1]what is shell?

ans:A shell is a computer program that provides a user interface for an operating system (OS):

2]define the i/o bound process?

ans:a process that spends more time waiting for input/output (I/O) operations to complete than it does
performing computations.

3]define the term semaphore?

ans:a variable or abstract data type that controls access to shared resources by multiple processes:

Function

4]what is thread library?

A thread library is a piece of code that gives programmers an API (Application Programming Interface) to
create and manage threads. Threads are multiple threads of control that run simultaneously in the same
memory space.

5]what is synchronization?

In an operating system (OS), synchronization is the coordination of multiple processes or threads to

6]what is physical address space?

ans:the actual address in the main memory where data is stored

7]what is c

ontext switching?

ans:Context switching is a process in an operating system (OS) that allows the central processing unit
(CPU) to switch between processes or threads

8]what is page in os

ans:a fixed-length block of virtual memory that's the smallest unit of data used for memory
management.

9]what is term dispatcher

ans:A dispatcher in an operating system (OS) is a program that gives a process control of the CPU after
the scheduler selects it. The dispatcher's main function is to assign a ready process to the CPU.

10]what is booting

ans:Booting is the process of starting a computer and loading the operating system (OS) into the
computer's memory:

4 mark questions

1]advantages of distributed operating system

Scalability

Distributed systems can grow as needed by adding more nodes or processing units to the network.

Fault tolerance

If one node fails, the remaining nodes can continue to operate without disrupting the system.

Reliability

Distributed systems can handle system problems efficiently and are therefore reliable.

Speed

Distributed systems can provide superior performance compared to centralized systems.

Low latency

Distributed systems can reduce the time it takes to serve users by having machines that are
geographically located closer to users.

2]compare preemptive and non preemptive scheduling?

ans:Preemptive scheduling

Allows a running process to be interrupted by a higher priority process. In preemptive scheduling,

Non-preemptive scheduling

A new process must wait until the running process finishes its CPU cycle. In non-preemptive scheduling,
resources are allocated to a process until it finishes or changes to a waiting state. Non-preemptive
scheduling is strict because the CPU of the executing process is not affected even if a vital process joins
the ready queue.

Process scheduling is a key part of operating system design. It allocates system resources like memory
and CPU time to multiple processes or threads running at the same time.

3]list out functions of memory management?

ans:Here are some functions of memory management in an operating system (OS):

Track memory: Keep track of the amount of memory used and available

Allocate memory: Allocate the required amount of memory to processes

Reduce fragmentation: Reduce memory wastage or fragmentation issues

Protect processes: Protect processes from each other that are present in the main memory together

Utilize memory: Efficiently utilize the main memory

Implement policies: Implement policies for memory allocation

4]ist the types of schedulers and also explain short term scheduler in detail?

ans:types of schedulers are as follow:

long term schedulers

short term schedulers

medium term schedulers

short term:

It is responsible for selecting one process from the ready state for scheduling it on the running state.
Note: Short-term scheduler only selects the process to schedule it doesn’t load the process on running.
Here is when all the scheduling algorithms are used. The CPU scheduler is responsible for ensuring no
starvation due to high burst time processes.

5]define independent or dependent process

ans:In an operating system (OS), the difference between an independent process and a dependent
process is whether one process's execution affects another process's execution:

Independent process

The execution of one independent process does not affect the execution of another independent
process. Independent processes can run concurrently on a system without affecting or being affected by
other processes.

Dependent process

Also known as a cooperative process, the execution of one dependent process affects the execution of
another dependent process.

6]explain multi threading model in detail

ans:A thread is a flow of execution through a process code that has its own program counter, stack, and
system registers. The OS scheduler schedules processes and threads according to its scheduling
algorithm.

Benefits

Multithreading can improve performance by reducing the time spent waiting for a task to finish. It can
also help improve scalability and responsiveness.

Models

There are three established multithreading models: one-to-one, many-to-one, and many-to-many. The
many-to-many model is also called the two-level model.

