1)𝑛
𝜋 − =∑ (−1)𝑛
3 𝑛2
n=1
∞
2𝜋 2 4(−1)2𝑛
=∑
3 𝑛2
n=1

2𝜋 2 4(−1)2 4(−1)4 4(−1)12 4(−1)16 4(−1)20

= + + + + + …………
3 12 22 32 42 52
2𝜋 2 4 4 4 4 4
= 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + …………
(3)(4) 1 2 3 4 5

𝜋2 1 1 1 1 1
= 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ………… … … … … … (𝐵)
6 1 2 3 4 5
Adding (A)and (B)

𝜋2 𝜋2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ = 2 − 2 + 2 − 2 + 2 + …… 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + …………
12 6 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

18𝜋 2 2 2 2
= 2 + 2 + 2 + …………
72 1 3 5
𝜋2 2 2 2
= 2 + 2 + 2 + …………
4 1 3 5
𝜋2 1 1 1
= 2 + 2 + 2 + … … … … (𝐶)
8 1 3 5
**************

𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞: Find the Fourier series for 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 (−𝜋, 𝜋)and hence deduce that
1 1 𝜋
i) 1 − + …… =
3 5 4
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 (−𝜋, 𝜋)
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 … … (1) 𝑓(−𝑥 ) = −𝑥 … … (2)
𝑓(𝑥 ) = −𝑓 (−𝑥 ) ∴ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is odd function
The Fourier series of 𝑓(𝑥 ) is given by 𝑓(𝑥) = ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥
2 𝜋
𝑎0 = 0 𝑎𝑛 = 0 𝑏𝑛 = ∫0 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋

𝟐 𝝅
𝒃𝒏 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒏𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝝅

2 𝜋
bn = ∫ 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 0

2 𝑥(− cos 𝑛𝑥) 1(− sin 𝑛𝑥) 𝜋

bn = [ − ]
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 0

2 −𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝜋
bn = [ + ]
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 0
2 −𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜋 sin 𝑛𝜋 −0 cos 0 sin 0
bn = {[ + ] − [ + 2 ]}
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛 𝑛
2 −𝜋(−1)𝑛
bn = {[ + 0] − [0 − 0 ]}
𝜋 𝑛

−2(−1)𝑛
bn =
𝑛

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈
∞

The Fourier series of 𝑓(𝑥 ) is given by f(x) = ∑ bn sin nx

n=1
∞
−𝟐(−𝟏)𝒏
𝒙 = ∑ 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝐧𝐱) … … … (𝟏)
𝒏
𝐧=𝟏
𝜋
𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑖𝑛 (1)
2
∞
𝜋 −2(−1)𝑛 𝑛𝜋
= ∑ sin ( )
2 𝑛 2
n=1
∞
𝜋 (−1)𝑛 𝑛𝜋
= −2 ∑ sin ( )
2 𝑛 2
n=1
∞
𝜋 (−1)𝑛 𝑛𝜋
= ∑ sin ( )
−4 𝑛2 2
n=1

𝜋 (−1)1 𝜋 (−1)2 (−1)3 3𝜋 (−1)4 (−1)5 5𝜋

= sin ( ) + sin(𝜋) + sin ( ) + sin(4𝜋) + sin ( ) + … … …
−4 1 2 2 3 2 4 5 2
𝜋 1 1 1 1
= (−1) (1) + (0) − (−1) + (0) − (1) … … … … … … ..
−4 2 3 4 5
𝜋 1 1
= −1 + − … … … … … … ..
−4 3 5
𝜋 1 1
= 1 − + … … … … … … ..
4 3 5
∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∗
𝜋 + 𝑥 ; −𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞: Find the Fourier series for 𝑓(𝑥 ) = {
𝜋 − 𝑥 ;0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑥 + 2𝜋) = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: I𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠 (−𝜋 𝜋) ∴ Check even or odd
𝜋 + 𝑥 ; −𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0
Given 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = {
𝜋−𝑥 ; 0≤𝑥 ≤𝜋
put 𝑥 = −𝑥
𝜋 − 𝑥 ; −𝜋 ≤ −𝑥 ≤ 0
𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = {
𝜋 − (−𝑥 ) ; 0 ≤ −𝑥 ≤ 𝜋

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

𝜋−𝑥 ; 𝜋≥𝑥 ≥0
𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = {
𝜋 + 𝑥 ; 0 ≥ 𝑥 ≥ −𝜋
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓 (−𝑥 ) ∴ function is even
∞
𝑎0
The Fourier series of 𝑓(𝑥 ) is given by 𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑ 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥
2
𝑛=1
2 𝜋 2 𝜋
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑏𝑛 = 0
𝜋 0 𝜋 0

𝟐 𝝅
𝒂𝟎 = ∫ 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙
𝝅 𝟎
2 𝜋
𝑎0 = ∫ (𝜋 − 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝜋 0
𝜋
2 𝑥2
𝑎0 = [𝜋𝑥 − ]
𝜋 2 0

2 𝜋2 0
𝑎0 = {[𝜋𝜋 − ] − [0 − ]}
𝜋 2 2
2 𝜋2
𝑎0 = = 𝜋
𝜋 2
𝟐 𝝅
𝒂𝒏 = ∫ 𝒇(𝒙) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒏𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝝅 𝟎
2 𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ (𝜋 − 𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 0
𝜋
2 (𝜋 − 𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥 (0 − 1)(− cos 𝑛𝑥)
𝑎𝑛 = [ − ]
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 0
𝜋
2 (𝜋 − 𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥
𝑎𝑛 = [ − ]
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 0
2 (𝜋 − 𝜋) sin 𝑛𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜋 (𝜋 − 0) sin 0 cos 0
𝑎𝑛 = { − − + 2 }
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛 𝑛
2 (−1)𝑛 1
𝑎𝑛 = {0 − − 0 + }
𝜋 𝑛2 𝑛2
2 1 − (−1)𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = [ ]
𝜋 𝑛2

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈
∞
𝑎0
The Fourier series of 𝑓(𝑥 ) is given by 𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑ 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥
2
𝑛=1
∞
𝜋 2 1 − (−1)𝑛
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = +∑ [ ] cos 𝑛𝑥
2 𝜋 𝑛2
𝑛=1

****************
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞: Find the half range cosine series for 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 𝑖𝑛 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋
∞
𝑎0
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: The Fourier half range cosine for 𝑓(𝑥 ) is given by 𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑ 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥
2
𝑛=1
2 𝜋 2 𝜋
𝑎0 = ∫0 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛 = ∫0 𝑓 (𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑏𝑛 = 0
𝜋 𝜋

𝟐 𝝅
𝒂𝟎 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙
𝝅

2 𝜋 2 𝑥3 𝜋 2 𝜋3 03 2𝜋 2
𝑎0 = ∫0 𝑥 2𝑑𝑥 = [ ] = [ − ] =
𝜋 𝜋 3 0 𝜋 3 3 3

𝟐 𝝅
𝒂𝒏 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒏𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝝅

2 𝜋 2
an = ∫ 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 0
𝜋
2 𝑥 2 sin 𝑛𝑥 2𝑥(− cos 𝑛𝑥) 2(− sin 𝑛𝑥)
an = [ − + ]
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛3 0

2 𝜋 2 sin 𝑛𝜋 2𝜋(− cos 𝑛𝜋) 2(− sin 𝑛𝜋)

an = {[ − + ] − [0 − 0 + 0]}
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛3

2 2𝜋(−1)𝑛
an = {[0 + + 0] − [0 − 0 + 0]}
𝜋 𝑛2

4(−1)𝑛
an =
𝑛2
𝐛𝐧 = 𝟎
∞
a0
f(x) = + ∑ an cos nx
2
n=1
∞
2
𝜋2 4(−1)𝑛
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 = +∑ cos(nx)
3 𝑛2
n=1
**************
"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈

𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞: Find the half range sine series for 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: The half range sine series for 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is given by 𝑓(𝑥) = ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥
2 𝜋
𝑎0 = 0 𝑎𝑛 = 0 𝑏𝑛 = ∫0 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋

𝟐 𝝅
𝒃𝒏 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒏𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝝅

2 𝜋
bn = ∫ 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 0

2 𝑥(− cos 𝑛𝑥) 1(− sin 𝑛𝑥) 𝜋

bn = [ − ]
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 0

2 −𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝜋
bn = [ + ]
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 0
2 −𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜋 sin 𝑛𝜋 −0 cos 0 sin 0
bn = {[ + ] − [ + 2 ]}
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛 𝑛
2 −𝜋(−1)𝑛
bn = {[ + 0] − [0 − 0 ]}
𝜋 𝑛

−2(−1)𝑛
bn =
𝑛
∞

The Fourier series of 𝑓(𝑥 ) is given by f(x) = ∑ bn sin nx

n=1
∞
−𝟐(−𝟏)𝒏
𝒙 = ∑ 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝐧𝐱)
𝒏
𝐧=𝟏

**************

𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞: Find the half range cosine series for 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝜋𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑖𝑛 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋
∞
𝑎0
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: The Fourier half range cosine for 𝑓(𝑥 ) is given by 𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑ 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥
2
𝑛=1
2 𝜋 2 𝜋
𝑎0 = ∫0 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛 = ∫0 𝑓 (𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑏𝑛 = 0
𝜋 𝜋

𝟐 𝝅
𝒂𝟎 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙
𝝅

"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐈
2 𝜋
𝑎0 = ∫0 𝜋𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
𝜋
2 𝜋𝑥 2 𝑥 3
= [ − ]
𝜋 2 3 0

2 𝜋𝜋 2 𝜋 3 2 𝜋3 𝜋3
= [ − − 0 + 0] = [ − ]
𝜋 2 3 𝜋 2 3

𝜋2
=
3
𝟐 𝝅
𝒂𝒏 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒏𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝝅

2 𝜋
an = ∫ (𝜋𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 0
𝜋
2 (𝜋𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) sin 𝑛𝑥 (𝜋 − 2𝑥)(− cos 𝑛𝑥) (−2)(− sin 𝑛𝑥)
an = [ − + ]
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛3 0

2 (𝜋 2 − 𝜋 2 ) sin 𝑛𝜋 (𝜋 − 2𝜋)(− cos 𝑛𝜋) (−2)(− sin 𝑛𝜋)

an = {[ − + ]
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛3
(0) sin 0 (𝜋 − 0)(− cos 0) (−2)(− sin 0)
−[ − + ]}
𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛3

2 𝜋(−1)𝑛 𝜋
an = {[0 − + 0] − [0 + + 0]}
𝜋 𝑛2 𝑛2

2 𝜋(−1)𝑛 𝜋
an = [− − 2]
𝜋 𝑛2 𝑛

−2[(−1)𝑛 + 1]
an =
𝑛2
𝐛𝐧 = 𝟎
∞
a0
f(x) = + ∑ an cos nx
2
n=1
∞ ∞
1 𝜋2 −2[(−1)𝑛 + 1] 𝜋2 −2[(−1)𝑛 + 1]
𝜋𝑥 − 𝑥 2 = +∑ cos(nx) = +∑ cos(nx)
2 3 𝑛2 6 𝑛2
n=1 n=1

***************
"𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢"

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