Use cases
Multithreading is commonly used in applications that require responsiveness and parallelism, like web
servers and GUI applications. It's also used in high-performance computing, scientific simulations, and
large-scale data processing.

Challenges

Multithreading can be vulnerable to thread-related issues like data races and deadlocks. It can also
require more complex coordination mechanisms between tasks or processes.

6]which three requirement must be satisfied while designing while a solutions to the critical section
problem? explain in detail

ans:When designing a solution to the critical section problem, the three requirements that must be
satisfied are: Mutual Exclusion, Progress, and Bounded Waiting.

Explanation:

Mutual Exclusion:

Ensures that only one process can be executing within the critical section at a time, preventing
concurrent access to shared resources.

Progress:

Guarantees that if no process is currently in the critical section and there are processes waiting, then one
of those waiting processes will eventually be allowed to enter the critical section.

Bounded Waiting:

Specifies that a process waiting to enter the critical section will not wait indefinitely; there is a limit on
how many times other processes can enter the critical section before the waiting process gets a turn

7] describe pcb with all fields

ans:Pointer: It is a stack pointer that is required to be saved when the process is switched from one state
to another to retain the current position of the process.

Process state: It stores the respective state of the process.

Process number: Every process is assigned a unique id known as process ID or PID which stores the
process identifier.

Program counter: Program Counter stores the counter, which contains the address of the next
instruction that is to be executed for the process.

Register: Registers in the PCB, it is a data structure. When a processes is running and it’s time slice
expires, the current value of process specific registers would be stored in the PCB and the process would
be swapped out. When the process is scheduled to be run, the register values is read from the PCB and
written to the CPU registers. This is the main purpose of the registers in the PCB.

Memory limits: This field contains the information about memory management system used by the
operating system. This may include page tables, segment tables, etc.
List of Open files: This information includes the list of files opened for a process.

8]bounded buffer problem

Introduction. The bounded-buffer problems (aka the producer-consumer problem) is a classic example of
concurrent access to a shared resource. A bounded buffer lets multiple producers and multiple
consumers share a single buffer. Producers write data to the buffer and consumers read data from the
buffer.

9]diffrece between client server and peer to peer

ans:What is Peer-to-Peer Network?

This model does not differentiate the clients and the servers, In this each and every node is itself client
and server. In Peer-to-Peer Network, Each and every node can do both request and respond for the
services.

Peer-to-peer networks are often created by collections of 12 or fewer machines. All of these computers

In peer-to-peer networks, the nodes both consume and produce resources. Therefore, as the number of
nodes grows, so does the peer-to-peer network’s capability for resource sharing. This is distinct from
client-server networks where an increase in nodes causes the server to become overloaded.

It is challenging to give nodes in peer-to-peer networks proper security because they function as both
clients and servers. A denial of service attack may result from this.

The majority of contemporary operating systems, including Windows and Mac OS, come with software
to implement peer

peer to peer network

This model are broadly used network model. In the Client-Server Network, Clients and servers are
differentiated, and Specific servers and clients are present. In Client-Server Network, a Centralized server
is used to store the data because its management is centralized. In Client-Server Network, the Server
responds to the services which is requested by the Client.

10]describe segmentation in detail

ans:chunks that a program is divided into which are not necessarily all of the exact sizes are called
segments. Segmentation gives the user’s view of the process which paging does not provide. Here the
user’s view is mapped to physical memory.

Types of Segmentation in Operating Systems

Virtual Memory Segmentation: Each process is divided into a number of segments, but the segmentation
is not done all at once. This segmentation may or may not take place at the run time of the program.
Simple Segmentation: Each process is divided into a number of segments, all of which are loaded into
memory at run time, though not necessarily contiguously.

There is no simple relationship between logical addresses and physical addresses in segmentation. A
table stores the information about all such segments and is called Segment Table.

What is Segment Table?

It maps a two-dimensional Logical address into a one-dimensional Physical address. It’s each table entry
has:

Base Address: It contains the starting physical address where the segments reside in memory.

Segment Limit: Also known as segment offset. It specifies the length of the segment.

ans: