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Introduction to Financial Analysis

Kenneth S. Bigel
Touro College, [email protected]

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Introduction to Financial
Analysis
Introduction to Financial
Analysis

Kenneth S. Bigel

OPEN TOURO
NEW YORK, NY
Introduction to Financial Analysis Copyright © 2022 by Kenneth S.
Bigel is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License, except where otherwise noted.

Cover image: New York City (28) by Jesús Quiles is licensed under CC-BY
2.0

Idea icon made by Freepik from www.flaticon.com

Contents

About the Author xvi

Author's Acknowledgements xix

Open Touro Acknowledgements xxii

Preface xxiv

Part I. Financial Statements and Ratio

Analysis, and Forecasting

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Chapter One: Learning Outcomes 3

1.2 The Corporation 4
1.3 Business / Corporate Structure: The 6
Management Organization
1.4 The Finance Function Within the Cor- 7
poration
1.5 Capital Structure 9
1.6 Thinking Like an Economist: Abstrac- 11
tion
1.7 Abstraction: Absurd AND Necessary 16
1.8 Modes of Reasoning: Dialectical versus 18
Analytic
1.9 Finance Style 21
Chapter 2: Financial Statements
Analysis: The Balance Sheet

2.1 Chapter Two: Learning Outcomes 24

2.2 The Finance in the Financial Statements 25
2.3 The Balance Sheet 27
2.4 Sample Bookkeeping Entries 30
2.5 Current Assets: Inventory and Accounts 32
Receivable
2.6 Financial Claims Hierarchy 34
2.7 Interest Paid on Bonds and Dividends 37
Paid on Stock
2.8 Bankruptcy 39
2.9 The Balance Sheet, Net Income, and the 41
Common Shareholder
2.10 Corporate Goals 42
2.11 Words and Numbers (An Aside) 44
2.12 Chapter 2 Review Questions 46

Chapter 3: Financial Statements

Analysis: The Income Statement

3.1 Chapter Three: Learning Outcomes 50

3.2 The Income Statement 51
3.3 On Learning and Studying 58
3.4 Financial Statements: Interpretation 60
3.5 The Audit 63
3.6 Perpetual Inventory Accounting 65
3.7 Periodic Inventory Analysis: Ending 67
Inventory and Cost of Goods Sold
3.8 Units to Numbers: FIFO and LIFO 69
3.9 Inventory Costing Calculations: A 71
Closer Look at the COGS and Ending
Inventory Computations
3.10 Inventory Accounting Issues: LIFO 73
3.11 LIFO Base Illustration 76
3.12 Accounting for Long-term Assets: 78
Straight-Line Depreciation (For Reporting
Purposes Only)
3.13 Accounting Entries for Depreciation 80
3.14 Accelerated Depreciation Methods: 82
Sum-of-the-Years' Digits (For reporting
purposes only)
3.15 Accelerated Depreciation Methods: 84
Double/Declining Balance (For reporting
purposes only)
3.16 Comparative Summary of Deprecia- 86
tion Methods
3.17 The Balance Sheet versus the Income 88
Statement: A Summary
3.18 Chapter Three: Review Questions 90

Chapter 4: Financial Statements and

Finance

4.1 Chapter Four: Learning Outcomes 94

4.2 Accounting versus Finance 95
4.3 Earnings Management: Accrual, Real, 97
and Expectations Management
4.4 Business Ethics: Examples of Fraudu- 102
lent Revenue Recognition
4.5 Business Ethics: Examples of Fraudu- 105
lent Expense Recognition
4.6 Chapter 4: Review Questions 107

Part II: Ratio Analysis and Forecasting

Modeling

Chapter 5: Financial Ratios and

Forecasting; Liquidity and Solvency
Ratios

5.1 Chapter Five: Learning Outcomes 112

5.2 Financial Ratios and Forecasting 113
5.3 Financial Ratios 117
5.4 Longitudinal vs. Cross-sectional Analy- 120
sis (Example)
5.5 Liquidity and Liquidity Ratios 123
5.6 The Income Statement versus the Bal- 130
ance Sheet
5.7 Accounts Receivable Aging Schedule 132
5.8 Solvency Ratios 135

Chapter 6: Profitability and Return

Ratios, and Turnover

6.1 Chapter Six: Learning Outcomes 142

6.2 Profitability, Return and Asset Turnover 143
Ratios
6.3 The DuPont Model 147
6.4 What Does the Dupont Model Show 150
Us?
6.5 Financial Ratios in Action 152

Chapter 7: Market Ratios

7.1 Chapter Seven: Learning Outcomes 156

7.2 Market Ratios 157
7.3 Earnings Retention and Growth 163
7.4 The P/BV (Price-to-Book Value) 165
and P/E (Price-Earnings) Ratios
7.5 Ratio Analysis Exercise 170
7.6 Solution Template for Ratio Analysis 172
Problem
7.7 Solution for Ratio Analysis Problem 174
7.8 Adjustments to Basic Financial Ratios 176
for Companies That Have Preferred Stock
7.9 Illustration of Effect of Preferred Stock 178
on Earnings Retention
7.10 Industry Data Benchmarks 180
7.11 Some Limitations of Financial Ratios 182
7.12 Chapters 5 - 7: Review Questions 184

Chapter 8: Cash Flow, Depreciation, and

Financial Projections

8.1 Chapter Eight: Learning Outcomes 188

8.2 Pro Forma Financial Analysis: The Cor- 189
porate Environment
8.3 Pro-Forma (Projected) Cash Flow 192
Analysis
8.4 Incrementalism 196
8.5 Corporate Forecasting and Strategic 198
Planning
8.6 Forecasting Solution 201
8.7 The Tax Effect of Depreciation 203

Chapter 9: Corporate Forecasting

Models

9.1 Chapter Nine: Learning Outcomes 207

9.2 Free Cash Flow 208
9.3 Free Cash Flow Exercises 217
9.4 External Funds Needed Formula (EFN) 224
9.5 Internal and External Funds (Summary) 229
9.6 The EFN Formula Explained 231
9.7 EFN Application 234
9.8 EFN Solution 236
9.9 Summary: The Fundamentals of 242
Accounting and Financial Analysis
9.10 Chapters Eight & Nine: Review Ques- 243
tions
Part III: The Time Value of Money

Chapter 10: The Time Value of Money:

Simple Present- and Future-Values

10.1 Chapter Ten: Learning Outcomes 252

10.2 The Time Value of Money and Interest 253
10.3 Interest-on-the-Interest: The Nature of 261
Compound Interest
10.4 Some More Simple TVM Problems 263
10.5 Simple Future and Present Values 266
(Formulas)
10.6 Compounding Frequency Assumption 268
10.7 Simple Future and Present Values: 270
Continuous Compounding (Supplemental)
10.8 Characteristics of the Time Value of 272
Money: FV and PV
10.9 Future and Present Value Factors 274
(Multipliers)
10.10 A Word on Compounding Frequency 276
and Annual Equivalent Rates
10.11 Interpolation 278
10.12 Interpolation Illustrated 280
10.13 Some TVM Practice Questions 282
10.14 The Volatility of the Time Value of 284
Money
10.15 The First and Second Derivatives 289
Illustrated
Chapter 11: The Time Value of Money:
Annuities, Perpetuities, and Mortgages

11.1 Chapter Eleven: Learning Outcomes 295

11.2 Annuities 296
11.3 The Derivation of (Ordinary) Annuity 297
Factors
11.4 The Derivation of Annuity Factors 299
(Solution)
11.5 Future and Present Annuity Values: 301
The Nature of Their Cash Flows
11.6 Future and Present Annuity Factors: 303
Mathematical Formulas
11.7 Characteristics of Annuity Factors: A 305
Review
11.8 Annuities: Practice Problems 308
11.9 Annuities Due 310
11.10 Annuities Due (Solutions) 312
11.11 Adjustment from Ordinary Annuity 314
to Annuity Due
11.12 Uneven Cash Flows 316
11.13 Uneven Cash Flows (Solutions) 317
11.14 Uneven Cash Flows (Practice Prob- 319
lem)
11.15 Uneven Cash Flows (Practice Prob- 320
lem Solutions)
11.16 Uneven Cash Flows: Another Self- 321
Test Practice Problem
11.17 Solution to Another Uneven Cash 323
Flow Practice Problem
11.18 Perpetuities: No-Growth Perpetuities 324
11.19 The “Law of Limits” and Perpetuities 326
11.20 Growth Perpetuities 329
11.21 Fractional Time Periods 332
11.22 Loans: The Conventional Mortgage 334
11.23 A Few Thoughts about Mortgages 337
11.24 Summary Comparison of 15- and 339
30-Year Mortgages
11.25 Personal Financial Planning Problem 343
11.26 Summary: The Time Value of 345
Money
11.27 Chapters 10 - 11: Review Questions 347

Part IV Interest Rates, Valuation, and

Return

Chapter 12: Fixed Income Valuation

12.1 Chapter Twelve: Learning Outcomes 352

12.2 Security Return: The Holding Pattern 353
Return (Raw Calculation)
12.3 Valuation Premise 356
12.4 Fixed Income Securities: Bond Com- 358
ponents and Valuation Formula
12.5 Fixed Income Securities: Dollar Price 361
and Yield-to-Maturity
12.6 Bond Dollar Prices: Discount, Par, and 365
Premium
12.7 The True Price of a Bond 367
Chapter 13: Interest Rates

13.1 Chapter Thirteen: Learning Outcomes 370

13.2 Interest Rates: Returns to Investors; 372
Cost to the Corporation
13.3 Inside the Banker’s Brain 379
13.4 Fixed Income Risks 380
13.5 Interest Rate and Reinvestment Rate 385
Risks
13.6 Credit Ratings 387
13.7 The Yield Curve 393
13.8 The Term Structure of Interest Rates: 397
Four Yield Curve Theories
13.9 Credit Spreads 404
13.10 High Yield Securities: Junk Bonds 408
and Other Speculative Securities
13.11 Summary: Interest Rates, the Corpo- 410
ration, and Financial Markets

Chapter 14: Equity Valuation and

Return Measurement

14.1 Chapter Fourteen: Learning Outcomes 413

14.2 The Philosophy of Equity Valuation 414
14.3 Equity Valuation 416
14.4 The Dividend Discount Model 419
(DDM): Fixed Dividend or No- Growth
Version
14.5 The Dividend Discount Model 421
(DDM): Constant Growth Version
14.6 Dividend Discount Model (DDM) 425
(Problems)
14.7 Dividend Discount Model (Solutions) 427
14.8 What About Quarterly Dividends? 429
14.9 Components of the Dividend Discount 433
Model
14.10 A Closer Look at Dividend Growth 436
14.11 Summary of DDM Variables' Sources 438
14.12 Value Prediction Problem 440
14.13 A Qualitative Look at The Discount 442
Rate
14.14 Business Ethics: The Small Investor's 445
Experience of Insider Trading
14.15 Capital Gains 448
14.16 Portfolio Return (Weighted Aver- 453
ages)
14.17 The Geometric Average Return: 457
Multi-year Returns
14.18 Chapters 12-14: Review Questions 459
xvi Kenneth S. Bigel

About the Author

Dr. Kenneth Bigel

• The Lander College for Men (LCM), a division

of Touro University
◦ Professor of Finance and Business
Ethics
◦ Campus Chair, Business Department

Dr. Bigel was formerly a fixed income analyst in the Inter-

national Banking Department of the Bankers Trust Com-
pany (now DeutscheBank), analyzing international
wholesale loans and debt instruments, and a graduate of its
Institutional Credit Training Program. He later was affili-

xvi
 Introduction to Financial Analysis xvii

ated with the Ford Motor Company, conducting investment

analysis and planned car profits analysis, annual budgeting,
and strategic planning. Subsequently, he worked as a senior
portfolio manager attached to the wealth management divi-
sion of Prudential Securities. He was formerly registered
under Series 3, 7, 15, 24, 63, and 65.

As an independent consultant, he was involved in numer-

ous high-profile cases including Enron. Dr. Bigel has con-
ducted executive education programs for Morgan Stanley
Capital Markets, Merrill Lynch Capital Markets, UBS,
Lehman Brothers, CIBC, G.X. Clarke & Co. (now part
of Goldman Sachs), and China CITIC Bank. He currently
serves on the Financial Industry Regulatory Association’s
Board of Arbitrators.

His extensive published research relates to Financial Ethics

and Moral Development, Behavioral Finance, and Political
Economy. He has been teaching college and graduate level
finance courses since 1989.

Dr. Bigel has been interviewed on American radio, was a

visiting scholar at Sichuan University and at Xi’an Jiaotong
University in China, and appeared on Chinese television.
At Touro University, he is a member of the Faculty Senate,
The Touro Academy of Leadership and Management, The
Assessments Committee, and The Promotions Committee.
He chairs the Integrity Committee at LCM.

His wife and their three children reside in New York City.
He enjoys reading, playing 60’s guitar, seeing his students
succeed professionally, and watching his kids grow.

Educational Background:
xviii Kenneth S. Bigel

• Ph.D., (high honors) New York University,

Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and
Human Development (Business Education and
Financial Ethics)

• M.B.A., New York University, Stern School of

Business (Finance)
• B.A. (honors), Brooklyn College of the City
University of New York (Philosophy and Math-
ematics)
• CFP™, International Board of Standards and
Practices for Certified Financial Planners
• Hebrew University of Jerusalem (one-year pro-
gram)

Dr. Bigel welcomes questions and constructive sugges-

tions. He can be reached at <[email protected]>.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis xix

Author's Acknowledgements

Sometime in the fall of 2018, Dr. Moshe Sokol, Dean of

the Lander College for Men, nominated me to the Touro
Academy of Leadership and Management. TCALM, as it
became known, is an advisory group to our institution’s
Provost and President concerning institution-wide strategic
initiatives. Thank you Dr. Sokol for your support in this
and so many other enterprises. You are my mentor, col-
league, and friend.

As a member of TCALM, I was privileged to sit through

fascinating monthly seminars on multiple subjects deliv-
ered by compelling and diverse speakers on a range of top-
ics. In the end, my team, consisting of Dr. Barbara Capozzi,
and Dr. Jennifer Zelnick, created the Touro Interdiscipli-
nary Institute for Healthy Aging (TIIHA). I wish to thank
TCALM management, and especially Drs. Laurie Bobley,
Sabra Brock, and Alan Sebel for the fine work they did
in designing and implementing the program. In the Fall of
2019, Touro’s president, Dr. Alan Kadish ceremoniously
awarded me and my new colleagues, Certificates of Com-
pletion. It was a privilege and an honor.

In the course of my membership in TCALM, I met Sara

Tabaei, a fellow member and Touro Library’s Information
Literacy Director, who introduced me to Open Touro, an
open educational resources (OER) project that she initiated
in 2018. This led to my being introduced to Mr. Kirk Sny-
der, Touro’s OER and Instruction Librarian, who coordi-
nated the peer review process for this book, painstakingly

xix
xx Kenneth S. Bigel

edited my words, and formatted the raw document into

the highly readable and aesthetic work you will see on
the pages to follow. Mr. Snyder’s endless patience, dili-
gence, and unfailing attention to details are admired with
gratitude. This work would never have seen the light of
day without you, Kirk. Ms. Jacquelyn Albanese, a student
library assistant, complemented Kirk with invaluable pro-
duction assistance.

This work started out as class notes and gradually devel-

oped into the product before you. The questions and
thoughts of my students are embedded in these pages. I
learned new perspectives to the material from students.
These questions often resulted in my penning wholly addi-
tional pages concerning issues that had not occurred to me
and which demanded development. I wrote this book for
you. Thanks, guys!

I wish to express my appreciation to Touro’s Dean of Fac-

ulties, Dr. Stanley Boylan who, over the years, has sup-
ported my academic work and with whom I can say that
I have developed a warm personal and productive profes-
sional relationship.

Last, I owe may greatest gratitude to my wife and three

amazing children. When I joined Touro University’s
Queens campus (the Lander College for Men), the school
had just opened and had few students. The demands on my
time were challenging. My then two children were under
the age of three and needed paternal attention. I would
come home late at night after having completed my classes
and they would already be asleep. My now three children
know little about my long life before I joined Touro; they
know me only as a Touro professor. They forgave me for
not being there to do homework with them (I did manage to
 Introduction to Financial Analysis xxi

squeeze in some) and for not tucking them in at night. They

came out alright, thanks to the wonderful love and unceas-
ing care of their mother, my dear wife, Mira.

And it is to her that I owe the deepest and never-ending

gratitude. Mira, you personify the notion of Eshet Chayil,
and are my personal Woman of Valor. To say more would
merely be understatement and misspent words (haval al
hazeman). I love you forever and always.

I am humbled and grateful to each and every one men-

tioned on these pages, and it is to you that these pages are
dedicated.
xxii Kenneth S. Bigel

Open Touro Acknowledgements

Open Touro was founded by Touro College Libraries in

2018, as the Open Educational Resources initiative of
Touro College & University System (now Touro Univer­
sity). Open Touro aims to reduce the cost of textbooks
for students by promoting innovative and equitable open
education practices. Open Touro initially launched through
the vision and efforts of the Library’s Information Literacy
Director, Sara Tabaei, and Open Educational Resources
(OER) Librarians Juliana Terciotti Magro, and Georgia
Westbrook. The initiative is currently co-led by Ms. Tabaei,
Scholarly Communication & Data Librarian Timothy
Valente, and OER & Instruction Librarian, Kirk Snyder,
with the help and support of many others across Touro.

Introduction to Financial Analysisby Kenneth S. Bigel, is

Open Touro’s first original OER publication. Further col­
laborations with faculty author Dr. Bigel are forthcoming,
the next of which, Corporate Finance, is currently in pro­
duction.

Open Touro wishes to thank the following individuals who

served as blind reviewers for Introduction to Financial
Analysis, providing invaluable feedback toward its
improvement during the development process:

Kenneth Abbott, Baruch College

Sabra Brock, Touro University

xxii
 Introduction to Financial Analysis xxiii

Yiqin Chen, Baruch College

Chayim Herskowitz, Touro University

Joseph Perlman, Touro University

Lall Ramrattan, University of California, Berkeley Exten-

sion

Michael Szenberg, Touro University

xxiv Kenneth S. Bigel

Preface

Unique Pedagogical Style

This text is written so that the reader can absorb relatively

small bytes of information at a time without ever feeling
overwhelmed. Each page is short and has a unique topical
heading on which the student can focus and easily retain.
The paragraphs are kept short, just as you will note they are
on this page, to enable the reader to pause, take a breath,
and review in his/her mind what s/he just read before going
on. Occasionally, concepts and explanation are repeated in
consecutive paragraphs in order to present an idea from
multiple perspectives and to deepen one’s comprehension.

The writing style attempts to avoid jargon, except where

necessary. In such cases, the terminology is explained so
that the reader may proceed with clarity. Still, there are
many words and phrases that one must acquire in Finance.
At times, vocabulary words are highlighted in the margins.

Readers are advised to simultaneously press on the

“CTRL” and “F” buttons at which time a window will open
in which a search word may be entered. This will enable
the reader to go back and review concepts at will.

The chapters are organized and written so that the reader

get directly to the point, without unnecessary information
and “fluff.” There is a certain flow to the chapters and sec-
tions within the chapters that is intended to make learning
smooth and enjoyable.

xxiv
 Introduction to Financial Analysis xxv

Concepts and Computations

Financial Analysis, by and large, incorporates Accounting

concepts. Thus, it is imperative that the analyst understand
the numbers, which s/he will utilize in his/her analysis.
This text exposes the reader to the many shortcomings
in reading Financial Statements. No prior knowledge of
Accounting is assumed. The text, in its early chapters,
will tenderly lead the reader through the arcane world of
Accounting and point out the many shortcomings in read-
ing the statements and in conducting elementary Financial
Analysis.
The reader should have some facility with very basic Alge-
bra, in particular, s/he should be able to solve for an
unknown in a simple formula, to be able to transpose a
value from one side of an equation to the other, and to be
to calculate exponents and roots. The text will make Alge-
bra easy by showing, where necessary, the correct solutions
step-by-step.

The text will proceed to Ratio Analysis, the very basic tools
of financial analysis, incorporating the previously learned
Accounting data. It will then proceed to the notion of the
Time Value of Money, which is the central concept in all of
finance. The text will conclude with Stock and Bond Val-
uation, which are based on all the previous information of
the text. Thus, the reader will build upon his/her knowledge
by going from concept to concept in smooth, linear fashion,
ever reaching for higher and higher planes of knowledge.

<span style=”text-decoration: underline;”The Nuances of

Financial Analysis

Financial Analysis, at the end of the day, is just common

sense, or common business sense. Financial and Mathe-
xxvi Kenneth S. Bigel

matical principles must conform to the realities of the field

and not the other way around. The mathematics are a tool
and not an end. In a sense, a financial analyst is bi-lingual;
a student will translate financial principles into formulae
when advised and can explain in plain English the mean-
ing and application of such formulae when first presented
with one. It is all supposed to make sense. This book tries
to capture this dual and essential nature of Finance. As the
reader goes through the text, s/he should increasingly gain
a sense of empowerment, confidence, and mastery of the
subject.

Quotations

The text is replete with quotations from an eclectic myriad

of sources including the Bible, the Talmud, great Greek
philosophers, famous politicians, modern and popular
thinkers from the 18th century onward, and more. The quo-
tations are not intended to postulate or promote a point-of-
view, especially where religion is concerned, but instead to
inspire the reader to persevere in his/her study, to continue
toward the achievement of great heights, and to always
consider the social impact of his/her actions. Mastery of
Finance presents a person with the opportunity to better
oneself in so many ways while simultaneously bettering
society-at-large. And that is very cool.

Problem-solving

In virtually each chapter and ends-of chapters, the reader

will find formulae to be solved, tables that need to be filled-
in, and occasional diagrams to be drawn. The intent is to
make the material come alive so that the student can both
learn and test him/herself in the process. Solutions are gen-
erally provided to all these fill-ins so that the reader may
 Introduction to Financial Analysis xxvii

verify whether s/he resolved the problem correctly and may

correct any errors in so doing.

Forthcoming in Dr. Bigel’s Basic Finance Series:

Corporate Finance

Securities Markets and Instruments

Introduction to Fixed Income Mathematics

1 Kenneth S. Bigel

Part I. Financial Statements

and Ratio Analysis, and
Forecasting

Part I. Financial Statements and Ratio Analysis, and Forecasting

Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Financial Statements Analysis: The Balance
Sheet
Chapter 3: Financial Statements Analysis: The Income
Statement
Chapter 4: Financial Statements and Finance

1
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 2

Chapter 1: Introduction

2
3 Kenneth S. Bigel

1.1 Chapter One: Learning Outcomes

Learning Outcomes

In this chapter, you will:

• Imagine what a corporation is, its purpose, and

how it is organized.
• Identify the place of the Finance function
within the corporation.
• Distinguish between abstract and concrete rea-
soning.
• Formulate abstract hypotheses and statements.
• Think deliberatively as a financial professional.

3
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 4

1.2 The Corporation

There are two ways of being happy: We must either

diminish our wants or augment our means – either
may do –the result is the same and it is for each
man to decide for himself and to do that which hap­
pens to be easier.
-Benjamin Franklin

What is a corporation? You may have noticed that the Latin

word “corpus” seems to appear within it. Indeed, it is a
body! It is not human or animal, and it has no physical
shape. You cannot see it or touch it. It will have compo-
nents that take physical form, such as a building or inven-
tory, but the corporation itself is non-corporeal.

So, what is it? It is a legal entity. It exists only as a legal

construct. As such it is said that the corporation is a “per-
son” under the law. It exists in a legal sense. It can be sued.
It can be fined. It is owned by people who purchase own-
ership interests in it. These interests or “claims” are called
“shares” or “stock.” Owners are referred to as “sharehold-
ers.” Shareholders have a claim on the company’s profits.
We may thus also refer to this type of corporation as a
“stock corporation.” It is in business – generally speaking –

4
5 Kenneth S. Bigel

to make money for its shareholders, although it may serve

other more altruistic purposes as well.

The corporation, thus, as an independent person, is legally

separate from the owners. The corporation may be sued
for damages, but the owners may not be – unless the court
determines that the owner is somehow legally liable for a
wrong-doing himself and apart from the separate actions of
the corporation. Therefore, the owners are protected from
legal responsibilities. This does not absolve corporate man-
agers from legal malfeasance if they did other wrongs, e.g.,
dumping waste illegally.

One downside to the owners is that the corporation itself is

a taxable entity. It pays income taxes and then the share-
holders, once again, will pay income taxes on any profits
distributed to them. These profit distributions are called
“dividends.” We class this “double taxation.”

Of course, there are numerous other means by which a

company may be organized in order to avoid double-tax-
ation, but not all will provide the umbrella protection that
the corporation provides. You can learn about these busi-
ness forms in a Management or Tax course.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 6

1.3 Business / Corporate Structure: The

Management Organization

It is well and fine, and critical, to learn what the Finance

discipline’s intellectual landmarks are, but the student cer-
tainly wants to know how Finance fits into the actual cor-
porate (business) context, which is the focus of this text.
Here we shall see.

The corporation will have both an “organizational struc-

ture,” detailing the manner in which the firm actually
operates and a capital structure, which is depicted on the
Balance Sheet. We will get to the Balance Sheet soon.
First, the organization.

There are four-six basic business functions in the organi-

zation:

6
7 Kenneth S. Bigel

1.4 The Finance Function Within the

Corporation

The controller and treasurer of a company serve different

functions, although these differences may vary from firm
to firm. Both report to the vice president of finance or
chief financial officer (CFO). One of the two may also be
the CFO, more probably the treasurer. There will be some
variance in structure from company to company. The CFO
reports to the Chief Operating Officer (COO) or to the
Chief Executive Officer (CEO).

Here are some typical functions of each.

7
Introduction to Financial Analysis 8
9 Kenneth S. Bigel

1.5 Capital Structure

Above, we discussed the firm’s organizational structure.

This is how corporations operate. The firm will also have
a “Capital Structure,” which will be represented on its
Balance Sheet. The Balance Sheet will consist of Assets,
Liabilities and Owners’ Equity.

Assets are what the company owns, including inventory,

plant and equipment, among other items. Liabilities are
what the company owes to others including suppliers and
lenders. Equity is the value of what the owners have
invested in the company.

Companies acquire Capital (Liabilities + Equity) in order

to, in turn, “finance” (i.e., pay for) the acquisition and
maintenance of its assets. Assets, in turn, are exploited to
produce sales, which will – hopefully – deliver profits and
a return to the shareholders, who are the owners of the
corporation.

The basic “accounting equation” is: Assets equals Liabili-

ties plus Equity, or A = L + E. A Balance Sheet must,
well, balance, as noted here.

Assets will be on the left and Liabilities plus equity will

be on the right – like the Ten Commandments! In general,

9
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 10

the word “Capital” will refer to the right side of the Bal-
ance Sheet. The firm’s Capital is not free; it has an eco-
nomic cost; lenders expect interest on its loans to the
company and shareholders expect dividends and the
growth of dividends of their equity investment in the firm.
The economic cost of the firm’s capital represents the
return to lenders and stock investors. Where there is a
return to investors (lenders and owners), there must be a
cost to the corporation who provides the return. Two sides
to the same coin.

In order to be competitive, a corporation must also cover

its “Opportunity Cost.” If an investor in the corporation can
earn a better return in an equivalent alternative investment,
s/he will choose the better alternative. This is a basic prin-
ciple of Economics. The corporation, in order to be able
to attract investment, must therefore cover its Opportunity
Costs, i.e., the alternative return an investor gives up when
making an investment in this corporation.

We will discuss the Balance Sheet further in depth on the

pages to follow. For now, let’s re-wire our brains so that we
think like Financial Economists.
11 Kenneth S. Bigel

1.6 Thinking Like an

Economist: Abstraction

Economics, and its offspring, Finance, are abstract

(social) sciences. In order to study economics, it is essential
that one understands what an abstraction is.

An abstraction is an idea, intended to mir­

ror reality in its simplest form. The world
Key is a very complicated place; there are
Terms: many variables or inputs, some identifi­
able, others not, that affect an outcome,
and which we endeavor to identify. In
order to understand the outcome which is
Abstract
generally true, but not necessarily
Abstrac- absolutely or always so, one must engage
tion in a process of simplification that
Simplifica- requires removing minor variables from a
tion general idea in order to reduce the notion
to its essential characteristics. Indeed, the
Latin word, “abstract,” comes from
“drawing” or “taking away from.”

The ever-changing kaleidoscope of raw reality

11
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 12

would defeat the human mind by its complexity,

except for the mind’s ability to abstract,
to pick out parts and think of them as a whole.
Thomas Sowell
A Conflict of Visions (2002), p. 5

In this process, one is able to derive a

broad, general conclusion, based on first
principles from which is derived a gen-
eral idea or rule. In economics, this
requires a ceteris paribus assumption,
that is to say, holding “all else equal.”
Initially, it is assumed that no other vari- First Prin-
ables matter and are thus ignored away. It ciples
takes some discipline to do this at first, Ceteris
but it quickly becomes easy; you must Paribus
merely keep it in mind.
All else
equal
In circumstances where
little given or known
information may be at
hand, one must assume
reasonable default
assumptions, i.e.,
Default
premises, which make Assump-
sense in general and in tion
the simplest, most com-
Premise
mon form possible.
While it may be facile to
 13 Kenneth S. Bigel

imagine other considerations, or variables, that may come

into play, one must avoid doing this, in order to focus on
just a few key variables, which affect the outcome. Here is
1
a relevant comment by Dr. Milton Friedman :

A hypothesis is important if it “explains” much by

little, that is, if it abstracts the common and cru­
cial elements from the mass of complex and detailed
circumstances surrounding the phenomena to be
explained and permits valid predictions on the basis
ofthem alone. To be important, therefore, a hypoth­
esis must be descriptively false in its assumptions;
it takes account of, and accounts for, none of the
many other attendant circumstances, since its very
success shows them to be irrelevant for the phenom­
ena to be explained….

To be sure, Dr. Friedman’s comments are

not without criticism, but nevertheless are
adhered to, by and large, in the social sci-
ences, including, of course, economics. In
certain other disciplines, including law,
political theory, history, philosophy, and
Dialectical possibly others, we do not engage in this
Reasoning
mode of reasoning. In these fields, by
Mode of contrast, we are often engaged in dialec­
Reasoning tical reasoning. There, we first state a
Thesis/ thesis, then examine its antithesis. We go
Antithesis/ back and forth numerous times until we
Synthesis can arrive at a synthesis, which is conclu-
sive or dispositive.

1. Friedman, Milton. (1953). Essays in Positive Economics. Chicago: University

of Chicago Press. pp. 14-15.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 14

Those of you that are accustomed to dialectical reasoning

must diligently avoid the natural instinct to quickly imag-
ine the antithesis; rather you must remain steadfast to the
line of reasoning demanded by the more linear manner of
abstract argumentation, based on first principles and ceteris
paribus delimitations. (A “delimitation” is a limitation that
one person herself imposes on the scope of her reasoning.)

When, in certain instances, we deviate

from abstract reasoning, we assume spe-
cific, more descriptive, circumstances in
a contextual or “concrete” manner. The
result may not be generalizable. If a con-
clusion is generalizable, we say that it is
Descrip-
true in the overwhelming number of tive
instances, although not necessarily all.
Contextual
For instance, it is known via mathematics Concrete
and reason, that interest rates and stock Generaliz-
prices are inversely related. Rates go up, able
prices go down. This is true beyond any
doubt – if we assume ceteris paribus. At
the same time, it is more than just interest
rates alone that affect stock prices.

One of the beauties of abstract reasoning is that it enables

us to employ other, more reasonable assumptions when we
find that a model has poor predictive power.

Happy travels!
15 Kenneth S. Bigel

Religion without science is blind, science without

religion is lame.

– Albert Einstein
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 16

1.7 Abstraction: Absurd AND

Necessary

You thought we were done talking about abstraction. Sorry

– one last discussion. It is that important. Here’s a relevant
joke:

A chemist, a physicist, and an economist are stranded on a

desert island. They have an ample supply of canned food,
but alas, no can opener.

The chemist suggests that they should light a fire under the
cans so that they would burst open.
The physicist suggests dropping the cans from the cliff to
its rocky bottom to smash them open.

The economist declares: “Let’s assume we have a can

opener.”

Financial and economic theory makes, what may appear at

first, some absurd assumptions. But that is only because
the social world, the world inhabited by people, is far more
complex, in many ways, than the real world, the world of
the hard sciences.

Are the chemist’s molecules motivated by fear and greed?

Will ambition or altruism affect the trajectory of the falling
cans? Economists cannot keep track of every alternative
that the human mind may consider, so it abstracts by look-
ing into the outcomes or choices that are usually indepen-

16
17 Kenneth S. Bigel

dent of human foibles, or dare I say, are “logical.” Without

abstraction, economists would never arrive at any general-
izations. We would therefore learn nothing! Zilch.

Suppose you just arrived in New York City for the first
time. If you wish to find Times Square, would you use a
map (imagine that there is no GPS or Waze) that details all
the streets, or just the main arteries? No! You would not
be concerned with all the confusing, and mostly useless,
details.

A burgeoning field, Behavioral Economics and Finance,

deals with the human condition and its interaction with tra-
ditional, “objective” economics. However, first things first.

Being ignorant is not so much a shame, as being

unwilling to learn.
-Benjamin Franklin

Instruct me and I shall be silent. Make me under­

stand where I have erred.

-Book of Job (6:24) (Artscroll translation)

 Introduction to Financial Analysis 18

1.8 Modes of Reasoning: Dialectical

versus Analytic

What is Dialectical Reasoning?

1. The process of arriving at the truth by stating a

thesis, developing a contradictory antithesis
based on concrete possibilities, and combining
them into a coherent synthesis, often after
numerous variations and iterations.
2. A method of “argument” or exposition that sys-
tematically weighs an idea with a view to the reso-
lution of its real or apparent contradictions.

How to Engage in Abstract or Analytic Reasoning

Analytic argumentation differs markedly from Dialectical.

The following pertains to the Analytic method only. Keep
it in mind.

1. Analytic reasoning commences with a first prin­

ciple or assumption. On this foundation, an
“argument” is built.

◦ Assumptions must be reasonable and

generally true.

2. An argument is not a debate. Do not start with

an oppositional counter-statement. It is not
about “winning.”

18
19 Kenneth S. Bigel

3. Do not spar with the argument. First try to

understand it.

◦ Taking a contrary position

will not assist you in understanding
the proposition or argument better.

4. Arguments are often nuanced, not black and

white.
5. An argument is not an opinion. The latter is sub­
jective.
6. In college (and later in life), an opinion is not
necessarily a “right” to which a student is “enti­
tled.” Sound reasoning, i.e., a good argument,
trumps opinion.
7. Any position you take must be based on sound
argument.

The Talmudic method invariably prefers to pose

questions in a
concrete rather than an abstract form.
–Rabbi Adin Even-Israel Steinsaltz
Reference Guide to the Talmud, p. 131 (2014)

We can safely assert that if one applies a lit match to a piece

pf paper, the paper will burn. This is true in general and
assumes that all else is equal. BUT what IF it is raining?
What IF the paper is treated with a fire retardant? Do these,
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 20

somewhat absurd violations of our ceteris paribus postu-

late negate the veracity of the general principle that paper
burns? Here the word “BUT” is oppositional. The word
“IF” creates a concrete context, a narrow circumstance,
with the, often unconscious, purpose of finding reason to
deny a generally sound principle, e.g., that paper burns.
21 Kenneth S. Bigel

1.9 Finance Style

Students very often will come to their first finance class

well-read in an impressive host of subjects, including his-
tory, literature, and more, but not necessarily in economics
or finance.

Finance, as certain other “scientific” subjects, is written in

a markedly different style; it is notably terse and succinct.
Words are not parsed, and expansive, colorful prose is con-
sistently eschewed. Sparse, precise language is the rule.

Unlike literature, for instance, one may find that s/he has to
read the same sentence several times until s/he gets it. You
just can’t put your feet up, and slice through many pages in
relatively short order.

Do not get frustrated when this happens. Kick around the

notions discussed in your head, until you get it. Then kick
it over again; you may find that you can see the same thing
from different angles with increasing thought. That should
invigorate you. Start thinking in Abstract Terms – like a
Financial Economist.

Spend extra time on each paragraph and page. You may

find that you have to substantially slow down the pace of
your reading.

As formulae are presented, carefully check the calculations

to be sure you agree. You will find this extremely helpful

21
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 22

in increasing your understanding and insight. Always keep

your calculator handy as you read.

Be methodical and take your time. You will find that you
will adjust to the new style, and you will find enjoyment
in your increasing mastery! Think deliberately. Don’t think
too fast!
23 Kenneth S. Bigel

Chapter 2: Financial
Statements Analysis: The
Balance Sheet

23
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 24

2.1 Chapter Two: Learning Outcomes

Learning Outcomes

In this chapter, you will:

• Define each Balance Sheet account.

• Calculate the basic Accounting Equation.
• Identify debit and credit entries for the Balance
Sheet.
• Rank the items in the Financial Claims Hierar-
chy.
• Trace the link from the Income Statement to
the Balance Sheet.

24
25 Kenneth S. Bigel

2.2 The Finance in the Financial

Statements

Why do we care about Financial Statements in a Finance

course? Finance begins where the Certified Public Accoun­
tant’s job ends. The accountant’s job is to carefully exam­
ine the company’s financial records (its “books”) in order
first to determine their accuracy and veracity. The accoun­
tant will then simplify the data and summarize them into
three Financial Statements: The Balance Sheet, The
Income Statement, and the Cash Flow Statement. In this
text we will deal only with the first two statements.

The accountant does not have completely free rein regard-

ing the manner in which the financial data are summarized.
S/he must abide by “Generally Accepted Accounting Prin-
ciples”, also known simply as GAAP. This is the rulebook
for the accounting profession. GAAP rules are set by the
accounting profession’s rule-making body, the Financial
Accounting Standards Board (FASB). The accounting pro-
fession in turn, derives its legal status from a federal gov-
ernment organization called the Security and Exchange
Commission or “SEC.” By law, the SEC empowers the
accounting profession to make its own rules and to police
the rules – with the SEC’s oversight. As many of you may
already know, the SEC also oversees the United States’
financial markets.

All Financial Statements, including the Balance Sheet, will

be provided to lenders who will examine the statements

25
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 26

prior to making any lending determinations. “Public Com­

panies,” i.e., corporations whose stock is “traded” (bought
and sold) on a public stock exchange where stock is bought
and sold, are required to release their statements to anyone
who requests them. Again, this is an SEC requirement.

The skilled financial analyst will then read the statements

because s/he is an “interested party” and wants to know
whether an investment in the company is well and fine
or whether a potential investment may be advised. S/he
may represent lenders or equity shareholders; either party
may be considered “investors.” Reading the statements
requires advanced education concerning how the accoun­
tant compiled the statements. GAAP rules are quite com­
plex.

In summary, the accountant is a trained historian of sorts.

The financial analyst will read the accountant’s end-prod­
uct but is more future oriented. The latter is only concerned
about how a potential investment will perform in the
future.
27 Kenneth S. Bigel

2.3 The Balance Sheet

The Balance Sheet presents a static, unchanging, still-pho-

tograph of a company’s financial position at a moment in
time, i.e., “as of” a certain date, often December 31st. In
theory, any of the figures on the balance sheet would be
different, either larger or smaller, on the very first day fol-
lowing (or before) the statement date. The Balance Sheet
is usually issued every quarter, i.e., every three months. A
very simple balance sheet will look something like the fol-
lowing (with the numbers filled in). Take note that any
actual Balance Sheet you may examine may differ from
this simple example.

XYZ Corp. Balance Sheet as of 12.31.XX

All Asset accounts are “debit balance” accounts. That

means that when the account increases (decreases), the
amount is recorded on the debit (credit) side of the firm’s
ledger. Liability and Equity Accounts are “credit balance”
accounts. We make these entries into the bookkeeper’s
ledger’s “T-Accounts” (see immediately below). This

27
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 28

mechanistic framework is fundamental to “double-entry

book-keeping.”

Let’s repeat this: Asset accounts are “debit balance” (debit

= “Dr”) accounts, whereas liability and owners’ (or share-
holders’) equity are “credit balance” (credit = “Cr”)
accounts. Increases (decreases) in asset accounts are char-
acterized by debit (credit) entries; increases (decreases) in
liability and equity accounts are characterized by credit
(debit) entries.

In “double-entry” bookkeeping, for every debit entry there

must be a credit entry. Debits must equal credits, and the
balance sheet must balance: Total Assets = Total Liabilities
+ Equity. This is the basic accounting equation.

Basic accounting equation: The following equations must,

by definition, be true:

A = L + E (Assets = Liabilities plus Equity)

A – L = E (Assets minus Liabilities = Equity)

There are also contra-asset accounts (such as accumulated

depreciation and allowance for uncollectible accounts
receivables), which are “credit balance” (credit = Cr)
accounts. These contra-accounts effectively reduce the
(net) asset accounts and are credit entries.

The phrase “current,” as in “current assets,” has to do with

the life of the asset – or liability. According to the accoun-
29 Kenneth S. Bigel

tant, any asset (or liability), which is consumed (or paid)

within an accounting period (i.e., one year), is current.
Any asset – or liability – that has a life exceeding one
year is “long-term.” Thus, inventory is placed “above the
line,” under current assets. So too is the case with accounts
payable. Property is long-term, for example. More on this
next….
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 30

2.4 Sample Bookkeeping Entries

Here are some examples of simple bookkeeping (or “jour-

nal” or “ledger”) entries, exemplifying double-entry book-
keeping standards. Keep in mind that assets are debit
balance accounts, while liabilities and equity are credit bal-
ance accounts. Debits must always equal credits. (All the
numbers below are in thousands of dollars.)

1. Let’s say that a company buys inventory for

$1,000 in cash. What are the correct bookkeep­
ing entries?

You will note that cash goes down (credit) and

inventory goes up (debit). You will note that the
basic accounting equation (A = L + E) remains
unchanged.
2. What happens when a company borrows money
by issuing long-term debt for $5,000?

First, debt increases (credit) and so too will cash

(debit). You will note that both sides of the the
basic accounting equation increase.
3. What if the company borrows $7,500 in order to

30
31 Kenneth S. Bigel

buy back some of its stock?

Debt increases (credit) and equity goes down

(debit). The purchased equity becomes what is
called “Treasury Stock,” which is a contra-
account and thus a debit balance account. The
equity may be reissued again in the future,
should the company choose to do so. Another
example of a contra-account would be
“Allowance for Doubtful Accounts Receiv­
ables,” which would be a credit balance account
versus accounts receivables.
4. What happens when the company buys $500 in
inventory on credit terms?

Inventory rises (debit) and payables also

increase (credit).
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 32

2.5 Current Assets: Inventory and

Accounts Receivable

The accountant defines the word, “current,” as in “current

asset” – or “current liability” – as an item, which is con-
sumed or exhausted within one calendar year. On the bal-
ance sheet, we observe numerous such assets and
liabilities. For example, inventory is held by the corpora-
tion for sale in the near future and, presumably, is sold in
less than one year (in most instances). In fact, the sooner
the corporation disposes of its inventory the better, by and
large.

“Accounts receivable” is a current asset that bears some

further explanation. In many instances, a customer pays
for goods purchased at the point of sale. He receives the
goods (i.e., the corporation’s inventory) and pays at the
same time.That is what usually happens when consumers
buy goods at the store. At the time of (a “cash”) sale, the
seller reduces inventory (credit) and increases cash (debit).

In many, if not most, large business transactions, the cus-

tomer may receive the goods, but not pay for them until
later. The seller may grant the customer “credit” for the
purchase and require “terms of sale” to which the buyer
agrees. The terms of sale will dictate that the customer pay
for the goods, typically, but not always, within thirty days
of delivery. This sale would be referred to as a “credit sale”
rather than a “cash sale,” and would be indicated as such
on the company’s income statement (see below).

32
33 Kenneth S. Bigel

At the time of the credit sale, the seller will record, or

“book,” an account receivable for the sale on its balance
sheet, while the buyer will book an account payable on its.
Simultaneously, the seller reduces (i.e., credits) his inven-
tory and the buyer increases (i.e., debits) his.

When payment is made, the accounts receivable are

adjusted (as will the cash account). In the case of the seller,
the account receivable is reduced (i.e., credited) and the
cash account will be increased (i.e., debited).

In the case of the buyer, the account payable will be

reduced (i.e., debited) and cash will be reduced (i.e., cred-
ited) as well.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 34

2.6 Financial Claims Hierarchy

Lenders and owners have different claims on the com-

pany’s interests. There is a distinct hierarchy in which
the corporation’s claimants get paid – in order from first to
last:

Debtholders (Lenders): They get paid first. This includes

the interest on loans, and on the loan’s principal when due.
Loan payments are made as contracted, and do not increase
should the firm become more profitable. Dividends may
not be paid to shareholders unless loan payments have been
made first, and in full.

Preferred shareholders: These owners (usually) get paid a

fixed payment or “dividend,” which cannot increase even
if the firm’s profits increase. If the firm is unable to pay the
dividend it may skip it. However, most preferred dividends
are “cumulative,” which means that no common stock div-
idends may be paid unless and until all past unpaid divi-
dends that have accumulated “in arrears” are paid in full
first.

Common shareholders: These shareholders get their divi-

dends last, and are effective owners of any earnings, which
the firm does not pay out, but “retains” and reinvests back
into the firm in the manner of added property, plant, equip-
ment, and working capital. In other words, common share-
holders have a claim on the firm’s net income (after
preferred dividends have been paid).

34
35 Kenneth S. Bigel

Common shareholders take on the most risk as they are

last ones “on the totem pole.” Such is the case whether
the firm is an ongoing enterprise or is being liquidated in
bankruptcy. They get paid last. Common shareholders have
a “residual” claim, or interest, in the company – after all
other interests are taken care of.

On the other hand, the common shareholders have the

most to gain if the firm is profitable; the dividend may
be increased and more earnings may be retained – to their
financial benefit, as the firm’s “retained earnings” are
owned by the common shareholders.

Again, only common shareholders benefit if profits go up;

common share ownership entails more risk, since if interest
and preferred dividends are not paid, there may be nothing
left for the common shareholders.

Government and Taxes: Let’s not forget that, after interest

has been paid, the earnings of the company are then taxed,
and that dividends are paid out of Net Income – after taxes
have been paid. Taxes are a given, and normally, we do not
think of the government as a claimant on the firm, since it
is neither lender nor owner.

Nothing is certain except death and taxes.

-Benjamin Franklin
Introduction to Financial Analysis 36
37 Kenneth S. Bigel

2.7 Interest Paid on Bonds and

Dividends Paid on Stock

• Interest on debt is tax deductible to the corpora­

tion; dividends on preferred and com­
mon stocks are not tax-deductible, under current
law.
◦ Interest must be paid before any divi­
dend payments on preferred and com­
mon stocks may be made.
• Preferred stock dividends are usually fixed (like
the interest on most bonds). Even if the corpora­
tion becomes more profitable, the preferred
stock dividend cannot be increased. There is no
upside, in this case.
◦ Only after interest is paid on the cor­
poration’s debt, may preferred divi­
dends then be paid. If the dividend is
not paid, it is not considered a
“default” as with a loan or debt; this is
because preferred stock represents
ownership interests and not a liability.
Preferred stock is thus thought of as a
hybrid debt/equity security as it has
characteristics of both.
◦ Most preferred shares are “cumula­
tive,” which means that before any
dividends are paid to common share­

37
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 38

holders, all those preferred divi­

dends that have not been paid, and are
thus said to have accumulated unpaid
or “in arrears,”must first be paid2.
• Common stock is most risky– first, because its
dividends are the last to be paid and sec­
ondly, because common shareholders are the last
to be paid off in bankruptcy (thus the phrase
“residual interest,” used above).
◦ However, as common shareholders
have rights to “residual” profits (i.e.,
after interest is paid on debt and, sec­
ond, after preferred stock dividend
distributions) that the firm may gener­
ate, common shareholders
also have the most opportunity to
share in positive earnings growth, i.e.,
they have the most to gain.
◦ As a result, common shares usually
come with “voting rights,” i.e., the
ability annually to vote for company
management and on certain key
issues. Notably preferred shares rarely
carry such rights.
39 Kenneth S. Bigel

2.8 Bankruptcy

Many students think that bankruptcy is a death knell. It is

not – necessarily. It can actually be a good thing, which
ensures the survival of an enterprise that experienced finan-
cial stress. There are different forms of bankruptcy. The
forms are categorized by “chapters,” under Title 11 of the
United States Bankruptcy Code. Let’s briefly see what the
principal bankruptcy forms are, as noted in the Code by
chapter, and how each form is different.

Chapter 7:

This bankruptcy form allows debtors to eliminate most or

all of their debts over a short period of time, often just a
few months. Only student loans, child support payments
and some other debts may survive. Here, a trustee is
appointed who then liquidates unsecured debts and makes
the proper distributions. Collateral on secured debt may
be repossessed. Certain assets will be protected, such as
social security insurance. To qualify for Chapter 7, the
debtor must satisfy a “means test.” If the test is not satis-
fied, the debtor may seek relief under Chapter 13.

Chapter 11:

Here, the debtor retains ownership and control of assets.

The debtor is referred to as a “debtor in possession.” The
“DIP” runs the day-to-day affairs of the business while the
creditors work with the bankruptcy court to work out a plan
to be made whole. If the creditors come to an agreement,

39
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 40

the business continues operating and certain agreed-upon

payments are made. If there is no agreement, the court
intercedes; debtors filing a second time are referred to as
Chapter 22 filers.

Chapter 13:

In this form, debtors retain ownership and possession of the

assets (in contrast to Chapter 7), and will make payments
to a trustee from future earnings, which will then be dis­
bursed to creditors. There is a five-year limit in which this
process must be completed. Secured creditors may receive
larger payments.

Students’ take-away: Bankruptcy is not always the

end of the story.

Advice: One should consult with an attorney to

obtain detailed, actionable information regarding
these complex laws.

Question: In the Banking Crisis of 2008, the United

States government rescued, or bailed out, General
Motors; it purchased stock in the company, using
taxpayer funds. Was that the right move? Would it
have been better for Uncle Sam to have allowed the
corporation to fail and file under the Bankruptcy
Code?
41 Kenneth S. Bigel

2.9 The Balance Sheet, Net Income, and

the Common Shareholder

Net income is an Income Statement number, which is also

very relevant to the balance sheet.

What happens to net income – or profits – after it is

recorded? Let’s say the company records net income of
$1 million for the year. If the company pays dividends to
its shareholders of, say $100,000, those funds are now
theirs and not the corporation’s. The shareholders are
enriched to the extent of $100,000 (less taxes).

This leaves $900,000 in “addition to retained earnings,”

which at the year’s end will be transferred by the accoun-
tant from the income statement to the retained earnings
account in the equity section of the balance sheet. (This is
done when the accountant “closes out the books” at year’s
end, at which time the income statement reverts to
zero.) Of course, as owners of the corporation, all retained
earnings, in fact, belong to the common shareholders as
well. Thus, from the point of view of the balance sheet,
the common shareholders own both the “common stock”
and the “retained earnings.” The preferred shareholders
just own the preferred stock.

41
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 42

2.10 Corporate Goals

It is well known that in a Capitalist economy, the corpora­

tion is said to serve the interests of the owners. (While
there may be additional purposes, we shall assume this
simple premise.) The owners wish to earn prof­
its, to “make money.” In theory, we shall assume that the
owners and, by extension, the corporation has a never-
ending appetite for profits and corporate growth. We shall
say that the corporation has no interest in vacation, rest,
or “doing good,” the lack of which premises may, in fact,
be false.

“Growth,” thus, refers to the increase in a corporation’s

sales or revenues, which in turn provide increasing levels
of profits to the benefit of the corporation’s owners. This
brings us to the Balance Sheet. No company can produce
sales without assets. It is assets (the left side of the Balance
Sheet) that produce goods and services for sale. However,
assets must be paid for, or more accurately,
“financed” when cash itself is unavailable.

The financing of the company’s assets comes from raising

capital in the form of liabilities, including borrowed
money, and injections of cash from owners who purchase
shares of equity in the corporation when such shares
are offered by the corporation. (This is distinctly different
from secondary market trading where shares are bought
from selling shareholders with no corporate involve-
ment.) Financing sources also include profits which the
company retains – “Retained Earnings.”

42
43 Kenneth S. Bigel

As the company increases its capital, it is then equipped

to acquire more assets with which to increase its sales
and profits ad infinitum. Thus, as the balance sheet itself
increases, so too does the potential for corporate growth as
we define it. Round and round she goes.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 44

2.11 Words and Numbers (An Aside)

In business and perhaps in Finance in particular, memoriza-

tion is less important than active, creative thinking. Some
people find math intimidating, but it does not have to be.
By and large, Finance does not require the memorization of
formulas. However, one must understand the mathematics.

This is an important distinction. If you regard formulas as

memorization, it may become an unpleasant and, worse,
a difficult task. Instead, think of formulas as shorthand
explanations of the relationships between important finan-
cial concepts, between prices and interest rates, for exam-
ple. If this is done, the relationships will seem clear and
logical, and memorization should prove unnecessary, or at
least, less so.

Some people consider themselves word- rather than num-

ber-persons. Think of numbers as words! Indeed, they are
linguistically meaningful. Mathematical symbols are a
shorthand way of saying something that can also be said –
at greater length – in words.

Over the course of the semester, the student will be

exposed to numerous mathematical formulae.

44
45 Kenneth S. Bigel

Do not worry about your difficulties in mathemat­

ics;
I can assure you mine are still even greater.

-Albert Einstein
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 46

2.12 Chapter 2 Review Questions

Chapter 2: Review Questions

1. Is the Balance Sheet a “flow” or a “static” state­

ment? Do its numbers get bigger (flow),
smaller, or neither, as time over the course of
the period passes?
2. When, if ever, and, if so, how do Balance Sheet
numbers revert to zero?
3. How often, at most, is a public corporation
required to issue financial statements?
4. Are assets debit- or credit-balance accounts?
5. Are liabilities and equity debit- or credit-bal­
ance accounts?
6. What is the basic accounting equation?
7. List all typical Current Assets and Current Lia­
bilities.
8. When a Credit Sale is booked, what Balance
Sheet item is affected?
9. What is meant by “current”?
10. What are all the equity section accounts?
11. Rank these items in terms of who gets paid

46
47 Kenneth S. Bigel

first: Preferred stock dividends – interest on

debt – common stock dividends.
12. When it is said that “dividends have accumu-
lated in arrears,” to which class of stock may
we refer – preferred or common? Explain.
13. Trace the link from Net Income to the Balance
Sheet.
14. What are the tax ramifications to the corpora-
tion regarding interest and dividends paid?
15. To which Capital Component does the word,
“Default” apply?
16. Which Capital Component (Debt, Preferred
Stock, Common Stock, or Retained Earnings) is
riskiest? Why?
17. Is Bankruptcy “the end”?
18. Using the template below, search on-line for a
real, true-to-life company’s Balance Sheet and
transfer the numbers to the template below.
Imagine an airline or a retailer, etc. – perhaps
Amazon or Apple. What might their numbers
look like?

19. Who owns a company’s Retained Earnings?

Introduction to Financial Analysis 48
49 Kenneth S. Bigel

Chapter 3: Financial
Statements Analysis: The
Income Statement

49
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 50

3.1 Chapter Three: Learning Outcomes

Learning Outcomes

In this chapter, you will:

• Explain all the Income Statement accounts.

• Convert the Income Statement to percentage,
“Common Size”.
• Identify cash versus non-cash expenses.
• Define Audit Opinion nuances.
• Listfour financial statement interpretation
issues.
• Calculate the various asset account costing
methods.

50
51 Kenneth S. Bigel

3.2 The Income Statement

Income statements, in contrast to the balance sheet, are

“flow” statements, and are thus not static like the balance
sheet; think of it instead as a moving picture, rather than
as a photograph. The income statement will reflect cumula-
tive data for a period ending on a certain date. The “period”
has a starting and ending date; it may cover a year, half-
year, quarter, or even a month.

Over the course of the period, the numbers, whether they

be revenues or expenses, will grow only larger. The sole
exception to this is the profit figures, including gross prof-
its, earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT), and net
income. These data may go either up or down depending
on the relative growth of the revenues and expenses that
make up those “net” figures. That is, if revenues grew less
than expenses over a period, the net profit may go down
over time. Take note that expenses are bracketed numbers
to indicate that they are subtractions from revenue in order
to arrive at profits.

Again, all other entries are the result of the accountant’s

summarization of revenue and expense bookkeeping
entries, which only grow in size over time (with some
few exceptions). Profits are merely the calculation of dif-
ferences between revenues and expenses in the summary
income statement. If expenses grow faster than revenues,
profits may decrease in time.

In contrast, balance sheet numbers will change, in theory,

51
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 52

daily, and may either increase or decrease. At the year’s

end, the “books are closed” and all the income statement
numbers revert to zero; we start all over again. The balance
sheet, in contrast, never reverts to zero; the company
always has some assets and liabilities. A very simple
income statement will look something like the following:

XYZ Corp. Income Statement for the Year Ending

12.31.XX

You must note that expenses are brack-

eted as they are reductions (subtractions)
to revenue in arriving at the profits num- Key
bers, i.e., Gross Profits, EBIT, and Net Terms:
Income.

The key connection between the income

statement and balance sheet has largely to Common
do with “addition to retained earnings.” Size State-
ments
When the books are “closed” at year’s
end, this addition (or deduction) is trans-
ferred to “retained earnings” in the bal-
53 Kenneth S. Bigel

ance sheet; the income statement is “closed out,” and

everything in the income statement reverts back to zero.
If dividends are paid when there is a loss, the cash used
to pay the dividends will have to come from (past years’)
retained earnings. “Retained earnings” represent the accu-
mulation of historically retained profits, which were not
paid out as dividends, but instead were retained by the cor-
poration, since the corporation’s inception.

As an accountant (or financial analyst), you may think of

revenues as credits (right hand) and expenses as debits (left
hand) of the “T-accounts” to which reference was made in
the prior chapter. Think of the income statement as part of
the balance sheet’s equity section, which is also a credit
balance account. When numbers are compared to a base
figure, in this case either “total revenues” or “Net Income,”
the analysis may be referred to as “Vertical Analysis.”
This makes the analysis from one company to another sim-
pler. Matters having to do with the relative magnitude of
the data from one company to another are thereby neu-
tralized. Such analysis utilizes Common Size Statements,
where figures are represented in percentage terms, as in the
income statement above. Common size statements are also
(very occasionally) used for Balance Sheets.

Getting back to debits and credits, at year’s end, the

accountant debits the income statement for an amount
equal to the “addition to retained earnings.” Remember that
the Income Statement is a credit balance statement. This
debiting enables the accountant to set the income state-
ment back to zero. (Again, the balance sheet never reverts
to zero, except in the extreme case of bankruptcy liquida-
tion.) S/he then credits the balance sheet’s retained earn-
ings account for this same amount. That is how retained
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 54

earnings grow (or decrease when there is a loss and

retained earnings are thus negative) over time. The addi-
tions to earnings should be reinvested by a good manage-
ment in profitable assets for corporate growth purposes.

“EBIT” may also be referred to as “operating earnings.”

As you will see, we will differentiate between operating
earnings, i.e., earnings generated from the firm’s business
activities, and other non-operating income. There are a few
other basic things that the financial analyst must keep in
mind relative to the Income Statement.

Credit sales (on the income statement)

are recorded as accounts receivable (on
the balance sheet) – until the receivables
are collected. This is typical of accrual
accounting, as opposed to cash account-
ing, the latter of which recognizes a sale
Credit
only when cash is exchanged. At the time Sales
of a credit sale, credit sales are “credited”
on the books, and accounts receivable are
debited. When the customer pays, say in
30 days, the account receivable is credited and the cash
account is debited.

Selling expenses include advertising,

salesperson’s salaries, and “freight-out”
paid on shipments to customers; an excep-
tion is “freight-in” payments, which are
paid on shipments to the firm and are
included in COGS (cost of goods sold).
S, G, & A
General and administrative expenses have
to do with: clerical and executive offices
salaries, outside professional services, tele-
phone and internet, postage, and office equipment depreci-
55 Kenneth S. Bigel

ation. Selling, General, and Administrative expenses are

also known as S, G, & A.

Depreciation, if imputable to inventory

production, will be included in COGS. By
“imputable,” it is meant that the accoun­
tant can objectively ascribe a specified
dollar amount of depreciation to a speci­
fied dollar amount of production.
Deprecia-
tion Imputable means that units produced can
be associated and measured with mathe­
Imputable matical certainty and precision to units of
production. This figure would be added to
COGS, rather than reported separately
lower down on the Income Statement.

For example, if an equipment manufacturer warrants that a

$1 million-dollar machine (at cost) will produce one mil-
lion units and then need to be scrapped, we can safely
say that each unit produced includes one dollar’s worth of
depreciation. This may happen in the case of depreciable
equipment, but not with the plant. Otherwise, i.e., if not
imputable, depreciation will be reflected separately and
visibly below the gross profit line.

This makes matters confusing to the reader. Depreciation

may be included “above” (within COGS) and/or “below”
the gross profits line (as “depreciation expense”). If the for-
mer, it will be included within the COGS number; if not, it
should be reflected as a separate line item lower down the
income statement.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 56

EBIT or Operating Earnings should be

viewed as a kind of dividing line within
the income statement. Everything “above
the line,” has to do with the firm’s basic
running of the business, or operating rev-
enues and expenses. Those items that
appear “below the line” may include EBIT
numerous non-operating items. Such
Operating
items may include interest on debt, a
Earnings
profit or loss from the sale of an asset, or
the financial outcome of litigation. Inter-
est (on debt) has to do with a financial
matter; this is not a matter having to do with the running of
the business, but instead, with the decision as to how the
firm’s assets are financed, in this case with debt rather than
with equity. Analytically, it is important to the financial
analyst to differentiate between operating and non-operat-
ing; we shall depend on this differentiation often.

Taxes are based on earnings before taxes (EBT), which are

not always shown on income statements as a separate line
item. Here, EBT, i.e., EBIT ($4,500) less interest expense
($500), but before taxes, equals $4,000. You should also
note that taxes were calculated using a 30% tax rate (i.e., a
rate arbitrarily chosen for this example), i.e., $4,000 × 30%
= $1,200.
57 Kenneth S. Bigel
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 58

3.3 On Learning and Studying

Torah learning is best combined with an occupa­

tion/profession, because the effort of both will keep
one from sin. Torah study alone without work will,
in the end, be nullified and lead to sin.
-Ethics of the Fathers, 2:2

He who occupies himself with the study of the law

alone is as one who has no God.
-Rav Huna

Inferred from II Chronicles 15:3, ‘Avodah Zarah

17b

Ben Zoma says: Who is wise? The one who learns

from every person, as it is said: “From all those

58
59 Kenneth S. Bigel

who taught me I gained understanding” (Psalms

119:99).

-Ethics of the Fathers, 4:1

 Introduction to Financial Analysis 60

3.4 Financial Statements:

Interpretation

Financial Statements are fraught with interpretive prob­

lems, due to accrual accounting methods, emanating from
historical bias, arbitrary choice of one or another cost
method, and the use of estimates and reserves, all of which
are legitimate applications of “generally accepted account­
ing principles.” The larger the corporation, the more sus­
ceptible its financial statements are to misleading data for
the financial analyst to decipher and comprehend.

Accounting presentations complicate analysis, and in par­

ticular make difficult the use of analytic financial ratios,
which are compiled from the accounting data. Hence,
financial analysis is not straightforward, as it would other­
wise be if the numerical bases of the accounting data were
themselves not subject to variation over time and from firm
to firm, and thus to – interpretation!

Historical bias – In most, but not all cases, asset cost is

recorded by the accountant based on invoiced, historical
values.Such costs are determined at a point in time and
are not adjusted upward later for changing, and possibly
increasing, market values. (These assets may then be
depreciated, adding still further to the difficulty in interpre­
tation.)

For example, in the case of long-term assets, a building

may be built (or purchased) at a (historical) cost of $1 mil­
lion dollars. Another, virtually identical building, which
60
61 Kenneth S. Bigel

may be built (or purchased) by the same company

some years later could have a cost of $2 million; the newer
building costs more due to inflation and/or market condi­
tions. The accountant will not necessarily show the details
of the original costs of each property and the respective
depreciation schedules for each property separately. The
accountant will carry the building’s value at its original
cost, and at a combined sum, in this case of $3 mil­
lion, leaving the reader of the data with a kind of mixed bag
of information. Secondly, the depreciation expense will be
based on this original value.

Market values of buildings often, in fact, exceed

the recorded, “book” carrying values, i.e., historical cost
minus accumulated depreciation. The accountant will not
adjust the carrying value of such an asset upward, thereby
making it difficult to know the asset’s, and therefore the
company’s, true worth.

This is not an issue where current assets are concerned.

It certainly does not apply to cash or accounts receivable;
these values do not change. (Under certain narrowly
defined circumstances, cash equivalents, a.k.a., “mar­
ketable securities” values may be adjusted.) Inventory is
generally not marked down in value and never marked up,
under accounting rules.

Estimates – This too will be illustrated (below) with the

use of the (same) example of long-term asset accounting.
We will examine both the asset’s “salvage
value” and the asset’s estimated “life,” both of which are
estimated. This leaves ample room for “judgment” and,
hence, earnings manipulation. Other examples may also
pertain.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 62

Reserves – For example, management has some leeway

in setting up loss accounts or “reserves,” e.g., for “uncol­
lectible accounts receivable,” better known as “allowance
for doubtful accounts.” We will not demonstrate this phe­
nomenon; suffice it to say that this is a notable problem
where accounting “manipulation” is concerned. While
reserves have been listed here as a category by itself, the
reader may also think of it as an example of an estimate.

Arbitrary use of cost or other methods – The accountant

(together with company management) has alternatives
regarding the manner in which s/he may choose to “cost”
certain items. This will be illustrated (below) with respect
to inventory (a “current asset”) and long-term asset
accounting, including plant and equipment. You must
recall that “property,” i.e., land cannot be depreciated.

An external financial analyst must dig below the surface

in order to understand the accountant’s summary of the
corporation’s ledgers. He must also have a deep under­
standing of the nature of the industry in which the cor­
poration operates. A good place to start is by reading the
accountant’s footnotes and thoroughly understanding the
firm’s GAAP reporting policies. “GAAP” refers to “gener­
ally accepted accounting principles,” which are the rules to
which accountants must adhere.
63 Kenneth S. Bigel

3.5 The Audit

Now that we know what financial statements are, and what

set of problems may ensue in readings statements, it is
important to know well what the accountant’s role relative
to the production of the statements is. Certified Public
Accountants (C.P.A.s) examine, i.e., “audit,” the books,
ledgers, and records of corporations in order to ascertain
the data entries’ veracity and accuracy, and prepare sum­
mary financial statements such as those we have seen in
our Balance Sheet and Income Statement discussions.The
statements are, once again, summaries of myriad, and often
complex, transactions that occurred within the
corporation over the course of the stated period – for the
Income Statement, or “as of” a date noted – in the case of
the Balance Sheet.

The auditors will present one of four possible “opinions”

about the statements. The analyst should examine the opin­
ion for information concerning the accuracy and compre­
hensiveness of the statements’ data prior to reading the
statements themselves.

1. Unqualified Opinion: This is the ideal opinion

and is considered a “complete audit.” The
results are satisfactory, and the statements are
“fairly presented” in the language of the auditor/
accountant.
2. Unqualified Opinion with Explanatory Para­
graph: This may be a complete audit, but the
auditor believes that additional information is
63
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 64

required.
3. Qualified Opinion: In general, the statements
are fairly presented with an important exception
that does not affect the statements as a whole.
This generally occurs when there is an unjusti-
fied deviation from “Generally Accepted
Accounting Principles,” or GAAP. This opinion
falls short of “Adverse.”
4. Adverse Opinion: The auditor does not feel
that the statements taken as a whole fairly pre-
sent the corporation’s financial position in con-
formity with GAAP accounting.
65 Kenneth S. Bigel

3.6 Perpetual Inventory Accounting

There are two such counting (“Accounting”) methods for

inventory – “perpetual” and “periodic.”A perpetual inven­
tory counting system is usually used where the inventory
units are few in number, and high in unit cost. It thus pays
for the firm’s management to spend some extra resources
in knowing exactly how many yachts, for example, it has in
the showroom. A one-unit difference is substantial. Under
this system, the firm knows – at all times– the dollar value
of its inventory. There are certain methods under which
a perpetual system accounts for its inventory, includ­
ing “specific identification,” whereby each physical
inventory unit is associated with its own specific cost.

In contrast, a periodic inventory system is effective

where units are numerous and relatively cheap. Manage­
ment is not going to be able to justify the extra effort
required to know whether there are ten or eleven blue pens
in stock, more or less. It will do, instead, a periodic, prob­
ably annually, physical audit of what’s down there in the
warehouse. When a physical audit is done, the counting is
done in units, rather than in dollars. Thus, the ascription of
units to dollars is subject to methodological choice.

When a company uses a periodic system, there are manage­

ment choices under legitimate accounting rules by which
the accountant may record the ending inventory balance
and, hence, cost of goods sold figures – in dollars. We will
illustrate all this below. Upon the completion of which

65
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 66

analysis, the analyst’s relevant interpretive issues should

become clear.

The differences in the numbers presented, and the related

management strategies as related to the choice of cost
method, are potentially markedly different. Let’s read on.
67 Kenneth S. Bigel

3.7 Periodic Inventory Analysis: Ending

Inventory and Cost of Goods Sold

Let’s assume a company’s books reflect the following

accounting data:

We know the beginning inventory dollar figure because

it is carried over from the prior period’s ending value as
noted on the Balance Sheet. The purchasing manager will
have loads of invoices (bills) for all the purchases made in
the period, so that figure is also known. Adding beginning
inventory and purchases together, we get the total amount
of goods that were available for sale during the period. If
we subtract the ending inventory from the goods available
number, we get the “cost of goods sold,” which will be
noted on the Income Statement.

How do we know what the dollar value of the ending

inventory is if we are not using a specific identification-
type inventory accounting system? When the inventory
manager conducts a monthly, or periodic, physical audit,
s/he counts inventory units and not dollars. How does the
accountant translate units into dollars for valuing the end­
ing inventory?

67
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 68

Note: COGS include raw materials, freight-in, electricity,

and may also include “imputable” labor and depreciation.

Do not look at the container, but at what is inside.

– Famous Hebrew saying
Don’t judge a book by its cover.
– Another famous saying
69 Kenneth S. Bigel

3.8 Units to Numbers: FIFO and LIFO

If most businesses “do” inventory periodically (rather

than perpetually) for practical reasons, by quite liter­
ally, physically counting (ending) inventory units, usually
monthly, how does the accountant translate the ending
inventory units counted into dollars? As we shall see
below, management and its accountants have ample dis­
cretion regarding choice of inventory costing method.

In the following illustration for the two most popular cost­

ing methods, the company has started the year with
one unit of inventory carried at a cost of $100. You will
note that the costs go up in time, reflecting an inflationary
environment. It is also assumed that only one identical
inventory item is being counted.

Alternate Solutions to the Ending Inventory Problem

In the chart below, you will find alternate solutions to the

Ending Inventory Problem when the accountant employs
either of two popular costing methods: FIFO (First In, First
Out) and LIFO (Last In, First Out). A detailed step-by-step
explanation of the chart is found on the next page. Before
flipping to the next page, see if you are able to decipher
69
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 70

the table on your own. Immediately following the table is

a discussion of the differing results of the two methods.
You will note that the choice of method materially affects
the Cost of Goods Sold and Ending Inventory values, and
therefore all the other values in the table as well.

Clearly, a firm will adopt LIFO if it wishes to reduce

inflated, “windfall” profits, and hence taxes, in an infla­
tionary environment. LIFO will consequently reduce
inventory assets on the balance sheet and make relevant
ratios, and hence loan prospects, possibly less attractive to
banks who wish to see more assets against which loans
may be made and, possibly, secured. Management and its
accountants have to weigh the offsetting considera­
tions of one or the other costing method.

Take note that inventory is part of current assets and

“working capital” (WC). WC = Current Assets less Current
Liabilities.
71 Kenneth S. Bigel

3.9 Inventory Costing Calculations: A

Closer Look at the COGS and Ending
Inventory Computations

First, it must be recognized that the sales amount is inde­

pendent of any costing method. For every sale, there is an
invoice, and the dollar amount is not at all subject to any
choice of accounting inventory costing method.

Under FIFO, the first-in were assumed to be the first-out.

So, the cost of goods sold (COGS) figure was the sum of
the first four (since four units were sold) costs: $100 + 150
+ 200 + 250 = $700. The income statement will show a
$700 COGS number as a deduction from sales to arrive at
the gross profit of $2,000 – 700 = $1,300. This left $300 in
the ending inventory on the balance sheet. Notice that $700
+ 300 = $1,000 or the entire inventory cost.

Under LIFO, we must take the last-in, first-out order to

compute the sum of the units sold and to arrive at the
COGS number. Therefore, we add in reverse chronological
order: $300 + 250 + 200 + 150 = $900. The ending inven­
tory will be the first unit acquired, costing $100. Again, the
two numbers add up to the sum of the inventory cost: $100
+ 900 = $1,000. Gross profits will be lower: $2,000 – 900
= $1,100. Taxes are based on profits. In an inflationary
environment, taxes payable will therefore be lower.

Assuming inventory costs rise as often happens when there

is inflation, FIFO will always produce a higher gross profit.

71
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 72

When corporations expect high inflation (as occurred in the

1970s and in the early 2020s), many will switch to LIFO
in order to reduce taxes. Companies pay higher taxes when
profits are higher, as might be the case using FIFO, assum­
ing all else equal. To switch to LIFO, the firm must com­
plete IRS Form 970. The corporation cannot go back and
forth from one method to the other as the wind blows. You
will find the form on the Internet.

The company will prefer LIFO to reduce taxes. It will pre-

fer FIFO to report higher inventory levels and thus show
“more” assets to lenders and shareholders. Well, which of
the two is preferable in the end? It is permissible for the
company to maintain two sets of books, one for filing taxes
to the Internal Revenue Service (the IRS) and the other for
“reporting.” Moreover, it can use varying methods for dif-
ferent inventory items – FIFO for this and LIFO for that.
How do you like that?!

Once again, a company may use one inventory costing

method for one inventory item, and a different method for
another item. In the end, the various items will be lumped
together on one inventory line on the Balance Sheet and
reflected as such in COGS. There might be a footnote
indicating that inventory was valued using both FIFO and
LIFO (and perhaps still another method), but further details
may be absent. Talk about confusing!
73 Kenneth S. Bigel

3.10 Inventory Accounting Issues: LIFO

Of course, the previous example was “loaded” in that pur­

chase costs rose dramatically over time. In reality, prices
tend often to rise with inflation, so the direction of the
results in actuality would not be affected. If, in fact, costs
declined over the considered periods, the direction of the
results would be exactly reversed, and your choice of
method, if you anticipated this alternate outcome, would
be different accordingly. Here are some relevant upcoming
questions.

1. What is meant by “LIFO Base”?

2. What is the effect of costing units sold from the
base?
3. There is a technical problem in connection with
interim reporting under LIFO (in FIFO too).

Using the foregoing example, imagine that the firm –indef­

initely into the future –regularly purchased four units and
sold four units. Imagine also that there continued to be
some inflation.

A firm cannot accurately provide its

LIFO inventory figure until it closes the
Key books on the period. More specifically,
Terms: the firm cannot figure the Cost of Goods
Sold, and therefore its LIFO inventory
until it has, quite literally, made the last

73
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 74

inventory purchase and thus knows the

costs of units acquired.
LIFO base
It would be conceivable that after some
time, inventory costs and sales prices
would be quite high, say $20 per unit –
theoretically. Still, that one very “old” unit, which is being
carried at a historical (ancient!) cost, would reflect a very
low “cost basis” of, say $1, representing the inventory’s
LIFO Base. (See the example on the next page.) If many
years later, the firm suddenly then sold five units, it would
dig into or “cost out” its LIFO base and reflect a very high
profit for that item. This now high profit on that unit would
be contrary to the firm’s motivation for adopting LIFO in
the first place, which is to minimize profits and conse­
quently its tax liabilities.

By example, let’s say the firm is on a calendar year fiscal

cycle. It cannot know in the interim, say, in Novem­
ber, what the December year-end inventory shall be. In our
earlier case, the fourth unit purchased is the first out
and first charged to COGS. The third acquired is the sec­
ond to go, etc. We count backwards starting with the last
one in! We cannot know what the last one’s cost is – until
the last one is in! (True, this problem pertains to FIFO, but
is less worrisome analytically.) An illustration of this prob­
lem follows on the next page.

Note:

You should be aware that Cost of Goods Soldrepresents the

cost of inventory, which passes through the income state­
75 Kenneth S. Bigel

ment when sales are recognized, and includes raw materi­

als, “imputable” labor and depreciation, freight-in, and pos­
sibly more. “Imputable” refers to measurable costs that can
– with certainty – be related to production, in addition to
the otherwise explicit inventory costs.

Suppose you have a widget making machine, which costs

$1,000,000 and the manufacturer warrants that it has an expected
life of producing one million units, after which it must be
scrapped. Under this circumstance, the cost accountant may
impute $1 of depreciation to each unit of inventory. Otherwise,
depreciation would be shown separately, i.e., lower down on the
income statement, as illustrated in the sample income statement
earlier.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 76

3.11 LIFO Base Illustration

XYZ Corp. costs its inventory on a LIFO basis due to the

cost and price inflation its product continuously manifests.

In the first year illustrated, let’s call it “20X1,” the com-

pany purchased 5 units. It sold 4 units, leaving the oldest
unit to be carried forward as the LIFO Base Inventory to
the next year, “20×2.” See the table below.

Each year going forward, it continues to purchase 4 units

and sell 4 units. Therefore, the LIFO Base, initially costed
at $1, carries over until “20×5.” The revenue the company
receives equals the average of the last price in the current
and prior years. The last price, i.e., the price at which the
last unit was sold, in “20X0” was $2. Due to the high LIFO
costing method, the gross profits remain low, thereby min-
imizing taxes. Had it done its inventory on a FIFO basis,
its gross profits would have been slightly higher. (You can
figure this out.)

In the year, 20×5, the company sells all 5 units that were
available for sale. The last unit sold was at a price of $22
and its cost, based on LIFO, was only $1. The company
would therefore book a high, “windfall” profit on that unit,
contrary to the intent of LIFO, which is to keep (taxable)
profits low.

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77 Kenneth S. Bigel

The purpose of using LIFO Inventory Accounting is to

reduce gross profits and thus taxes. We have seen that sell-
ing product from the LIFO Base will negate this objective.
To avoid this problem, management should order a 6th unit
in 20×5 so that the LIFO Base is not costed out. In doing
so, management is “manipulating” the effect of its inven-
tory costing method.

Remember, this is accounting fiction in the sense that the

costs are unrelated to the actual age of the units. A good
merchandiser would have long ago moved out any product
that is subject to physical aging.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 78

3.12 Accounting for Long-term Assets:

Straight-Line Depreciation (For
Reporting Purposes Only)

The following pages represent three deprecia­

tion-costing method alternatives for plant (i.e., buildings)
or equipment, which are acceptable for reporting pur­
poses (only). Remember that “property,” i.e., land, is
not depreciated. There is an entirely different set of meth­
ods required for tax accounting, which we shall not cover
herewith. The following methods are unacceptable for Tax
accounting.

The first method we shall outline is called “straight line.”

Under this method, we expense on the income statement
the same amount of depreciation each year. If, for
instance, the asset is estimated to have a five-year life, as
in this example, we shall depreciate 1/5 or 20% of the asset
yearly. This ratio will be applied against (i.e., multiplied
by) the difference between the property’s historical cost
and its estimated salvage value. (Note the key word: “esti­
mated,” which is used here for the second time.) Herein
we shall refer to this difference in the two numbers as the
“depreciable amount,” a phrase, which we use here,
but which you shall not find popularly used elsewhere.

Let’s assume the following:

78
79 Kenneth S. Bigel

As you read this and the next two examples, remember that
“Salvage Value” does not apply to buildings but only to
equipment. Also remember that property, i.e., land, cannot
be depreciated.

In “year zero,” which means “now” (see table below), the

asset shall be carried on the balance sheet at its original,
historical cost of $1,500,000. Each subsequent year, we
shall depreciate 1/5, or 20% of the difference between
the cost and the salvage value, this difference being:
$1,500,000 – $500,000 = $1,000,000. Thus, the deprecia-
tion expense is: $1,000,000 ÷ 5 = $200,000 each year.
As the asset balance is depreciated on the balance sheet
and the depreciation is expensed on the income statement,
the carrying balance of the asset is reduced by $200,000
each year, until – after five years in this case – the build­
ing or equipment is sold for its estimated salvage value.
Should the asset be sold for more or less than its salvage
value, the accountant will record an “unusual” or “non-
recurring” profit or loss accordingly.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 80

3.13 Accounting Entries for

Depreciation

The following represents the accounting book entries for

straight-line depreciation in the second year (from the prior
page), by way of example.

(000)

Income Statement Book Entry

Depreciation Expense (dr) $200

Balance Sheet Book Entries (End of second Year)

Note above that the debits are indented to the left, and the
credits are more to the right. That’s as it should be.

Balance Sheet Appearance

The balance sheet, at the end of the second year, will con­
tain the following items:

You will recall that equities are credit balance accounts. As

noted earlier, you should think of the income statement as

80
81 Kenneth S. Bigel

part of the equity section of the balance sheet. This is not

a stretch as retained earnings are derived from the income
statement, i.e., when the “addition to retained earnings” are
transferred to the balance sheet – at year’s end, at the time
that the books are closed. Therefore, think of revenues as
credits, and expenses as debits.

A wise man’s questions contain half the answer.

-Solomon ibn Gabirol
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 82

3.14 Accelerated
Depreciation Methods:
Sum-of-the-Years' Digits (For reporting
purposes only)

There are two more methods, which we shall examine,

both of which may be referred to as “accelerated” depreci­
ation methods because in the early years there will be more
depreciation expense than in the later years.

You’ll remember that the ratio we used in the given exam­

ple for Straight Line was 20%. Under “Sum-of-the-years’
digits” (SOYD), we apply a new ratio against the
$1,000,000 depreciable amount.

In the denominator for the SOYD ratio, we calculate the

sum of the years’ digits, which, in this five-year exam­
ple is: 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 15.

In the numerator, we use the reverse order of the

years, starting with five, and then going backwards each
year. So, in year one, we expense 5/15 of $1,000,000 =
$333,333, and reduce the balance accordingly. In the sec­
ond year the ratio is 4/15. In the third, year the ratio is 3/15,
or, as it happens, the same 20% that we used in the straight-
line method; you’ll note that the depreciation expense after
this third year will be less than under straight-line. At this
rate, you will note that after five years we will have depre­
ciated 15/15 or 100% of the depreciable amount.

82
83 Kenneth S. Bigel
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 84

3.15 Accelerated Depreciation

Methods: Double/Declining Balance
(For reporting purposes only)

Under Double/Declining Balance (D/DB), we combine

two concepts, hence the slash in the name. That’s the way
to remember what this method is about. First of all, we
depreciate at double the straight-line rate, which in this
case, would be 2 × 20%, or 40% per year.

If we do this doubling of the annual rate, we would have

depreciated the entire asset in half the asset’s esti­
mated life, rather than in the full five years; or alternatively,
we would have depreciated twice the asset’s original
cost over the entire five years. Either alternative is clearly
incorrect and unacceptable.

Instead, we depreciate twice the straight-line rate, not

against the depreciable amount, but against the declining
balance, ignoring salvage value. That’s the second con­
cept: the use of a declining balance. So, in the first year,
we depreciate 40% of $1,500,000, or $600,000, leaving a
new balance of $900,000. In the second year, we depre­
ciate 40% of the declining balance of $900,000, which is
$360,000.

In this example (and not necessarily in all examples), if

we continue to depreciate at this rate, we will go below
the salvage value in the third year. At this point, the
accountant will either depreciate the balance of $40,000 in

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85 Kenneth S. Bigel

one-fell swoop, or, more likely, straight-line the $40,000

balance over the remaining three years. (S/he could also
adjust the salvage value lower.) In straight-lining the
$40,000 remaining balance, rather than deducting $40,000,
one may deduct $13,333 ($40,000 ÷ 3) for each of the last
three years.

D/DB is even more accelerated than SOYD, as you may

have already noticed. The depreciation expense is greater
in the early years.

Your income statement and balance sheet will reflect the

following:
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 86

3.16 Comparative Summary of

Depreciation Methods

Given:

Straight Line:

Accelerated Depreciation Methods:

• Sum-of-the-Years’ Digits:

• Double/Declining Balance:

86
87 Kenneth S. Bigel

Again, D/DB is the most accelerated of the various meth­

ods. The finance student needs to have some sense of
the “distortions” that accounting data present to him as a
result of (management and the accountants’) “choice,” and
its impact on financial analysis. In addition to the alter­
nate depreciation methods presented in this example, we
may also note that the salvage value is an estimate.
These arbitrary choices and estimates present alternative
“looks”for the financial statements – and interpretative dif­
ficulties for the analyst.

Final Note: The three methods covered in the last pages

are NOT acceptable for Tax Accounting. There, a wholly
different system must be implemented by dint of a 1986
law. The tax system is called “Modified Accelerated Cost
Recovery System,” or simply “MACRS.” This method will
not be covered here.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 88

3.17 The Balance Sheet versus the

Income Statement: A Summary

The Balance Sheet

• Static (photograph)
• “As of” a specified date
• Numbers go up or down
• Numbers never turn back to zero
• “Current” means less than one year – versus
“long-term”

• A = L + E or A – L = E

The Income Statement

• Statement of Revenues (Addition) and

Expenses (Subtraction)
• Flow (moving picture)
• Cumulative
• Numbers only go up with time – except for net
numbers (and adjustments)

• For the period (quarter, half-year, three quarters,

or full year) ending….

• The Income Statement is closed out at year-end:

◦ The Addition to Retained Earn­
88
89 Kenneth S. Bigel

ings is zeroed out (debited) and trans-

ferred to the Balance Sheet (cred-
ited) – to Retained Earnings in the
Equity section

• Then, the Income Statement’s numbers all revert

to zero – the “odometer” is returned to zero.
• One may think of the income statement as a sub-
part of the equity section of the balance sheet.

A bashful person cannot learn.

– Ethics of the Fathers 2:6
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 90

3.18 Chapter Three: Review Questions

Chapter 3: Review Questions

1. Is the Income Statement a “flow” or a “static”

statement?
2. Do Income Statement numbers get bigger,
smaller, or neither – as time passes?
3. When, if ever, and how, if so, do the Income
Statement numbers revert to zero?
4. Using the template below, create an Income
Statement in both dollar terms and in “common
size,” using the same company as you used in
the prior problem set.

5. Are Revenues and Expenses respectively debit

or credit balance accounts?

90
91 Kenneth S. Bigel

6. Differentiate between a “cash” versus a “non-

cash expense”? What are the tax implications
for each?
7. Which Income Statement item distinguishes
between operating matters and all the stuff
below it? By what two names is it referred?
8. What is the “Addition to Retained Earnings”?
How is it calculated, and what is its relationship
to “Retained Earnings”?
9. What is “Depreciation Expense”?
10. Among Property, Plant and Equipment, which
is/are depreciated and which not?
11. Explain each of the four interpretation problems
financial analysts encounter in reading the
accountant’s reports.
12. How are audits opinions potentially different
from one another? Does the financial analyst
care?
13. You are given the following information. Create
a table and calculate the annual depreciation
and account balances, using all three reporting
methods discussed:

14. Calculate the Cost of Goods Sold, given the fol­

lowing inventory data:
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 92

15. What does “COGS” include?

16. By what criterion does the accountant “impute”
depreciation to COGS?
17. Given the data below, calculate the FIFO and
LIFO Ending Inventory, and COGS.

18. Define “LIFO Base.”

19. What is the technical interim reporting issue in
using LIFO?
20. Can the corporation switch back and forth from
FIFO to LIFO?
93 Kenneth S. Bigel

Chapter 4: Financial
Statements and Finance

93
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 94

4.1 Chapter Four: Learning Outcomes

Learning Outcomes

In this chapter, you will:

• Distinguish between what the accountant and

financial analyst do.
• Explore the manner in which management and
accountants “manage” earnings.
• Recognize possible accounting frauds.
• Master the content of Chapters 2-4.

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 95 Kenneth S. Bigel

4.2 Accounting versus Finance

Here, we summarize some of the key differences between

Accounting and Finance.

Accounting Finance

Historical Future-oriented

Summary of all data Incremental1 focus

Reporting Decision-oriented
Rules-based Logic
Legalistic Managerial

One is not “better” than the other. You just need to know
what each is – in terms of its purpose, in order to deal with
them.

1. We will discuss the broad meaning of incremental in the Finance context. For
now, we mean that the Financial Analyst will focus only on those data,
which are relevant to decision-making.

95
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 96

In the hour when a person is brought before the

heavenly court for judgment he is asked:

Did you conduct your business affairs honestly?

-Babylonian Talmud
Tractate Shabbat 31a
 97 Kenneth S. Bigel

4.3 Earnings Management: Accrual,

Real, and Expectations Management

Earnings Management:

Accrual, Real, and Expectations

1
Management

We have already made the point that financial analysts

need to be well versed in accounting rules in order to
do his/her job well. Analysts rely mightily on accounting
data. Thus, we must know what is going on in the corporate
accounting world. Reported earnings are subject to all
kinds of accounting chicanery, and it is earnings that
largely drive stock prices!

Thus, firms have an incentive to “manage earnings” in

order to guide analysts’ earnings expectations downward
and, thereby, report actual earnings that were greater
than analysts’ previous consensus expectations. Corpora­
tions cannot legally inform analysts what their exact earn­
ings expectations are, so they employ various mechanisms
to guide the analysts.

Stock prices, in the wake of this management, will react

1. This section is based on Li, S., & Moore, E.A. (2011). Accrual Based
Earnings Management , Real Transactions Manipulation and Expectations
Management : U . S . and International Evidence. available here.

97
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 98

bullishly to positive earnings announcements, i.e., earnings

that exceed expectations. Such stocks will provide higher
2
returns than those of firms who do not beat expectations,
as investors may believe that beating expectations signals
positive trends in future earnings. Stocks of corporations
that miss expected earnings are penalized asymmetrically;
markets penalize stocks more for missed earnings than they
3
reward companies for positive surprises.

Not all potentially misleading accounting data are inten­

tionally “managed” by the firm and its accountants. In
some cases, GAAP accounting provides no discretionary
opportunities for earnings management, e.g., the choice of
either FIFO or LIFO, yet the data may nonetheless not rep­
resent true values. An example that we discussed had to
do with historical bias. In this case, there is only one way
in which a long-term asset can be “booked,” and hence
its reported asset and tax depreciation figures are based on
that historical cost. The historical record is unlikely to be
realistic.

Beyond these examples, inventory can be

written down on a discretionary basis
within reasonable limits. Reported esti­ Key
mates and reserves can be manipulated Terms:
within reasonable parameters. Indeed,
reserves are fertile ground for manipula­
tion. In order to manage earnings upward,
the firm may choose to “under-reserve”
2. Bartov E., D. Givoly and C. Hayn. 2002. The rewards to meeting or beating
earnings expectations. Journal of Accounting and Economics 33 (2):
173-204.
3. Skinner, D. and R. Sloan. 2002. Earnings surprises, growth expectations and
stock returns or Don’t let an earnings torpedo sink your portfolio. Review
of Accounting Studies 7:289-312
99 Kenneth S. Bigel

the allowance for doubtful accounts. As

noted, managed manipulation of accrual
Accrual accounting methods will lead to varying
Earnings presentations of the same economic phe-
Manage- nomena. AEM, thus, involves the use of
ment the accounting system itself in order
to influence a desired result.On the other
hand, we have also provided some illus-
trations of Accrual Earnings Manage­
ment (AEM) in the manner of Inventory Costing
and Reported Depreciation Accounting Methods (as
opposed to tax depreciation methods). AEM has to do
with GAAP-permitted choices.

Timing the sale of inventory in order to

boost earnings in a targeted period.
Another opportunity for earnings man-
agement comes from Real Earnings
Management (REM). In this case, a
firm may engage in certain actual transac­
Real Earn-
ings Man- tions in order to accomplish a particular
agement accounting outcome. Specifically, the
firm could structure transactions by set­
ting them at varying discretionary points
in time (“timing”) in order to achieve a
pre-set accounting result. Here are some examples of
REM:

1. Delaying fixed asset maintenance expenses.

2. Delaying operating expenses, including adver-
tising and R&D.
3. Putting off salary increases and the payment of
bonuses.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 100

4. Delaying taking on potentially profitable capital

investment projects.

And… guess what? They can do this time

and again, over and over. One must be
suspicious of what a CEO says on televi­
sion. Auditors cannot control or influence
this phenomenon as financial statements
are not involved! We will let you decide
if AEM, REM, and PEM legitimately cir­ Public
cumvent accounting rules or not, and Expecta-
whether you may consider its use ethical tions Man-
– or not! Third, firms have an incentive to agement
manage the public’s future earn­
ings expectations in such manner as ana­
lysts and investors expect less and get
more in earnings in reality than had been expected. That is
not to say that all companies, at all times, will manage
earnings expectations downward. By communicating press
releases, meeting with analysts, and giving TV interviews,
a firm can engage in Public Expectations Manage­
ment (PEM). Of course, such manipulations, if that is the
correct phrase here, are not affected by the accountant.

Still a final manipulation of earnings may

come from fraudulent accounting practices.

In sum, firms can employ any and all of the

following four means of accounting chi­
canery: 1. Accrual Earnings Management;
2. Real Earnings Management; 3. Pub­ Fraud
lic Expectations Management; 4. Accounting
Fraud. Don’t forget: fraud is illegal!
101 Kenneth S. Bigel

Note:

This discussion was based on a published paper, which may

be found at the following link.

• Read the accounting statements’ foot-

notes; also read “Management’s Discussion and
Analysis”!
• Quality financial statements have repeatable
earnings and are not prone to reserves manage-
ment or any form of AEM; over the long-term,
accounting and cash earnings should be approx-
imately the same.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 102

4.4 Business Ethics: Examples of

Fraudulent Revenue Recognition

Business Ethics:

Examples of Fraudulent Revenue

1
Recognition

Below are some more difficulties that you should be aware

of. These have more to do with accounting fraud than the
legitimate accounting choices enumerated earlier.

Channel Stuffing – Companies sell large amounts of

goods to distributors in order to book large profits.
Under SEC accounting, it is permissible to book sales for
shipped product, less a reasonable allowance for returns.
However, channel stuffers may not be able to make reason­
able estimates and would therefore be required to defer rev­
enue recognition until return estimates may be projected.
This may result in deferring revenue for months. Stuffing
occurs when vendors ship merchandise in advance of
scheduled shipment dates without buyers’ acquiescence.

Bill and Hold – Revenue is booked even though the prod­

uct may not have been shipped and payment may not actu­
ally be due for a long period. For example, Sunbeam sold

1. The following section was derived from a report in the New York Times on
December 4, 1999, p. C4.

102
103 Kenneth S. Bigel

charcoal grills in the winter, although they were not to be

shipped until springtime; after a change in management,
books were restated to eliminate the relevant revenue and
profit. This arrangement would be allowed,
under SEC accounting, provided the buyer requested it; the
buyer must also have a good business reason for the
request. Further, the goods must be either already assem­
bled or otherwise ready for shipment before revenue is rec­
ognized.

Internet Sales – If an internet site is acting as agent for,

as an example, an airline ticket sale, it may only book the
revenue it earns. This revenue may be only a commission
rather than the full value of the ticket. If it acts as princi­
pal, it may book the larger amount as revenue and another
amount as expense (the portion which it must return to the
airline), showing the net result – which would, in effect, be
the commission. Internet companies whose stock prices are
sensitive to “top-line” growth prefer to recognize sales as
principals. Principal transactions are permitted by the SEC
provided the company took title to the product before ship­
ment and “has the risks and rewards of ownership, such as
the risk of loss for collection, delivery, or returns…”.

Discussion Question: What are the moral and legal differ-

ences between “fraud” and the creative use of accounting
methods and assumptions?
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 104

Lying speech is an abomination to God, but those

who act faithfully please Him.
– Proverbs 12:22
 105 Kenneth S. Bigel

4.5 Business Ethics: Examples of

Fraudulent Expense Recognition

Business Ethics:

Examples of Fraudulent Expense

1
Recognition

Interpretive accounting issues are clearly not limited to the

revenue side. Here are some further issues in connection
with expenses. The analyst must always be on the alert.

Stock options provided to executives are not accounted for

as expenses, thereby giving earnings a boost because there
is no associated expensing to salary. According to a study
by Ms. Pat McConnell of Bear Stearns, in 1999 net income
of the S & P would have been 6% lower had employee
stock options been reflected as an expense. Options will be
exercised at below the market’s stock prices resulting in an
associated cost to the firm. In 1998 and 1997 the reductions
would have been 4% and 3% respectively.

The FASB requires that companies include in their foot­

notes the effect of options granted after 12/15/94. The full
effect of this was first felt in 1999 as many companies’
plans allow options to vest in five years or less. If compa­

1. The following was derived from a report in the New York Times on August
29, 2000, p. C1.

105
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 106

nies choose not to disclose options as a compensation

expense (and the FASB does not require this), the disclo­
sure must be made as a footnote reflecting the adjusted net
income and EPS had the cost of options been
charged. Obviously, most companies chose the latter. Ms.
McConnell found only Boeing and Winn-Dixie, i.e., just
two of the 500 S & P companies, that chose to report
options as an expense. Earnings at 21 companies fell by
more than half, if options were expensed; this list includes
McDermott International, Yahoo, Autodesk, and Polaroid.
Twelve of these companies would have reported a loss,
including Micron Technology. She further cites the fol­
lowing declines in earnings due to options:

Health Care Services

-38%
companies

Computer Networking
-24%
companies

Commercial and Consumer

-21%
services
Communication Equipment
-19%
makers

Overall, the S & P 500 growth rate in earnings would

decrease from 11% to 9% over the last three years – if
options were expensed.
107 Kenneth S. Bigel

4.6 Chapter 4: Review Questions

Chapter 4: Review Questions

1. What are some of the critical differences

between Accounting and Finance?
2. In what ways can Accounting data be “man­
aged”?
3. What are the critical differences between the
Balance Sheet and the Income Statement?
4. Identify the correct choices: Assets
are dr /cr balance accounts while Liabilities and
Equity are dr /cr balance accounts.
5. How are the Additions to Retained Earn­
ings and Retained Earnings different from one
another?
6. Who takes the most risk in order to earn the
highest return?
7. Give an example where it is permissible to use
different accounting methods for reporting ver­
sus tax accounting.
8. What are some problems pursuant to using
LIFO-based accounting?
9. True or False: Operating Profits include interest

107
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 108

paid.
10. If the company does not pay its dividends on
Preferred Stock, has it “defaulted”?
11. True or False: Interest is not tax-deductible
whereas Dividends are tax-deductible.
12. What are some of the differences between what
the accountant and financial analyst do?
13. If there is some inflation, which will produce
higher gross profits – FIFO or LIFO?
14. Provide some examples of and discuss each of
the four interpretive problems readers of finan­
cial statements may encounter.
15. Solve the following Calculation Problems:

1. Assume the following:

Equipment cost: $12 million

Estimated Life: 8 years

Salvage Value: $1.75 million

What are the second year’s depreciation expenses and

asset balances under each of the three reporting methods?
2. Assume the following:
Beginning Inventory: $2 million

Ending Inventory: $4 million

Purchases: $10 million

What is the company’s Cost of Goods Sold?

109 Kenneth S. Bigel
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 110

Part II: Ratio Analysis and

Forecasting Modeling

Part II: Ratio Analysis and Forecasting Modeling

Chapter 5: Financial Ratios and Forecasting; Liquidity and

Solvency Ratios
Chapter 6: Financial Ratios: Profitability, Return Ratios,
and Turnover
Chapter 7: Financial Ratios: Market Ratios
Chapter 8: Corporate Financial Projections: Accounting
Income, Cash Flow and Depreciation
Chapter 9: Corporate Forecasting Models

110
111 Kenneth S. Bigel

Chapter 5: Financial Ratios

and Forecasting; Liquidity and
Solvency Ratios

111
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 112

5.1 Chapter Five: Learning Outcomes

Learning Outcomes

In this chapter you will:

• Place Ratio Analysis within the forecasting

context
• Implement Cross-sectional and Longitudinal
Analyses
• Distinguish Liquidity from Solvency Issues
• State from rote memory all Liquidity and Sol­
vency Ratios
• Interpret the meaning of each ratio
• Apply each ratio in context
• Speculate as to why a ratio may have the value
it reflects

112
 113 Kenneth S. Bigel

5.2 Financial Ratios and Forecasting

Now that we are done, for now, with reading and interpret­
ing financial statements, let’s discuss why these account­
ing data are so important and what can be done to make
the interpretive process more effective. Keep in mind that
the purpose of releasing Financial Statements is to enable
effective credit and investment decisions, i.e., decisions
regarding the future prospects of a business entity.

Potential and current lenders wish to assess the creditabil­

ity of the firm and shareholders wish to assess
the returns their investments will earn. Will the borrowing
corporation be able to make timely interest payments on
its debt? Will shareholders receive sufficient dividends and
growth in their capital investments, i.e., increases in share
prices, to justify owning a portion of this corporation after
considering the risks involved?

A good predictor of stock price performance may be book

value – assets less liabilities, and earnings. A recent
1
study has found that the usefulness of these predictor vari­
ables has become attenuated in recent years, more particu­
larly since the crisis of 2000-2001. A more useful predictor
is cash flow. Cash flows are easier to predict than earnings
and book values and have greater impact on price than the
others.

Yet, regulators and the accounting profession continue pro­

ducing rulings that make reading statements more com­
1. See The End of Accounting, by Baruch Lev and Feng Gu (Wiley, 2016)

113
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 114

plex and therefore opaque. Accrual accounting, despite its

flagrant flaws, has become a faith, rather than a sci­
ence, that sufficiently describes a certain reality. Does one
really need to pore through two hundred pages of arcane
financial statement information in order to make an invest­
ment decision? Isn’t the purpose of a statement to simplify
and clarify the financial condition and productivity of the
corporation and its management?

Much has changed in recent decades. We now live in a

much more technological world. Communications are
faster. Investment analysis and its implementation are
speedier. When we look at financial statements, little, if
anything, has changed for the last one hundred years. State­
ments look the same; the accounts are the same. Double-
entry bookkeeping has not advanced since it was developed
in Italy by Luca Pacioli in 1494! Intangibles, including
brand names, patents, customer lists, R&D-in-
process, training, and information systems, are not carried
on the balance sheet, but usually expensed only as
incurred. More and more, investment decisions are made
using data outside of the accounting sphere. Clearly,
2
accounting reporting methods need updating .

2. There were two more crises; the Banking Crisis of 2007-2008, and the
COVID-19 outbreak (2020) which led to a market crash, which was NOT
due to any financial causes.
115 Kenneth S. Bigel

On Achievement

The secret to getting ahead …is getting started.

-Mark Twain

The secret of achievement is to hold a picture of a

successful outcome in the mind.
–Henry David Thoreau

Ninety-nine percent of the failures come from peo­

ple…
who are in the habit of making excuses.

-George Washington Carver

Scientist and Inventor

 Introduction to Financial Analysis 116

Success is the ability to go from failure to failure

without losing your enthusiasm.
–Winston Churchill
117 Kenneth S. Bigel

5.3 Financial Ratios

Ratio analysis is fundamental to finance, and ratios are

regularly used in this discipline. Ratios are basic tools of
analysis. It is very important, therefore, that you master the
following.

It is important to understand that ratios do not provide

answers, but instead raise questions, which the analyst
must then resolve. Questions raised must be investi­
gated. Analyst speculations should be based on knowledge
of financial statements, the macroeconomic and industry
backgrounds in which the company operates, management
profiles, and company history. The ratios themselves are
derived from accounting data, which are subject to inter­
pretive issues.

A ratio consists of two numbers, which are compared to

one another. “2:1” (two-to-one) or “1:3” are ratios.
In fact, any simple number is a ratio because it can always
be compared to one! Fractional numbers also pertain. We
may also think of ratios as consisting of a numerator (on
the top) and a denominator (on the bottom), e.g., 2/1 and
1/3 above.

No (financial) ratio means anything by itself – it must be

compared to some other datum in order to derive infer­
ences. The means by which the comparison may be made
are:

Longitudinal (Vertical): This would involve comparing a

117
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 118

ratio for a company at two different points in time. For

instance, we may say that IBM’s profit margin last year
was 10% versus this year’s 20%. What are the rele­
vant trends? Longitudinal analysis data can be effectively
diagrammed.

Cross-Sectional (Horizontal): here we would compare

two companies on the basis of a selected ratio at the same
point in time. This might lead us to conclude, for instance,
that one company is more profitable than another at pre-
sent.

At times, the construction of a financial ratio may involve

comparing a Balance Sheet datum with an Income State-
ment number. This presents a problem in that the former
statement is a static, or “as-of” based statement, whereas
the latter is a flow, or moving picture. In order to compare
apples to apples, i.e., when comparing an Income State-
ment with a Balance Sheet number, the analyst may
choose to use an average number for the Bal-
ance Sheet datum in order to make the Balance Sheet num-
ber appear more like a “flow.” The average may be
calculated in various ways, e.g., by averaging two con-
secutive year-end data, using quarterlies, or, if available,
monthlies.

Averaging may be especially warranted in cases where

balance sheet data fluctuate widely due to seasonality or
other factors. For example, a snow-mobile manufacturer
may have much inventory in September and far less inven­
tory in March. In such a case, it may be advised for the
analyst to average the inventory number over, say, four
quarters. In the pages to follow, we will learn how this
averaging is actually done by the analyst – and under what
circumstances.
119 Kenneth S. Bigel

Below are some important financial ratios, listed by cat­

egory. When would you utilize certain ratios? How may
your choice of ratio vary from sector to sector (or industry
to industry)? In many, if not most, instances there is no
universal – minimum, maximum or average – “ideal” ratio
that relates to all situations. The ideal ratio, if there is
such a thing, is a function of numerous variables, including
the nature of the industry, the company, the management
risk profile, and perhaps the shareholders’ risk profiles and
goals as well.

As we go through the discussion regarding Ratio Analysis,

some of you may wish to calculate the generic ratios pro-
vided using an example. At the end of Chapter Seven, the
reader will find a page entitled “Simple Ratio Analysis
Exercise.” That page contains a Balance Sheet and Income
Statement for a fictitious company; a ratios worksheet fol-
lows on the subsequent page, with the solutions following
that page. You may work through the ratios there.

Keep in mind that the actual ratios’ arithmetic calculations

are secondary to the primary and underlying understanding
of what the actual ratios are in the abstract, and what they
mean. Once you understand the ratios themselves, e.g.,
what it means when we say that “average collections are 32
days,” or that the TIE Ratio should exceed one, the calcu-
lations become a matter of a simple arithmetic exercise, a
mere changing of the inputted numbers to fixed formulae.
That said, you will find a comprehensive exercise, includ-
ing a Balance Sheet and Income Statement, requiring the
calculation of all our Financial Ratios below – in Section
#7.5. As you calculate, don’t forget the numerous faults
with accounting data!
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 120

5.4 Longitudinal vs. Cross-sectional

Analysis (Example)

Definitions:

◦ Longitudinal:
▪ Different times
▪ Over time
▪ Same company

◦ Cross-sectional:
▪ Same time
▪ Different companies
▪ Company-to-com-
pany

In all instances the ratios presented will be the same.

Exercise: Describe the longitudinal and cross-sectional

relationships for the profitability ratios in the table below.

120
121 Kenneth S. Bigel

Description:

▪ Both ABC and XYZ Corpo-

rations are more profitable
now than then.

▪ XYZ is more profitable both

now and then than ABC.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 122

Financial Ratios Do Not Provide Answers

Col. Jessup (Jack

You want answers?
Nicholson):

Lt. Kaffee (Tom Cruise): I think I’m entitled to…

Jessup: You want answers?

Kaffee: I want the truth!

Jessup: You can’t handle the truth!

-A Few Good Men (1992)

123 Kenneth S. Bigel

5.5 Liquidity and Liquidity Ratios

Note:

Toward the end of chapter 5, the student will find a “Ratio

Analysis Exercise.” As we go through and explain each of
the twenty financial ratios below, the student will, one-by-
one, calculate the ratios for the example given in the exer­
cise. You will find that the example is constituted by a
fictitious company’s Balance Sheet and Income Statement.

We are going to list 20 ratios – covering six categories– in

this section. After this discussion, an exercise in calculat­
ing all the ratios is presented so that you may apply what
you learned.

The first category is liquidity ratios. The idea of liquidity

has to do with the ease and speed with which an asset may
be converted into cash – without compromising its “true”
worth or “intrinsic value.” It must satisfy both conditions
in order to be considered liquid.

For instance, it is possible to sell virtually anything at

a “fire–sale price,” if one needs the cash. The question is
whether an item worth, say $100, will fetch $100 – or less.
If less, we may say that the item is not liquid, as the seller

123
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 124

did not obtain its true worth, even though s/he was able to
obtain some cash for it.

An example of a liquid asset would be IBM stock. Let’s

say it is trading for $190. Should one wish to sell 100
shares of the stock, s/he would obtain approximately
$19,000 for it. However, if I wanted to sell my tie, for
which I paid $50, it may be difficult for me to get that
amount. Whether you wish to consider the asset’s “value” a
matter of its original cost or its “current value,” is a matter
of analytic choice and context.

The notion of liquidity is closely tied to another notion:

“marketability.” This has to do with the availability of a
market in which purchases and sales may be readily trans­
acted. For instance, the stock market provides IBM com­
mon shares with a great deal of marketability. Should I
however wish to sell my tie, I would not know where to go
to find a “used-tie market.” Real estate markets are domi­
nated by brokers who advertise frequently, and I may easily
sell my car to a used car dealer.

In the case of your typical corporation, it will not own

other companies’ stock. It will instead produce goods and
services for sale and profit. Thus, it will regularly carry
inventory and accounts receivable, which are reported as
“current assets.” The net current assets (current assets less
current liabilities), being short-term, are presumably liquid.
If the assets are liquid, the firm will be able to quickly con-
vert the assets into cash, which will be used to honor its
current liabilities due. If not liquid, the firm will have dif-
ficulty paying its current liabilities; it will be said to have a
“liquidity problem.”

Now that we know what is meant by liquidity and we

125 Kenneth S. Bigel

understand that the liquidity notion applies to “net current

assets,” let’s quantify the notion by detailing some relevant
ratios that put numbers to the idea. The greater the mea­
surable liquidity the less the riskthat the firm will not have
sufficient funds to defray its short-term payment require­
ments.

Current Ratio = Current Assets Divided by Current

Liabilities = CA ÷ CL

The current ratio gauges the extent to which a corporation

has the liquidity with which it may honor its short-term
obligations or liabilities. Does it have the cash to pay its
suppliers when accounts payable are due? Are inventories
and accounts receivable sufficient (and liquid) to cover its
current liabilities? We will assume, for now that the inven­
tory and accounts receivable are completely liquid.

It stands to reason that a watermark level for this ratio

should be 1:1 or 1x (“one times”); one would not want to
see this ratio go below that figure as it would imply that
the company does not have sufficient current assets and,
hence, the liquidity to meet its current obligations. Many
analysts agree that 1.5x or 2x are reasonable figures, but
we should be leery of such arbitrary minima. Companies
that are very efficient in the manner in which they manage
their current assets may have current ratios close to 1. In
general, ratios will vary from industry to industry. Note
that this ratio is affected by the choice of inventory costing
method (e.g., FIFO vs. LIFO) because inventory is a con­
stituent of current assets.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 126

Note: Working Capital = Current Assets less Current Lia­

bilities. If the current ratio is less than one, the working
capital will be negative. (See Ratio Exercise.)

Quick Ratio (“Acid Test”) = (CA – Inventory) ÷ CL

Some analysts take a more conservative approach in the

assessment of liquidity coverage by assuming that inven­
tory is worthless (even though it may, in fact, not be – or
not be entirely) and hence that current liabilities will be
covered by all current assets except inventory. Indeed, in
some industries inventory quickly becomes obsolete due to
technological advances; in other cases, inventory may be
easily damaged, or lose its fashion and sales appeal.
127 Kenneth S. Bigel

The current and quick ratios may be thought of as “cover-

age” ratios in that they indicate the extent to which liquid
assets are adequate to “cover,” or pay off, current liabil-
ities, especially accounts payable and notes payable (i.e.,
short-term loans).

Average Collection Period (ACP) = Days sales out­

standing (DSO) = (A/R ÷Credit Sales) (360)

“A/R” stands for Accounts Receivable. This ratio tells the

analyst approximately how long it takes the firm to collect
its receivables; the ratio is expressed in days. The shorter
the collection period, the more liquid the firm’s accounts
receivable.

Note that we use credit sales because only credit (and not
cash) sales become accounts receivable. This ACP figure
may then be compared to the firm’s typical credit terms.
If, for argument’s sake, the ACP exceeds the firm’s credit
terms, which may be 30 days, the analyst may first assess
whether the firm is having collection problems. Alterna-
tively, the analyst may investigate whether the firm is act-
ing aggressively in its marketing, and choosing to live
with the consequences of some late payments as a result.
Perhaps the firm expects that the incremental profits will
exceed any losses in its collections.

This ratio is our first case, so far, of “apples and oranges”

in that, here, we note that both income statement and bal­
ance sheet numbers appear within the same ratio.
This inconsistency needs to be fixed; we ought not to com­
bine one datum from the Balance Sheet, which is a sta­
tic figure, with another from the Income Statement,
which is a flow kind of number, within one ratio. The two
are inconsistent with each other.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 128

In such cases as this, what the analyst may choose to do

is “average” the balance sheet number. One way of doing
this would be by taking this year’s and last year’s year-
end numbers and averaging them(i.e., add the two numbers
up and divide by two). We could also use quarterlies or, if
available, monthlies. In businesses where receivables fluc-
tuate over the course of the year and may thus be either rel-
atively high or low at certain times of year or during certain
seasons, it may be better to average the quarterly numbers,
if possible.

This technique would then capture a better sense of move­

ment over the course of the seasonal business cycle and
would thus provide a better comparison with the income
statement number, which, again, flow over the course of
the entire year. If the balance sheet number does not fluc­
tuate – much, or at all – over time, there may be no need
for averaging. This choice is at the discretion of the ana­
lyst. Compare Companies “A” and “B” in terms of
their accounts receivable or inventory levels, as it
were, over the course of four quarters. Is anything accom­
plished by averaging the Balance Sheet numbers for Com­
pany A?

You will also note that (usually) Accounts Receivable

will display a smaller number than Sales. Normally, we
would expect that accounts receivable are collected more
or less monthly; indeed, if sales terms are 30 days, we
129 Kenneth S. Bigel

should get about 12 collections per year. This is illustrated

on the next page.

We shall also assume a 360-day year, consisting of twelve

30-day rolling months, because most often collections are
demanded within 30 days. Some analysts will use a
365-day year on the rationale that Credit Sales accumu­
late over a 365-day calendar year. It’s your choice, Ms/r.
Analyst!

Final note: If you are analyzing data for just one quar­
ter, you should use 90, rather than 360, as the multiplier for
the ACP. For two or three quarters, you will use 180 and
270 respectively.

Inventory Turnover = COGS ÷ Inventory

This ratio tells us how often the inventory “turns over,”

that is to say, how often the inventory – in its entirety – is
replaced. Would you buy fresh tomatoes from a company
whose inventory turnover is 10x a year (or every 36 days)?
Note that this ratio is affected by the choice of inventory
costing method. This ratio has some issues with mixing
Balance Sheet and Income Statement numbers, which was
discussed the prior section concerning ACP.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 130

5.6 The Income Statement versus the

Balance Sheet

It is important to understand how related Balance Sheet and

Income Statement numbers may compare with one another,
especially when used in a particular ratio.

For instance, in the Average Collection Period, we compare

MONTHLY credit sales (from the Income Statement) to
MONTHLY accounts receivable (from the Balance Sheet).
Which number is bigger? Take note that the quarterly data
for the Credit Sales are cumulative as reported by the
accountant. We are also assuming that the receivables are
collected in full at each month’s end. Let’s see.

130
131 Kenneth S. Bigel

In the table above, we show credit sales on a monthly basis

for the “Fictitious Company” over the course of the fis­
cal year ended (FYE) 12.31.20XX. We are assuming that
credit terms are 30 days and that all receivables are col­
lected on time. Which number is greater – the credit sales
or the accounts receivable?

Clearly, after February, Credit Sales, which are cumulative,

will exceed accounts receivable. A similar analysis may
be applied to the inventory turnover ratio.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 132

5.7 Accounts Receivable Aging

Schedule

An aging schedule is an internal, managerial, and confi­

dential document, which shows, account by account, how
much money is due the seller from the time of sale, and
whether a customer account is “current” or is “past due.” It
is a necessary management tool.

The schedule would provide the external analyst with much

more than s/he may otherwise know by alternatively cal­
culating Days Sales Outstanding. It is much more detailed.
Unfortunately, the schedule is an internal management doc­
ument and unavailable to outsiders.

The customer accounts are listed row by row, either by

name or some some other identifier. Since most credit sales
require payment within 30 days, the first column shows
how much money is due where the sale occurred less than
30 in the past. As you read to the right, you will see uncol­
lected credit sales figures that are more than 30, 60, and 90
days old, and the respective amounts due. Thus, the sched­
ule might look somewhat like the following. In examining
the schedule, what might you tentatively conclude about
each of the five listed accounts?

132
133 Kenneth S. Bigel

By examining this schedule, the analyst may uncover some

interesting findings. For instance:

1. ACP/DSO may be higher than the company’s

sales terms due, possibly, to one very large
account skewing the average. It may also be
greater due to the company’s decision to enter a
new geographical or product market, knowing in
advance that such entry will slow down its col­
lections, but expecting that the added profits will
make the expansion worthwhile.
2. The analyst may see how many accounts are
current and how many should be written off –
analytically – by the analyst. (Remember: this is
not accounting, so a real “write-off” would be
recorded by the accountant.)
3. This schedule does not tell the reader anything
about the profitability of the accounts (but nei­
ther does the ACP). It could very well be, for
instance, that account #1, which apparently pays
well, is also purchasing very low margin prod­
ucts. While not necessarily of great importance
to the Accounts Receivable manager, the mar­
keting manager may be very interested in prof­
itability.
4. Overall, it appears that the company
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 134

has $425/$700, or 60.7% of its receivables that

are “current,” i.e., not past due – assuming
30-days collection terms.
5. The Aging Schedule implies a certain ACP. In
order to calculate the ACP, it is necessary to
know the Credit Sales figure, which is publicly
available from the company’s Income State­
ment.
135 Kenneth S. Bigel

5.8 Solvency Ratios

Solvency has to do with the firm’s ongoing ability to gener­

ate sufficient liquidity from Operating Earnings (EBIT) in
order to meet its continuing debt-service obligations, par­
ticularly interest payments, timely and fully. The two most
common solvency ratios have to do with “leverage,” or the
extent to which the firm employs debt as a source of capital
as opposed to using equity.

Some debt is desirable as it allows the firm’s owners or

shareholders to exploit “other people’s money” (OPM) in
order to earn greater profits on a per share basis than they
would in the absence of debt, i.e., OPM. Too much debt,
however, may be a bad thing as it increases the firm’s riski­
ness by adding on an increasing requirement to pay interest
on the debt.

“TIE” Ratio = Times Interest Earned (or Interest Cov­

erage) = EBIT ÷ Interest Expense

EBIT stands for “Earnings before Interest and Taxes.”

Over time, a company’s operating earnings (EBIT) may
fluctuate, the extent of which fluctuation depends on the
company’s business and its industry. For example, a lawn­
mower (or snowmobile) manufacturer will have high sales
and inventory at certain times of year and low at other
times; we refer to this phenomenon as “seasonality.” The
company’s interest expnses is relatively flat over time
because the company does not often borrow and its interest
expenses are fixed.

135
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 136

In any case, this ratio looks at the extent to which EBIT

exceeds the interest expense on its debt over time. Is this
margin (or buffer) a “safe” amount? (Some analysts will
add back depreciation and amortization to EBIT to arrive
at “EBITDA” – operating cash flow – on the rationale that
interest is paid with cash.)

In the diagram below, you will find inserted three possible

EBIT curves for a fictitious firm; each possibility is rep­
resented by a different colored curve.. The “wavier” the
EBIT line, the more volatile its operating earnings are/will
be over the course of some periods or years. The question
is: overall, which curve represents the most secure TIE
ratio and why? The implications profoundly relate to the
firm’s Solvency!

EBIT may look like a kind of horizontal squiggle,

the squigglyness of which depends on the volatility of the
firm’s operating earnings. The question then is whether
interest expense (the straight horizontal line), which should
be relatively flat over time, is above, below, or somewhere
in the middle of the squiggle. Interest expense would
appear as a horizontal line, since it is relatively flat over
time because the company’s level of indebtedness changes
little, if at all, over time.

Again, the company’s EBIT should be sufficiently above

the interest expense line, the extent of which differential
137 Kenneth S. Bigel

depends on the nature of the company’s business and the

manner in which the company is managed. A contingency
may arise that if EBIT is low relative to (or worse, below)
the interest expense, will the firm have the capacity to
make the required and timely (cash) payment of inter­
est? Persistent insolvency may lead to bankruptcy.

Debt ÷ NW

By “NW,” we mean “net worth,” or (total) “equity”

(remember the basic accounting equation: A – L =
NW). Analysts will disagree as to what is meant by “debt.”
Some will concern themselves only with long-term liabil­
ities; others will include current liabilities among “Debt.”
In most instances, and for our present use, we will refer to
“total liabilities” as debt, a reasonable default assumption
since Debt + NW = 100% of assets, thus excluding nothing
on the Balance Sheet.

While one cannot say what the ideal “debt-to-net-worth

ratio” ought to be, it is safe to say that as the ratio increases,
the company’s ongoing ability to service its debt (i.e., to
pay interest in particular) is reduced, and the likelihood
of bankruptcy increases. In general, the ratio will change
from industry to industry. Some industries are character-
ized by greater indebtedness, or “leverage” than others.
We will have more to say about this later. This ratio may
be less than or greater than one. In the Balance Sheet to the
right, the Debt-to-Net Worth Ratio is 500:500 or 1:1, “one
to one.” The Total Assets are $1,000.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 138

Debt ÷ TA

The default option for defining “debt” is again “total liabil-

ities.” Again, remember that Total Assets = Debt + Equity
(TA = D + Eq). In this case, as the ratio increases, the com-
pany’s solvency becomes increasingly at risk.

This ratio should not be thought of as “coverage” ratios, in

the same sense that the current and quick ratios are (or for
that matter as the TIE ratio is). In the latter cases, we view
the adequacy (or inadequacy) of current assets as sufficient
– or not – to pay for the company’s current liabilities. The
firm needs liquid current assets to pay off its current liabil­
ities.

Such is not the correct manner, in which to interpret the

debt ratios. The company does not need its equity to “pay
off” its debts! It is incorrect to say that the net worth,
or equity, of the company is “adequate” in this sense. The
only time that that equity will be used to pay off debt is in
the worst case of bankruptcy and (net) asset liquidation! In
most cases, you will be analyzing an ongoing enterprise,
not a bankrupt one.

Instead, these two debt ratios (D/NW and D/TA) are sim­
ply measures of the magnitude of a company’s indebted­
ness and, as such, are useful in comparison to other
companies in its industry, and to itself over time. Does XYZ
Corporation have a lot of debt in comparison (or in propor­
tion to) to its industry peers? Is its indebtedness increasing?

A more useful solvency coverage ratio, if you are looking

for one that most directly addresses solvency, is the “Times
Interest Earned” ratio, above. The “TIE” ratio provides a
139 Kenneth S. Bigel

gauge of the company’s ability to pay (i.e., to “cover”) the

interest payable (or paid) on its debt.

The D/TA ratio above would be 500/1,000 or 50%. While

the D/NW is more popular, the D/TA ratio gives the analyst
an imaginary range of 0-100% of debt in comparison to
total assets. The D/NW ratio gives no such reasonable
range. In any case, one ratio can be easily inferred from the
other.

Total Assets ÷ Equity

Another solvency ratio is D / TA. This ratio will be pre-

sented and discussed when we get to the “DuPont Model”
somewhat later (see Sections 6.3 and 6.4).

In summary, the more debt a company has

relative to either its Equity or its Total
Assets, the more leverage it is said to have,
by definition. In Physics, a “lever” allows
one to get more output with the same input
as compared to not using the lever.
Leverage

“If at First….”

I can accept failure; everyone fails at something.

I cannot accept not trying.

-Michael Jordan
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 140

A person, who never made a mistake, never tried

anything new.
-Albert Einstein

I have not failed. I’ve just found 10,000 ways that

won’t work.

-Thomas A. Edison
141 Kenneth S. Bigel

Chapter 6: Profitability and

Return Ratios, and Turnover

141
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 142

6.1 Chapter Six: Learning Outcomes

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will:

• State by rote memory all the ratios in this chap-

ter
• Interpret each ratio
• Distinguish between Operating and Net profits
in the use of the ratios
• Explain under what certain circumstances
Turnover Ratios are used

142
143 Kenneth S. Bigel

6.2 Profitability, Return and Asset

Turnover Ratios

Profitability:

Certainly, we are all interested in profitability. Each of

the foregoing data (without the word “margin”) may be
divided by “Total Sales” and used cross-sectionally or lon­
gitudinally. “Margin” means percentage. For example,
gross profit margin = gross profits ÷ sales.

In discussing liquidity ratios, we agreed that in order

to manage liquidity risk the current ratio should be at least
one.We can also agree that too high a current ratio may be
unhealthy. This is because current assets, especially cash,
produce no return. Having inventory sitting around does no
good.

A question to ask is: Why has the firm accumu­

lated cash and other current assets rather than investing in
more productive, fixed assets? There must be a balance
between liquidity on the one hand, and return (see below)
on the other. Too much of anything may not be good.

Even though the firm may have high profitability, it does

not mean that its cash flow position is strong. One must
also examine the solvency ratios, especially the TIE ratio.

143
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 144

The company may have onerous obligations due to matur­

ing debt and the need for replacement of long-term assets.
A growing company may need a great deal of liquidity,
in order to support growing sales, which growth would be
reflected in growing inventory and accounts receiv­
able. The analyst should also check the firm’s Liquidity.

Return Measures:

We will discuss two important return measures.

These ratios give the analyst another look at prof­
itability.
ROA = Return on Assets = EBIT ÷ TA

How well is a firm employing its assets? Return on Assets

attempts to gauge this. While many will use net income in
the numerator, EBIT is preferable in the sense that operat­
ing profits reflect what the assets produce, whereas net
income is affected by the firm’s capital structure, i.e.,
interest expense and particularly taxes, and other possible
items not directly associated with the firm’s actual busi­
ness or “operations.”

ROA may be a good tool to judge management’s operat­

ing performance and its “asset utilization,” or how effi­
ciently it exploits the firm’s assets. Why may two,
otherwise identical companies, have different ROAs?
Does one company manage better? Does it motivate its
employees better? Are they better trained? Do they work
harder or longer hours? Does it employ better technology?

ROE = Return on Equity = NI ÷ Equity

145 Kenneth S. Bigel

Common shareholders are most interested in ROE because

that is what they get for their equity investment. They
understand that for each dollar of equity invested, they will
have a claim on the company’s net income, i.e., its divi­
dends and (additions to) retained earnings.

What kind of return is the firm able to produce on its

equity? Equity is the result of, not just the company’s past
operating performance (EBIT) and its associated accumu­
lation of retained earnings, but management’s capital struc­
ture decisions (i.e., the debt/equity ratio) when it had to
raise capital in the past. The more debt there is, the
less equity; the more interest expense, the less net
income. EBIT also affects Net Income!

While ROA reflects the firm’s effectiveness in producing

operating profits, or EBIT, the effective use of leverage,
i.e., debt, can increase the firm’s ROE above its ROA.
This is not guaranteed; borrowing does not ensure in all
instances that ROE > ROA. In addition, “leverage,” i.e.,
the use of debt (OPM), increases the firm’s financial, or
solvency, risk. We shall get a glimpse of this when we –
soon – look into the DuPont model on the very next
page. ROA and Leverage (i.e., the extent to which a firm
utilizes debt) are inter-related. Stay tuned.

ROE may be a better tool (than ROA) for assessing a

firm’s (equity) investment merits, because shareholders are
most interested in net income as that will either be distrib­
uted to them as dividends and/or added to retained earn­
ings, which are “owned” by shareholders.

Once again, what is management providing the sharehold­

ers for their equity investment? Shareholders are interested
in earnings, as it is earnings, which are either paid out as
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 146

dividends or retained, and that is what benefits the share­

holders. Remember: retained earnings belong to the com­
mon shareholders.

Asset Turnover:

S ÷ Fixed Assets and S ÷ TA

Here “turnover” is not a physical concept as it was when

we spoke about Inventory Turnover. How often do the
firm’s Fixed Assets (i.e., Property, Plant, and Equip­
ment),or total assets, “turn over” relative to sales? In other
words, how much Sales does a company produce from
its fixed or total assets? If two identical firms differ in
only this respect, what might the analyst conclude? Does
one firm maximize price and revenues? Does one firm
manage production and exploit its assets more effi­
ciently, more productively? What do turnover ratios say
about pricing, asset utilization, and management perfor­
mance?

An analyst may prefer using total assets rather than just

fixed assets, in this analysis, if the company being ana­
lyzed is a service company with fewer fixed assets to speak
of in comparison with a heavy manufacturing firm. An ana­
lyst may use Asset Turnover rather than Return Ratios in
the case where EBIT = 0.

If you take shortcuts, you get cut short.

-Gary Busey, actor
147 Kenneth S. Bigel

6.3 The DuPont Model

The DuPont Model was developed by managers at the

DuPont Chemical Corporation for purposes of internally
pinpointing strengths and weaknesses within the com­
pany’s management hierarchy. Imagine you are at the top
of the corporation, that you are the chairman of the
board or CEO, and you answer to the company’s share­
holders. Arguably, the one ratio you are most interested in
would be the company’s return-on-equity ratio. Whether
the ROE looks good or bad, you would wish to look fur­
ther into the performance of the company, make improve­
ments, increase efficiency, and buttress strong areas.

The DuPont formula provides upper management with a

top-down look into the company’s performance culminat­
ing with ROE, which, again, is of the most interest to com­
pany shareholders. The CEO looks into three critical areas:
1. Profitability (“Profit Margin” – see below), 2. Operating
(“Total Asset Turnover”), and 3. Financial perspec­
tives (“Leverage”).

147
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 148

Some Key Points:

1. Good business management produces a favor-

able ROA.
2. Proper leverage may enhance the investor’s
return – ROE. Without Leverage, ROA = ROE.
3. You will notice that the ROA and Leverage
ratios do not match up with our earlier defini-
149 Kenneth S. Bigel

tions.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 150

6.4 What Does the Dupont Model Show

Us?

The Dupont Model enables us to locate the sources of

corporate performance. Imagine you are CEO and have to
report performance to shareholders.

First, looking top-down, you are interested in ROE. The

model shows us the effect of leverage on ROE, given the
prior level of ROA.

Then, it ascribes operating performance, as defined by

ROA, as being attributable to Profit Margin and Total Asset
Turnover. This enables executives to locate areas of weak­
ness within the firm and address them.

Let’s illustrate how Leverage benefits an unnamed corpo­

ration, given its ROA.

Let’s assume the following:

Debt = $700

Equity = $300

Total Assets = $1,000

Net Income = $100

Therefore:

150
151 Kenneth S. Bigel

ROA = NI / TA = 100 / 1,000 = 0.10

Leverage = Total Assets / Equity = 1,000 / 300 = 3.34

ROE = ROA x Leverage = (0.10) (3.34) = 0.34

Leverage has increased the corporation’s ROE!

Alternatively, let’s say the company has no leverage, but

the same in Total Assets. In other words, the assets are
financed in full by equity only.

ROA = 100 / 1,000 = 0.10

Leverage = 1,000 / 1,000 = 1.0

ROE = (0.10) (1.0) = 0.10

Without any Leverage at all, ROE = ROA.

Of course, Leverage is not something that the company

should employ indiscriminately. Too much debt will raise
interest expense to possibly unsustainable levels and thus
could have a weakening effect on the TIE ratio, leading
eventually to insolvency and bankruptcy – in the worst
case. The DuPont Model does not address this risk.

The Dupont Model is useful for assessment of past perfor-

mance. It is a poor planning tool. Looking at this exam-
ple, one may be encouraged to employ more and more risk.
Of course, as just noted, too much debt is not necessarily
a good thing: it increases the risk of becoming insolvent –
causing the TIE Ratio to be below one.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 152

6.5 Financial Ratios in Action

Liquidity and Profitability: Costco

Costco, when you look at it, is a very basic kind of busi­
ness. They run stores, organized as warehouses, and sell
1
everyday merchandise. Take a look at their 2019 report .
On pages 34-35, you’ll find Costco’s Balance Sheet and
Income Statement. Look at its profitability ratios. What is
its current ratio, and Total Liabilities-to-Total Assets
Ratio? How much of its current assets are tied up in inven­
tory? Here is Costco’s more recent (2021) report:

https://investor.costco.com/static-files/
0878117f-7f3f-4a77-a9a5-c11a2534e94d
Solvency: Some Interesting History
General Motors became insolvent in 2007-2008. Apple
Computers borrowed a huge amount of money in 2013.
Here are their stories.

The Bankruptcy of General Motors

2
Here is General Motors’ Financial Report for 2007 , just

1. Costco. (2019). 2019 Annual report: Fiscal year ended September 1, 2019.
Costco investor relations. https://investor.costco.com/static-files/
05c62fe6-6c09-4e16-8d8b-5e456e5a0f7e
2. General Motors Corporation (2007). General Motors Corporation 2007 annual
report. Annual reports. https://www.annualreports.com/HostedData/Annu­
alReportArchive/g/NYSE_GM_2007.pdf

152
 153 Kenneth S. Bigel

before it declared bankruptcy. Notice the “splash” in its

early pages; it is replete with attractive product pho­
tographs. Since there is so much stuff in the report to read,
try to focus on the following. On page 82, you will notice
that it lost money – a lot. On page 83, take a look at the
Balance Sheet, especially Total Assets, Total Liabilities,
and Equity. Does it come as any surprise that its auditors
complain of poor “internal controls” on pages 80-81?

There was a time when it was said that “as GM goes, so

goes America.” Well, that was long ago. In 2009, GM filed
3
for bankruptcy .

The Case of Apple Computers

Apple Computers issued a huge amount in debt in 2013 in

spite of its having, at the same time, a great, as in really a
lot, deal of cash. Here’s why they sold (a.k.a., issued or bor-
4
rowed) debt.

5
Here are Apple’s Balance Sheets from 2005-2019 . Notice
how Long-term Debt went from zero to $17 Billion from

3. Isidore, Chris (2009 June, 2) GM bankruptcy: End of an era. CNN Money.

https://money.cnn.com/2009/06/01/news/companies/gm_bankruptcy/
4. References Balassi, J., & Cox, J. (2013). Apple wows market with record $17
billion bond deal. Retrieved Sep 20, 2021, from https://www.reuters.com/
article/us-apple-debt/apple-wows-market-with-record-17-billion-bond-deal-
idUSBRE93T10B20130430
5. https://www.macrotrends.net/stocks/charts/AAPL/apple/balance-sheet
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 154

2012 to 2013. Calculate its Debt-to-Assets ratio for both

years.
155 Kenneth S. Bigel

Chapter 7: Market Ratios

155
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 156

7.1 Chapter Seven: Learning Outcomes

Learning Outcomes

In this chapter, you will:

• Consider “Relative Value”

• Discriminate between Price-to-Book Value and
the Price-Earnings Ratio as measures of Rela-
tive Value
• Explore dividends as a discretionary manager-
ial decision
• Interpolate financial statements data into all
the ratios
• Connect the DuPont Model with management
performance
• Place limits on the power and authenticity of
financial ratios

156
157 Kenneth S. Bigel

7.2 Market Ratios

PE Ratio = Market Price per share ÷ Earnings per

share

Note: Earnings per share (“EPS”) = Net Income divided by

the number of shares the company has (“Number of shares
outstanding”). For example, if a company earned $1 mil­
lion and has 500,000 shares outstanding, its EPS is $2 per
share.

This, rather than the dollar price, may be

used as a measure of “cheapness” or
Key “expensiveness” of a stock. “Value”
Terms: stocks are generally characterized by low
PE ratios. A Value Stock may be thought
of as such because its price – relative to
its earnings – represents a “good buy” for
Value
the money, i.e., cheaper. The analyst must
Stock
be cognizant of the possibility that a low
PE may also mean that its future earnings
prospects are generally deemed unfavor-
able.

In contrast, Growth Stocks will reflect

(very) high PEs on the basis of generally
optimistic views of future earnings
growth. Does this mean that earnings
will necessarily catch up with
price? Let’s say that a company’s PE =
$50/$1 = 50 times earnings. That is a very

157
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 158

high ratio. If the market anticipates next

year’s earnings to double, the stock may
be said to be trading at just $50/$2 = Growth
25 times next year’s earnings, a more rea­ Stock
sonable ratio.

High PEs are the effect of the high expec­

tations the market has for future growth in a com­
pany’s earnings. As a company’s earnings grow in the
future, the multiple that one paid for his shares goes down,
making the purchase, with the benefit of hindsight, a good
choice.

For example, if a company earns $1 per share and sells

for $50, its PE will equal 50x earnings, quite high, quite
“expensive” for what you get. If, however, the earnings
next year do indeed grow to say, $5 per share, the buyer at
last year’s price who purchased the stock for a meager $50,
or only 10x next year’s earnings, got a good deal. There­
fore, companies with high growth expectations will mani­
fest higher PE ratios than the boring companies with low
growth prospects. A stock analyst might have said that the
PE ratio is now 50x, but only 10x next year’sexpected earn­
ings – if s/he so prophesied.

At the time this is being written, average PE ratios for the

S& P 500 Index of (publicly-traded) stocks are approxi­
mately “20 times earnings.” Why would someone pay so
much for each dollar of earnings? In contrast, privately-
owned stocks, i.e., those not traded on the public-markets,
will have much lower PE ratios.
159 Kenneth S. Bigel

One explanation has to do with the Liq­

uidity Premium associated with publicly
traded stocks. “Liquidity” has to do with
the ease and speed with which a seller can
convert an asset, in this case stock, into
cash while obtaining a sales price that
Liquidity represents that asset’s true value, i.e.,
Premium without reduction in price from its true, or
“intrinsic” value.

It is generally very easy to buy and sell a

stock. All one needs to do is place an order with a stock-
broker (and pay for it within the required three-day settle-
ment period for stock). There is an added or premium value
in this liquidity. That is why “Private Equity” investments
can be so profitable. A private company will sell at a much
lower PE ratio due to the lack of liquidity. If the company
is later sold in an IPO (“initial public offering” – the point
at which time a stock is sold to the public for the first time),
there will be much profit to go around!

The true cost of buying a privately owned company, i.e.,

one whose stock or equity is not traded on the public
stock exchanges, is not embedded in the price one pays for
buying such private corporations. In order to purchase a
privately owned company, one has to search for an appro-
priate one, one that is also available to purchase. This
involved time and time is money. The potential buyer is
spending time engaged in the search rather than pursuing
other profitable opportunities. This is not an issue where
publicly traded stock is concerned. These companies are
readily available for rapid purchase and sale.

Moreover, in order to buy a private company, one must

employ the services of an attorney to negotiate and close
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 160

the deal. Bankers must be involved because private stock

is usually purchased with large (and often borrowed) sums
as opposed to the purchase of a minimum number of shares
of stock in a publicly traded stock corporation with few
funds. These other costs must be reflected as opportunity
costs and thus, under the “Law of One Price” ought to be
reflected in the prices of publicly traded stock. Law of One
Price requires that similar assets ought to be priced simi-
larly.

There are certain demerits to the PE Ratio. For

instance, Earnings are subject to accrual account­
ing manipulations. Moreover, companies with very low
or negative earnings yield a meaningless PE ratio. A com­
pany with low earnings may command a ridiculously high
PE. A company with negative earnings will not yield a PE
at all – it is not computable!

Dividend Yield = Dper share ÷ Pper share

One may view this as the Cash-on-cash

Return that a stock may provide. If I pay
$10 for Yawr Co. stock and it pays
an annual dividend of $1, my “cash-
on-cash return” or dividend yield is 10%.
Some industries will reflect higher divi­
Cash-on-
dend yields than others. Dividends are cash
usually paid from current net income, but Return
if there are losses, dividends would have
to be paid from retained earnings. Typi­
cally, mature, rather than growth compa­
nies, pay high dividends. This yield ignores price changes.
161 Kenneth S. Bigel

It is eminently noteworthy that the divi­

dend yield excludes any capital growth,
which is integral to Yawr Co. stock’s
Total Return. In other words, the Total
Return equals the dividend yield plus the
capital gain (or loss) expressed in per­
Total centage terms. If you purchased this stock
Return for $10 and sold it at $15, your capital
gain would be 50%. The Total Return is:
10% + 50% = 60%.

It is often considered a
positive Signal that a
company maintains its
dividend in the face of
losses. This Signal­
ing indicates manage­
Signal
ment’s optimism about
Signaling future earnings prospects.
The dividend itself thus
boils down to a “human
decision” by the firm’s board of directors, rather than a
measure of business performance per se. If the board feels
that the future is good, it may choose to pay dividends even
if the company is presently losing money.

Dividend Payout Ratio = PR = DTotal ÷ NI =

DPS ÷ EPS

This ratio indicates the percentage of net income,

which is paid out to common shareholders as div­
idends. If a firm earns $1,000,000 and pays
$100,000 in dividends, its payout ratio is 10%. If
there is preferred stock, the preferred dividends
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 162

would first have to be deducted from the net

income. The PR formula would be adjusted: PR =
(Common Stock Dividends) ÷ (Net Income – Pre­
ferred Stock Dividends).

Retention Rate = RR = 1 – PR = (NI – DTotal ) ÷

NI = ARE ÷ NI

This ratio indicates how much of the company’s

earnings are retained internally for future growth
and, as such, together with the firm’s ROE impact
the firm’s growth potential. On the next page, we
discuss the relationship between earnings retention
and firm’s growth. (This will be explicated further
below in the “EFN Model.”) Naturally, PR + RR =
1.0 = 100%.
163 Kenneth S. Bigel

7.3 Earnings Retention and Growth

Our working assumption is that the firm has a never-ending

appetite for growth. In order to grow its sales, and hope-
fully its profits thereby, the firm must retain some of its
earnings and invest them in productive assets that can be
exploited to increase sales in the future.

Let’s examine the following company:

If the company’s ROE is assumed to be constant, i.e., one

of those ceteris paribus assumptions, then the numbers next
year will be:

So, as we see, earnings retention is helpful for growth. Had

the company not invested its A.R.E. in productive assets,

163
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 164

its ROE would have declined, as would its prospective

growth rate. Companies that have great growth prospects
will therefore pay no dividends due to its hunger for using
the entirety of its Net Income as Additions to Retained
Earnings in order to increase its assets.
165 Kenneth S. Bigel

7.4 The P/BV (Price-to-Book Value)

and P/E (Price-Earnings) Ratios

The price of a stock alone does not tell you anything about
its value. Take two stocks, one of which is trading at $20
and has 1,000,000 shares outstanding, while the other
trades at $10 and has 2,000,000 shares outstanding. Which
one has greater value? They are both the same!

Instead, we will look at relative value, i.e., price relative

to either of two measures: Book Value (BV) per share and
Earnings per share (EPS). Book Value per share is mea-
sured by the accountant’s assessment of the company’s
equity (excluding preferred stock, if any) divided by the
company’s number of (common) equity shares outstanding
(NOSO). We already know how to calculate EPS.

Let’s take the example of two companies that have the

same share price, the same number of shares outstanding,
but different book values per share (i.e., assets minus liabil-
ities divided by the number of shares outstanding). Which
stock is a better “value”? Which is a better investment?

At the same price, it seems that LCM is a better buy. LCM

provides greater BV for each dollar of share price. Clearly,
while the market price alone does not necessarily tell you

165
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 166

whether the stock is a “good buy” or not (both stocks here

have the same price), there is also some question as to
whether Book Value is a reasonable measure.

The balance sheet perspective (i.e., “account-

ing book value,” or the company’s net assets) depicted
above is fraught with the many interpre-
tive accrual accounting problems enumerated ear-
lier (specifically, we enumerated four issues). There
is likely more historical bias embedded in book value than
in earnings. On the other hand, Price-to-Book (P/BV) tends
to be a more stable measure than the PE ratio. Further, P/
BV ignores how well management utilizes the assets in
producing earnings for shareholders. Earnings certainly
matter! Earnings are what most shareholders focus on.

Summary: Price-to-Book Value

Pro

• More stable than PE

Con

• Subject to accrual accounting idiosyncrasies

• Most shareholders focus on earnings

• Ignores management effectiveness

◦ Asset utilization
167 Kenneth S. Bigel

◦ Earnings production

Another way of making the assessment of whether the

stock price is “fair” or not, would be by looking at the
stock’s P/E ratio, i.e., Price (per share) ÷ Earnings (per
share). How much does the prospective (or current) share­
holder pay for a share of the stock in order for him to
“earn” so much in terms of EPS? Remember that the
shareholder is most interested in earnings per share because
that is the source of his dividends and retained earnings, a
portion of which he owns. In contrast to the first approach,
this approach is income statement oriented. You should be
able to calculate EPS and PE independently.

EPS are $1 and $0.10 per share for LCM and TC respec­
tively. Clearly, however, LCM is “cheaper,” with a PE ratio
of 100x earnings, whereas TC reflects a ratio of 1,000x its
earnings – if you accept PE as a valid valuation/pricing
measure. (The PE ratios presented in this example
are much higher than will be typically found in the markets
– even in good times.)
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 168

When an investor purchases a stock, s/he is making an

investment in the company’s ability to generate profits.
(This is not to say that the assets have no value.) The prof-
its, in turn will be either distributed to the shareholder as a
(cash) dividend – or retained by the corporation and then
reinvested in additional assets that should produce even
more profits going forward.

We have already cited the basic problems in utilizing (legit-

imate) accounting data in the course of financial analysis.
Was “book value” useful in this example? In recent years,
management and its accountants have been very “creative”
in the presentation of accounting summaries. Is EPS reli-
able accounting-wise? The analyst has to be cognizant of
alternative accounting presentations – both legitimate and
not.

Note regarding EPS calculation:

The calculation for EPS presented above (i.e., net income ÷

the number of shares outstanding) is simplistic and should
be used only when better data are not available.

In fact, the accountant will present both “Basic”

and “Diluted” EPS, the calculations for which are quite
involved. The student analyst must choose whether to uti­
lize the Basic EPS datum in calculating the PE ratio or the
Diluted version.

The Diluted datum assumes that convertible and other

“complex” securities have been converted to stock; this
results in a lower EPS number. The theoretical supposition
inherent in the Diluted earnings figure may make it inap­
169 Kenneth S. Bigel

propriate for use in PE valuation in the eyes of some ana­

lysts.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 170

7.5 Ratio Analysis Exercise

You are given the balance sheet and income statements

for ABC Corporation. Notice the balance sheet is not pre­
sented side-by-side. Calculate each of the 20 financial
ratios provided above for “This Year” on the next
page. Remember to “average” in the appropriate
places. No company description or footnotes accompany
the statements. You will note that this company has pre­
ferred stock, thus complicating certain ratio calculations.
Instructions regarding adjustments for Preferred Stock are
found in Section 7.8 below.

170
171 Kenneth S. Bigel
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 172

7.6 Solution Template for Ratio

Analysis Problem

1. For the market ratios below, assume a

market price per common share of $10.
2. What questions does each of the ratios
raise? Name at least one question per
ratio.
3. This template is made for the typical
company, which has no preferred
stock. Note that, in completing this
worksheet, adjustments will have to be
made for Preferred Stock – given our
example!

172
173 Kenneth S. Bigel
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 174

7.7 Solution for Ratio Analysis Problem

While the mathematical solutions are noted herewith, you

should also be able to raise some questions, but not neces-
sarily answers, in connection with the ratios enumerated.
Note that we have not indicated anything about the com-
pany; thus, your questions will be “generic.” For an in-
depth illustration of the treatment of Preferred Shares, see
the next page.

174
175 Kenneth S. Bigel
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 176

7.8 Adjustments to Basic Financial

Ratios for Companies That Have
Preferred Stock

Most companies do not issue preferred stock, but when a

company does have preferred shares on its balance sheet,
certain adjustments need to be made to some of the finan­
cial ratios, as was presented on the foregoing pages.

For the example just given (Balance Sheet and Income

Statement), here are the relevant adjustments. The basic
idea is that the preferred shareholders come first, before
the common shareholders. Therefore, income “available”
to common shareholders must be adjusted. As you will
note, this new figure affects other data and ratios. A sum­
mary table follows.

176
177 Kenneth S. Bigel

The following page exhibits visually the effect of Preferred

Stock on Earnings Retention.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 178

7.9 Illustration of Effect of Preferred

Stock on Earnings Retention

178
179 Kenneth S. Bigel

Exhibit of Effect of Preferred Stock on Earnings Retention.

 Introduction to Financial Analysis 180

7.10 Industry Data Benchmarks

The analyst will want to compare his data and ratios to

other companies’. There are numerous sources for such
industry data. Here are some useful ones.

Bloomberg

The Risk Management Association or RMA (once known

as Robert Morris Associates). RMA has a database of
financial ratios for over 150,000 companies. Data are orga-
nized by SIC (industry) codes. Go to www.rmahq.org.

Dun and Bradstreet or “D&B.” This consists of over 1 mil-

lion firms.

ValueLine Investment Service They cover just about 1,700

firms, but also provide investment ratings for their listings.

The Department of Commerce

Standard and Poor’s or “S&P.”

Moody’s

Yahoo Finance

MSN

180
181 Kenneth S. Bigel

Money Central

Note:

We know that ratios do not provide answers. Similarly, no

single ratio alone can provide an integrative view of the
firm. Analysis requires a cross-sectional approach.

Cross-sectional analysis will require combining ratios often

across different industry categories in order to get a clearer
picture of the goings-on of the firm.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 182

7.11 Some Limitations of Financial

Ratios

As we have learned, most financial ratios consist of

accounting data, which are limited in interpretive useful­
ness, but may be all we have. The astute analyst is aware
of this and makes appropriate adjustments. The principle
of Garbage-in, Garbage-out always pertains. Ratios are
useless if the accounting data inputted are suspect. Here are
some issues to look out for.

1. Accrual Accounting data management: Garbage-

in, Garbage-out.
2. Companies engage in Real Earnings “window-
dressing” in order to make their statements
appear in a certain manner; examples include
pulling forward or deferring actual expenses.
3. Accounting policies differ from one firm to
another, making cross-sectional analysis diffi­
cult; for example, one company uses FIFO
while another uses LIFO.
4. Ratios are “static” and do not necessarily reveal
future relationships.
5. A ratio can hide problems lying underneath; an
example would be a high Quick Ratio hiding a
lot of bad accounts receivable.
6. Liabilities are not always disclosed; an example
would be contingent liabilities due to lawsuit.

182
183 Kenneth S. Bigel

Since it may – or may not – happen, the accoun­

tant will not disclose it. There has been no trans­
action. (This may appear in the footnotes only.)
7. Companies are often in multiple lines of busi­
ness. Therefore, identifying an industry group is
virtually impossible, making cross-sectional
analysis ineffective.
8. Industry benchmarks (see prior page) are often
only approximations, and inaccurate ones at
that. Also, there are often data entry errors.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 184

7.12 Chapters 5 - 7: Review Questions

1. Calculate as many financial ratios as you can using

the company from the last problem set. Average your
data where advised.
2. For each ratio, provide some written commentary
and analysis.
3. See how many ratios from each of our six categories
you know already by rote memory.

1. Liquidity
2. Solvency
3. Profitability
4. Turnover
5. Return
6. Market Ratios
4. How are the Liquidity and Solvency ratio categories
different from one another?
5. Why do we use 360 in calculating the Average Col­
lection Period (ACP)? Under what rationale may 365
days be advised?
6. In the ACP, why are Credit Sales, in most cases,
larger than Accounts Receivable?
7. Why do we use EBIT, and not Net Income, in calcu­
lating the Return-on-Assets?
8. Why don’t we utilize the accountant’s net worth fig­

184
185 Kenneth S. Bigel

ure as a metric for company value?

9. How do Price/Earnings and Price-to-Book ratios
illustrate a company’s value?
10. Define “Longitudinal” and “Cross-sectional.” How
can you use these concepts in your company analy­
sis?
11. What is the end-goal of Ratio Analysis?
12. How is it that a strong company, e.g., Walmart, oper­
ates with negative Working Capital? What
is your view?
13. What benefits does the Aging Schedule provide?
14. What is the relationship between a Debt-to-Total
Assets ratio and a company’s Times Interest Earned
ratio?
15. What industries tend to have great amounts of Debt
relative to Assets? How do they manage to accom­
plish this without increasing their default risk?
16. What benefit might there be to using the Debt-to-
Assets rather than the more popular Debt-to-Equity
ratio?
17. Is a low TIE Ratio always a bad thing? Under what
circumstances might a company tolerate a low ratio?
18. Have you figured out yet whether ratios provide
answers?
19. What two key pieces of information does the DuPont
Model focus on?
20. In what technical, ratio-ways, are “Growth” and
“Value” stocks different from one another?
21. What is meant by “signaling”?
22. What is meant by a “Liquidity Premium”?
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 186

23. Provide some reasons why two companies, which

are identical in all respects, might have radically dif­
ferent Turnover ratios?
24. List and discuss some limitations of financial ratios?
25. After all this, can you “handle the truth”?
187 Kenneth S. Bigel

Chapter 8: Cash Flow,

Depreciation, and Financial
Projections

187
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 188

8.1 Chapter Eight: Learning Outcomes

Learning Outcomes

In this chapter, you will:

• Differentiate between the tasks and capabilities

of internal and external financial analysts
• Implement the notion of Incrementalism in
forecasting
• Categorize corporate investment as incremen-
tal Property, Plant, Equipment and inventory
• Define “Cost of Capital” and its place in project
forecasting
• Forecast an Income Statement based on given
assumptions
• Explain the nature and benefit of the Tax
Shield

Note: Review questions for Chapters Eight and Nine will

appear at the end of Chapter Nine.

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189 Kenneth S. Bigel

8.2 Pro Forma Financial Analysis: The

Corporate Environment

Pro Forma Financial Analysis: The

Corporate Environment

Pro forma refers to expected/

future financial outcomes using certain
Key assumptions. The financial analyst gath-
Terms: ers information from numerous sources.
Where he gets his/her information will
depend largely on who s/he is. There are
two possibilities:
pro forma
The internal corporate analyst, i.e., the
analyst who works for and “inside” the
corporation, will collect information from the various com­
pany departments including marketing, purchasing, admin­
istration, economics, and others, each of which will “sign
off” on the data that s/he includes in his/her financial pro­
jections. This analyst is charged with compiling the data
meaningfully and projecting the relative profitability and
hence worthiness of alternative, and sometimes competing,
possible investment projects. The purpose is to engage
incorporate Financial Planning.

For example, the sales projections may come from the mar­

189
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 190

keting department. This department may provide unit sales

and pricing data, which the analyst compiles and includes
in his/her projections. The analyst may ask that the depart­
ment “sign off” on this portion of the overall projections
and thereby take some responsibility for the data. Alterna­
tively, the analyst may investigate the reasonableness of the
data and provide alternative projections.

The external (securities) analyst, i.e., one who

is not employed by the subject corporation, but perhaps
who works instead for a financial institution
that has some investment or equity interest in the corpora-
tion, will not have access to the same valuable informa-
tion and data that the internal corporate analyst will have.
The methods s/he uses will differ accordingly. The external
analyst does not have access to the data regarding cor-
porate investment projects adopted and which are now just
coming on-line, or recently came online. S/he there-
fore will use public financial statements in order to derive
inferences about the corporation’s growth prospects and
future share price.

When we, individuals, think of “investing,” many of us

think of investing in stocks and bonds. This is not typically
what companies invest in. What do (non-financial) corpo­
rations “invest” in?

Let us remember that, here, we are all financial analysts

and hence we take on a “corporate perspective.” In this
sense, corporate investment refers to things that (non-
financial) corporations invest in, in order to main­
tain and grow their businesses. Such investments include,
but are not limited to, the following:

• Property, plant, and equipment – P, P, & E

191 Kenneth S. Bigel

• Inventory
• Research & Development (R&D) – we will not
deal with R&D in our forthcoming discussions.

Some very useful definitions:

• Expense: a reduction (debit) to revenues,

reported on the Income Statement. Some
expenses involve the movement of cash, e.g.,
wages; others do not, e.g., depreciation.

• Expenditure: involves the movement of cash –

an outlay or outflow of funds, which may either
be expensed and/or capitalized. If “capitalized,”
it will be expensed as depreciation over future
years. P, P, & E fit this category. Remember,
land (“property”) is not depreciable even though
it is capitalized. In contrast, (cash-) dividends
are expenditures that involve cash outlays; divi-
dends are not expensed because they are returns
to the owners.

Below you will find some examples of expenses and

expenditures.

Expense Expen

Wages Yes Yes

Depreciation Yes No

Property No Yes
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 192

8.3 Pro-Forma (Projected) Cash Flow

Analysis

Estimating future cash flows: Whether s/he is internal or

external, the analyst is involved in projecting
future (accounting) profits and often, more importantly,
projected net cash flows. In order to gather these data,
the internal analyst must involve different departments,
thereby playing corporate “politics” in order to complete
the job.

For each of the following, indicate from which department

the projections may come (e.g., economics, marketing,
purchasing, etc.).

Unit Sales

First, the internal analyst may receive unit sales projections

from the marketing department.

The analyst must also be aware of the issue of Cannibal­

ization – the detrimental effect on other sales of the intro­
duction of the new project (see section #8.4). For example,
if Microsoft projects sales of two million units of Windows
Vista, of which one million would have otherwise gone
to Windows XP sales, the analyst would recognize on his
spreadsheet only the one-million-unit increment. This is
because the decision to introduce a new product came,
in a sense, at the expense of the old product’s sales. Ana­
lysts are interested only in what the new product con­

192
193 Kenneth S. Bigel

tributes incrementally – above and beyond present

matters.

Sales Prices
In order to project future revenues, the analyst will thus
possibly need to obtain both unit sales data (i.e., expected
quantities sold) and “pricing” information (i.e., expected
price per unit).

Operating Costs

This information may be derived from many different par-

ties, e.g., purchasing, operations, etc. Operating costs may
include:

• Cost of Goods Sold: This refers to inventory

costs as explained earlier.

• Selling, general, and administrative costs: These

costs refer to non-production expenditures,
including salaries and wages, rent, advertising,
and travel.

• Taxes: Although taxes are not an operating cost

per se, we all know what Ben Franklin said
about “death and taxes.” Since taxes cannot be
avoided, they should be deducted in the analy-
sis.

Non-operating and Capital Costs

In “spreading the numbers,” the internal analyst will pay

attention only to projected operating data, and not to any
capital or other non-operating data / costs. S/he is inter-
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 194

ested usually only in what the potential project will pro-

duce as a business enterprise alone. Capital costs include
the cost of paying interest on debt, and the dividend
and “growth” costs of equity.

As a heads-up, the cost of capital is

an issue with which we shall deal
later in great depth. Once the ana­ Key
lyst has arrived at the yearly operat­ Terms:
ing numbers, usually projected cash
flow (rather than accounting prof­
its), the cost of capital will then be Cost of
brought in as the “discount rate,” Capital
rather than as a dollar figure. This is
the rate at which the future cash
flows will be “discounted,” or
translated, to present values, thereby enabling a
level playing field, in terms of time. In other
words, by discounting, we are able to equate the
value of a dollar paid tomorrow with a dollar
today. This way, an investment decision may be
made based on profitability and possibly other
measures.

Note:

As we continue through these readings, pay careful atten­

tion to the words “expense” and “expenditure.” They are
not the same. “Expense” is an accounting phrase reflected
on the Income Statement; expense is a reduction to Net
195 Kenneth S. Bigel

Income – it may or may not involve cash. “Expenditure”

refers to the deployment of funds – it will involve cash
but may or may not be expensed. Expenditures may be cap­
italized or expensed.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 196

8.4 Incrementalism

The analyst’s “end-game” is to produce a

spreadsheet reflecting future years’
respective, incremental, or additional,
cash flows and/or profits, and possibly Key
other things as well. In general, the prin­ Terms:
ciple of incrementalism pertains. It is
only incremental cash flows, i.e.,
those which are added due to the project’s
Incremen-
implementation, which are relevant to tal
decision-making. If the company brought
Incremen-
in $100 and now – with the new project –
talism
it brings in $125, the increment is
$25. Incremental revenues – and
costs – did not exist before the project
was effected. Therefore, sunk costs and the cannibal­
ized portions of projections’ data are excluded as will be
discussed immediately below. It is the incremental data
which drive the decision to invest or not. We will learn this
better by example.

By contrast, the accountant reports all historical economic

events. Later, we will conduct a basic exercise in producing
a pro-forma statement, i.e., a projected, income state­
ment. Below are the two types of incrementalism:

196
197 Kenneth S. Bigel

Sunk Costs – these are expenditures

which have already been outlaid and
should not be therefore “double-
counted.” For example, suppose a factory
has unused, or under-used, equipment,
which may be exploited, for a proposed
Sunk Costs project. The cost of the equipment having
already been spent or “sunk,” should not
be considered again; the cost is not rele­
vant to deciding, for example, whether or
not an existing asset should be exploited in a new way. The
project merely proposes to exploit unused, or under-uti­
lized, assets – or “sunk costs” – in order to increase sales
and profits.

Cannibalization – When a new product

is introduced, some of the revenue may
have been cannibalized from the potential
sales of the old product. For example, if
the new product is expected to sell 1.5
million units, and the old product had sold
Cannibal-
ization 1.0 million, we are interested only in the
0.5 mm increment. That is what the
investment decision depends upon. Hence
the phrase “cannibalization.” A change in
pricing would complicate this analysis, i.e., how much of
the revenue increase is due to volume and how much is due
to a price increase?
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 198

8.5 Corporate Forecasting and Strategic

Planning

A financial analyst will collect reliable financial data from

internal numerous sources, if possible, which s/he will cite
in his/her forecast, list the assumptions as part of the report,
and “spread the numbers” accordingly. Interpretation and
strategy then will follow.

The following is an exercise in creating a pro forma

(accounting-based) income statement. Later, we will see
some analytic techniques, which may be implemented to
convert “profits” to “cash flow,” if the latter is deemed
more desirable. A “strategic plan” involves forecasting
financial data for multiple future years.

Pro forma Financial Statements

Complete the pro forma I/S based on the follow-

ing assumptions:

1. Marketing projects sales growth at 10% p.a.

2. “Purchasing” projects inventory costs to rise at a
rate of 12% p.a. – due to scarcities.
3. S, G, & A will grow at a rate of 8% p.a.
4. For depreciation, see information below.
5. Interest costs will rise due to acquisition of new
property, $10,000 of which will be financed
entirely via a 20-year, “non-amortizing” mort­

198
199 Kenneth S. Bigel

gage (i.e., interest-only) bond at a rate of

7.5%. The other $1,000 will be financed via
retained earnings. The present property is fully
paid for.
6. Taxes are charged at a flat 40% rate.
7. Calculate NI.
8. Calculate EPS – There are 1,000s outstanding –
no new shares will be issued.

Depreciation

• Next year’s (“Year 1″) depreciation expense will

be $50. Thereafter the (old) building will be
scrapped.
• At the end of Year 1, a new building will be in
use (the cost of scrapping the old building will
be included in the cost basis of the new build­
ing). At that time, a mortgage will be in
place. The new building will cost $11,000 and
will have a twenty-year life. It will be depreci­
ated on a straight-line basis; a salvage value of
$1,000 is assumed.
Introduction to Financial Analysis 200
201 Kenneth S. Bigel

8.6 Forecasting Solution

Provide some interpretive statements or comments about

this company’s (or investment project’s) prospects. Specif­
ically, calculate the growth rates for each year versus its
prior year – for GP, EBIT, and NI.

The Growth Rate is calculated as: (Next Year’s Num­

ber ÷ Last Year’s number) – 1.

For example, how much higher, in percentage terms, is the

GP for “Year 1” in comparison to “Last Year”? Do this for
each year until you get to Five versus (or “over”) Four.

201
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 202

Use four decimal places throughout. What do you find and

why?
203 Kenneth S. Bigel

8.7 The Tax Effect of Depreciation

Depreciation is a non-cash expense (and NOT an “expen­

diture”), which serves to recognize the consumption of
fixed assets over time, e.g., plant and equipment, but NOT
property.

The “consumption,” or use, of long-term, fixed assets is

reflected as a separate operating, depreciation expense.
Although depreciation is a non-cash expense, it provides
the corporation with cash because it reduces taxable
income and hence the tax liability.

When depreciation can be “imputed” to the manufacturing

process, its charges are included in the Cost of Goods Sold
(COGS). For example, if the manufacturer of a $1 mil­
lion piece of equipment warrants that the machine will be
used up after manufacturing 1 million units, the accoun­
tant may impute (i.e., include) $1 per unit of production to
COGS. This could confuse the statements reader. Below,
we will not assume such “imputation.”

Illustration of Depreciation Tax Shield (Ignoring Interest

Expense):

203
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 204

Due to depreciation, a non-cash expense, net income will

be lower by only $12 rather than the full $20 of depreci­
ation expensed; the $8 difference represents the tax sav­
ings, and hence the “tax shield,” due to the deduction of the
depreciation expense.

Tax Shield = (D) (T) = ($20) (0.40) = $8

The “tax shield” of depreciation, i.e., D (T), is a very real

phenomenon in that it actually reduces the tax burden,
which is viewed as a provision of cash, albeit depreciation
alone provides no cash. The acquisition of a depreciable
asset, e.g., a building or equipment, creates a tax shield or
benefit that provides more cash flow than before the
acquisition.

You may think of “EBITDA” (i.e., earnings before interest,

tax, depreciation, and amortization) as EBIT plus depreci­
ation (and amortization).

On Humility, Honor, and Accomplishment

A life spent making mistakes is not only more honor­

205 Kenneth S. Bigel

able, but more useful than a life spent doing noth­

ing.
-George Bernard Shaw

That’s why pencils have erasers.

-Norman Isaac Bigel

(1917 – 2017)
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 206

Chapter 9: Corporate
Forecasting Models

206
207 Kenneth S. Bigel

9.1 Chapter Nine: Learning Outcomes

Learning Outcomes

In this chapter, you will:

• Define, in words, both the “Free Cash Flow”

and “External Funds Needed” Models
• Consider, both mathematically and in words,
each element of the two formulae
• Forecast, given assumptions, both models for
multiple forward years
• List some uses of the formulae
• Differentiate between Internal and External
Funds, providing examples of each
• Determine the optimal future Debt-to-Total
Assets ratio, given the EFN forecast
• Explain why a firm’s financial ratios may
change

207
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 208

9.2 Free Cash Flow

Why Cash Flow? A corporation’s value is dependent, in

large part, on the income and cash flow it produces. Cash
flow is different from income in that “income” is based
on “accrual accounting,” which will reflect certain non-
cash events such as depreciation, and many other “dis-
tortions,” some of which were discussed earlier. One key
distortion had to do with “timing” – the accountant may
book a sale, for example when “constructively received,”
i.e., when legally and economically receivable, but not yet
received in actual cash.

Under accrual accounting, the accountant records eco-

nomic transactions rather than the movement of actual cash
received and paid out. (In theory, in the long run such
accounting vs. cash differences even out.) Because of these
differences, financial analysts, who are more cash-oriented,
must make certain adjustments to the accounting data in
their own calculations and projections.

In a certain sense, cash flow is more important to corporate

valuation than income because dividends are paid out to
investors in cash. Further, when engaging in corporate
planning, a possible capital investment will be judged
attractive dependent upon the cash flow it produces in the
future because it is cash that, arguably, fuels growth.

What is Free Cash Flow? Capital investments, i.e.,

“growth” investments, include expenditures for hard
assets, as well as for product development, and much more.

208
209 Kenneth S. Bigel

“Free cash flow” is funds that an investment project or the

corporation as a whole generates beyond its own internal
and ongoing needs. We may think of free cash flow as the
cash, which is left over from an investment project, after
all net operating funds generated by the project are uti-
lized for necessary, non-discretionary purposes, including
hard assets’ maintenance and replacement, and increases in
working capital; this “left-over” amount may be used for
other financial purposes – growth or expansion, at the dis-
cretion of management.

Working capital must often be increased. The project, or

corporation, first generates operating cash flows, some of
which are needed to replace or maintain assets, to invest in
inventory and receivables, and to maintain the firm’s com-
petitive position.

So, think of “free” cash flow (FCF) as discretionary, think

of it as “Discretionary Cash Flow.” Necessary capital and
other non-discretionary expenditures are required in order
to maintain the business as is. A leaky roof must be
repaired; there is no choice. A worn-out gasket must be
replaced.

Analogously, you may recall the parallel notion of “dispos-

able income” in Macroeconomics. (After deducting taxes,
and necessities, such as food and rent, from gross income,
the consumer has some funds left over for discretionary
purposes, which might include investment, or buying that
deluxe Apple Watch s/he has coveted for so long.) Simi-
larly, “free cash flow” is the net, operating after-tax cash
that the firm may generate from investment in a new build-
ing or equipment (i.e., the investment “project”) after con-
sidering necessary operating and capital expenditures,
including maintenance and replacement, but excluding
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 210

expansionary, or growth-oriented, capital expenditures as

this would be discretionary.

The more FCF the firm generates, the greater the firm’s
ability to invest in new assets, to use the funds to pay down
debt or to pay dividends, and still other discretionary pos-
sibilities.

The Mathematics

One formula for use in this process is presented below. We

start with operating earnings, which, in this case, is defined
1
as “EBIT” or, alternatively “EBITDA ,”i.e., earn-
2
ings before interest, taxes, and amortization . To the finan-
cial analyst, the projected income or cash flow statement
may look something like the following:

Thus the analyst would calculate Free Cash Flow (FCF) to

equal:

[(EBITDA) (1 – T)] + [(Depreciation) (T)] – [Neces­

1. In some instances, an analyst may choose to use “EBITDA,” i.e., EBIT with
depreciation and amortization added back. The use of this figure will
depend on the data presentation and analyst choice.
2. As we will learn later in this text, amortization has to do with the reduction in
the value of an intangible asset over time; in this sense it is like deprecia­
tion.
 211 Kenneth S. Bigel

sary Capital Expenditures] – [Increase in Net Working

Capital]

The elements of the formula

The formula consists of four different parts. Let’s look at

each of them.

1. EBITDA (1 – T)
2. Add: Depreciation (Tax Rate) = (D) × (T)
3
3. Less: Necessary Capital Expenditures
4. Less: Increases in Net Working Capital
5. Equals: Free Cash Flow (FCF)

Note that “T” (in “1-T” and in “D x T”) stands for the
firm’s tax bracket, or percent, whereas EBITDA is in dol­
lars, including the “T” there. While at this stage of the cor­
porate planning and investment analysis process, the firm
has not yet decided whether it will choose the investment
or not and, if so, how it will be financed, and therefore does
not know its projected interest payments, it does know its
tax bracket, which is based on the firm’s meeting a speci­
fied lower threshold (“bracket”) of earnings.

1. EBITDA:

Take note of the use of EBITDA rather than EBT in the

formula. There are several details here, which bear expla­
nation; we will take them one at a time. First, account­

3. Note that “Capital Expenditures” here refers only to required expenditures,

i.e., maintenance and replacement expenditures, and not discretionary
expenditures, which may be used for expansion and growth. By subtracting
out necessary (i.e., non-discretionary) CE, we are left with Free CF.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 212

ing EBT would include interest expense – as a deduction

from EBIT. “Interest expense” is the result of a prior capi­
tal financing decision and, as such, should be independent
of this analysis, which focuses on the cash-based, operat­
ing earnings a firm or a project produces (EBITDA), and
not on financial decisions. In our analysis and projections,
we should thus exclude interest, which is a discretionary
capital structure, solvency-oriented matter for decision.

Accordingly, the “EBITDA (1 – T)” adjustment elimi-

nates the interaction of interest and its effect on tax. To see
how this adjustment works, let us compare the results of
the formula with the following alternate spreadsheet pre-
sentation. Let’s say that the firm produces $100,000 of
EBITDA, has interest expense of $20,000, and pays taxes
at a 30% rate. By formula we would project EBITDA (1 –
T) = $100,000 (1 – .30) = $70,000. (For this example, we
shall assume, for the moment, that depreciation and amor-
tization are zero.) This is the figure we want, which repre-
sents earnings after taxes, in the absence of interest. The “1
– T” multiplier shows what is left after paying taxes. This
project produces, or is expected to produce, $70,000 in
operating cash flow (next year).

In the following spreadsheet, we would show the

same $70,000 result, only by different presentation (in
order to prove out the formula) – under the alter­
nate FCF analysis. We also show, side by side, the
accounting income reported, which does not suit the pur­
pose of the analysis because it includes interest expense,
which is a financial – not an operating – event or cash (out-
) flow.
213 Kenneth S. Bigel

2. The Depreciation Tax Shield:

Depreciation is a non-cash expense (as is amortization,

which we have been assuming herein to be zero), which
is deducted from operating earnings before income taxes.
Therefore, we add back just the tax savings that deprecia-
tion provides but ignore depreciation itself. It is assumed
that the (internal) analyst knows the firm’s tax
bracket. Depreciation is tax deductible and, as such pro-
vides cash, but otherwise itself directly provides no
cash. You found above an in-depth illustration of the “tax
effect of depreciation,” absent other media. You may wish
to view that page again now.

Note:

EBITDA (1-T) + D (T) = EBIT (1-T) + D. (To prove this

out, substitute in the equation the following values: EBIT =
$100; D = $20; A = $0; and T = .30) The two phrases are
mathematically equivalent but appear to have somewhat
different connotations. In the latter case, EBIT appears to
refer to accounting income, hence our preference
for EBITDA, a more cash-oriented notion. In the latter for­
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 214

mulation, adding back depreciation, which is a non-cash

expense, intuitively appears to contradict the aforesaid idea
that depreciation does not provide cash flow, even though it
does work out mathematically and conceptually.

3. Capital Expenditures:

There are the three categories of capital expenditures (“Cap

Ex”), which we shall need to incorporate in the free cash
flow projection. They are:

1. Maintenance 2. Replacement
3. Expansion

Occasionally, the walls must be painted and the premises

properly maintained. Roofs may blow off, and machinery
gaskets may “blow,” requiring replacement. Expansion­
ary investments may involve acquiring additional factory
space or equipment, in order to increase production, and
hence sales and profits.

Maintenance and replacement expenditures are

clearly necessary; expansionary expenditures are discre­
tionary and are (generally) undertaken in order to provide
growth, i.e., increased sales and profits. We would deduct
necessary capital expenditures in order to arrive at free
cash flow.

Accounting rules do not require separating out necessary

from discretionary capital expenditures; any breakdown,
if provided, may be found in the footnotes. This informa­
tion will assist the analyst in gauging the firm’s growth
prospects. Absent this breakdown, the most common prac­
215 Kenneth S. Bigel

tice among analysts is to use all capital expenditures in the

formula, although this is a matter of analyst judgment.

4. Net Working Capital:

“Net working capital” may be defined as current assets

less current liabilities (NWC = CA – CL). Any increase
in current assets, or in net current assets (i.e., “NWC”),
usesfinancial resources and thus reducescash or cash flow.
For example, an increase in inventory uses funds.

Similarly, an increase in current liabilities providesfunds,

and may be thought of as a “source” of funds. A decrease
in current liabilities uses funds. For example, when a com­
pany pays its accounts payable, it uses funds.

If a firm is to grow it will have to increase its Net Working

Capital.

The table below summarizes the possibilities and instructs

you how to insert the changes into the FCF formula. Some
add to FCF; others are subtracted from FCF.

Note that, in calculating Free Cash Flow and the relevant

prospective changes in Current Assets, we ignore expected
changes in the cash account, focusing instead on changes
in the cash flow affecting the cash account. To include
changes in the cash account itself in calculating FCF,
would be “double-counting.”
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 216

What can the corporation do with its FCF?

• Purchase more P, P, & E.

• Expand inventory.
• Invest in Mergers and Acquisitions (using shares
when high-priced).
• Increase R & D.

• Pay off Debt.

• Pay discretionary (common stock) dividends.
• Buy back common shares (when cheap).

A potential corporate investment project that throws off a

lot of FCF is desirable. A firm, as a whole, that throws off
lots of FCF may be thought of in a most positive light –
as one, among other possibilities, that has a lot of growth
potential and makes for a good investment.
217 Kenneth S. Bigel

9.3 Free Cash Flow Exercises

Free Cash Flow: Exercise #1

That covers the formula. Let us work up a quick, all inclu­

sive, example. You are given the following: solve for “free
cash flow.” Assume that there is no amortization.

[(EBITDA) (1 – T)] + [(Depreciation) (T)] – [Necessary

Capital Expenditures] – [Increase in Net Working
Capital]

FCF (Formulation) = $100 (1 – .30) + $1 (.30) –

$7 – $2
(Calculation) = $70 + $0.30 – $7 – $2 = $61.3
million

Working Capital next year versus this year increased by

$2 million: (6-2) – (5-3). Alternatively, one might say that
current assets increased by $1 million, a useof funds; cur­
rent liabilities decreased by $1 million, also a use of funds.

217
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 218

The net use of funds was therefore $2 million, which

accordingly reduces free cash flow.

To summarize, free cash flow may be thought of as the

firm’s after-tax cash flows less any spending on either the
maintenance or replacement of fixed assets, and in acquir-
ing working capital. The free cash flow left over may be
used either to pay down debt, pay dividends, buy back
stock, for discretionary growth investments and more. The
firm will (should) choose investments that further maxi-
mize FCF.

This discussion has, so far, assumed that we, financial ana-

lysts, are perfectly capable of making accurate, numerical
projections about matters that have not yet occurred. In
reality, projections are virtually always going to be some-
what incorrect – when all is said and done. Projections
“under uncertainty” are beyond this manual’s scope.

This example is generic in the sense that it may represent

either the view of an external analyst looking at a cor­
poration’s most recent financial report, and, based on the
report, making an assessment of the corporation’s growth
prospects and equity investment merits based on its FCF;
or it could be a projection that an internal analyst makes for
a potential corporate investment project.

Projecting Free Cash Flow: Exercise #2

We have already projected net income and earnings per

share (see above under the heading “Corporate Forecasting
and Strategic Planning”). We also understand the implica­
219 Kenneth S. Bigel

tions of depreciation, a non-cash expense, on income and

cash.

Now, we will conduct an exercise, based on the earlier net

income and EPS projections, in which we shall create a
pro-forma statement – of a sort – of free cash flows for mul-
tiple future years rather than just one year’s net income.
The figures for EBIT and Depreciation were calculated and
the solutions can be found in Section #8.6; these figures
are needed for the FCF problem herewith. This spreadsheet
will be useful when, later, we assess such cash flows in
present value terms in order to make capital investment
decisions. In this connection, take note that interest, for
example, is excluded from FCF because it is a capital cost,
as discussed earlier. In order to do this, we need to
recall the FCF formula. Here, once again, it is:
[(EBITDA) (1 – T)] + [(Depreciation) (T)] – [Necessary
Capital Expenditures] – [Increase in Net Working
Capital]

In our pro-forma, Five-year income statement, we have

many of the elements: EBIT, depreciation, and tax rate (i.e.,
40%). Let us assume the following for the missing parts:

1. For EBIT and Depreciation figures, use the data

calculated earlier – in Section #8.6.
2. There is no amortization.
3. Replacement and maintenance capital expendi-
tures shall be $1,000 in “Year 1” and grow
thereafter at a 5% rate.
4. Current Assets will increase in Year 1 by $500
the first year, and each year thereafter at a
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 220

growth rate of 10%.

5. Current Liabilities will increase in Year 1 by
$750 and each year thereafter at a growth rate of
5%.

◦ (Hint: an increase in current liabilities

is a source of funds.)
◦ Take note that the differences are
incremental.

To make matters simple, a spreadsheet is provided below,

which is consistent with the FCF formula. Notice the (hor-
izontal) line breaks, which assist you in separating out the
pieces of the formula from their respective sub-parts. Note
also that cash outflows should be bracketed, since they are
negative. Some of the information in the spreadsheet will
be imported from the earlier net income exercise, while
some will be derived from the set of four assumptions
noted on the prior page.
221 Kenneth S. Bigel

Until the day when G-d shall deign to reveal the

future to man, all human wisdom is summed up in
these two words, ‘Wait and hope.’
-Alexandre Dumas
The Count of Monte Cristo
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 222

Projecting Free Cash Flow

-Solution-

(Exercise #2)

Here is the solution:

223 Kenneth S. Bigel

A mensch tracht un Gott lacht.

Man plans and G-d laughs.

-Yiddish expression
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 224

9.4 External Funds Needed

Formula (EFN)

A company needs additional “capital” (i.e., financial

resources) in order to grow and to maintain its existing
plant and equipment, and to acquire additional inventory. It
cannot achieve a sales increase (“growth”) without adding
on productive “capital assets” (not to mention maintaining
existing assets) in order to produce more goods for sale.

Some further internal funds will be gen-

erated by accounts payable, also in the
normal course of business conduct. Key
Payables are, essentially, free, short-term Terms:
loans provided by the firm’s suppliers for,
usually, 30 days. Payables are, finan-
cially speaking, (interest-) free sources of
Internal
funds. We call these funds, including
Funds
payables and retained earnings, by
numerous names: “spontaneous, auto-
matic,” or “internal.” Some of the com-
pany’s capital needs will be met “spontaneously,” in the
normal course of doing business by retaining some, or all,
of its earnings. Such funds may be thought of as having
been generated “internally.”

224
225 Kenneth S. Bigel

For the balance of its capital require­

ments, the corporation will need to go
“outside” the firm’s normal venues – to
bank lenders, and/or to bond and stock
investors for its EFN or external require­
ments. The extent to which the company
External will use either debt or equity, and in what
Funds proportions, is the subject of the “Capi­
tal Structure” topic; this topic will be dis­
cussed later. The EFN projection is an
essential component to of the corpora­
tion’s capital planning.

The EFN Formula: The formula, which we shall develop,

consists of three parts. The first part tells us how much
additional assets the firm will require in order to support
a stated sales growth objective. This part is based on the
firm’s required ratio of assets to sales. It will need more
assets in order to produce more sales. We shall refer to
this amount as the “gross requirement,” for lack of a better
phrase.

The next two parts indicate the extent to which first,

accounts payable, and second, retained earnings may
reduce the gross requirement. After having reduced the
gross requirement by the two internally generated or spon­
taneous sources of funds, we are left with a figure, which
tells us how much additional, external financing the firm
will have to arrange for itself in order to achieve its pre-
set sales growth objective. External financing will take the
form of new debt and/or equity.

EFN Model’s Restrictive Assumption:

We shall assume that Financial Ratios remain the

 Introduction to Financial Analysis 226

same over time, i.e., we will conduct “static analysis.” In

practice, projections may not conform to past relationships
precisely, for reasons known to, or assumed by, the analyst.
Here, for simplicity, we shall dispense with this complica-
tion.

In order to focus on the nature of the EFN

formula – and not on dynamic financial
ratio matters – we will assume, in the
exercise to come, static ratios. “Sta­
Static
tic” means unchanging in time.
Ratios

The EFN Formula – The Math

Terminology:

Funds – this refers to any and all financial resources that

the firm may call upon, including cash, various forms of
debt or borrowings, and equity, the latter two of which, like
cash, also enable the firm to invest in any proposed corpo­
rate investment project.

Internal Funds– these may also be referred to as either

“spontaneous” or “automatic.” These funds are automati­
cally or spontaneously generated in the normal course of
doing business. An example of this is accounts
payable. When a producer orders raw materials, a free loan
for usually thirty days is created by the supplier. Over the
course of the year, and as the thirty days continually “roll
over” over the course of the entire year, the producing firm
is supplied with a free source of “internal” funds. The com­
pany will also internally generate funds as it earns and
retains a portion of its earnings – “retained earnings.”
227 Kenneth S. Bigel

External Funds – This refers to any “additional” funds the

firm may need to raise beyond any funds that are generated
in the normal course of doing business in order to finance a
proposed corporate investment project. For external funds
the firm will have to go, so to speak, outside the confines
of its ordinary business by calling upon bank lenders, debt
and equity investors, and possibly others. External funds
are required to the extent that internal funds are insuffi­
cient.

The EFN Formula:

EFN= [(A0/S0) ΔS] – [(AP0/S0) ΔS] – [(M0) (S1) (RR0)]

OR

[(A0) (S1/S0 –1)] – [(AP0) (S1/S0 – 1)] – [(M0)(S1) (RR0)]

EFN = Required increase in assets [(A0/S0) ΔS]

Less:“spontaneous” increase in Liabilities

[(AP0/S0) ΔS]

Less:“spontaneous” increase in Retained Earnings

[(M0)(S1) (RR0)]

Key:
Introduction to Financial Analysis 228
229 Kenneth S. Bigel

9.5 Internal and External Funds

(Summary)

We said above that the firm may reduce its total require­
ment for acquiring funds through the “spontaneous” or
“automatic” generation of internal funds.

Internal Funds:

• Accounts Payable
◦ If the firm bought supplies and raw or
finished inventory etc. under “cash on
delivery, or “COD,” terms of sale, it
would have to pay for it – with cash!
If it has enough cash, it will incur
an opportunity costs, because the cash
would not be invested. If it had to bor­
row the money, it would incur an
explicit borrowing cost at a rate of
interest. However, most firms are pro­
vided with 30-day terms of sale
from its suppliers, which amounts to a
30-day free loan, during which time it
incurs neither an opportunity– nor an
explicit–cost. In this sense, credit
terms – Accounts Payable – provide
cash flow to the buying firm. The cor­
poration receives a free loan, of a sort,
from its suppliers.
◦ Although the Accounts Payable will
229
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 230

be paid in 30-days, the firm will have

on average over the course of the
year, 30-days of access to a free
source of funds. The firm, more or
less simultaneously, pays down the
Payables and then re-orders more
goods.
• Additions to Retained Earnings
◦ This, clearly, provides a stream of
internal funds to the corpora­
tion as profits are made and retained.

We also said that, to the extent that internal funding is

insufficient to satisfy all the investment needs, it may seek
additional funding externally.

External Funds:

• Short-term bank lines of credit

• Short-term bank loans – “notes”
• Long-term (bank) loans – “debt”
• Issuance (sale) of corporate notes or bonds
• Issuance (sale) of equity
231 Kenneth S. Bigel

9.6 The EFN Formula Explained

The EFN Formula Explained

You will observe that the EFN formula has three parts (sep­
arated by two minus signs).

EFN= [(A0/S0) ΔS)] – [(AP0/S0) ΔS] – [(M0) (S1)

(RR0)]

The first part represents the required increase in total assets

[(A0/S0) ΔS)] needed to sustain the projected sales
increase. Last year, assets equal to A0 were required by the
firm to sustain a sales level equal to S0.Hence, we formu­
late the ratio A0/S0. Assuming this ratio remains static,
next year, the firm will require so much more in assets; this
is arrived at by multiplying the ratio by ΔS, the projected
sales increase; ΔS = S1 – S0.

However, some of this “gross requirement” will be “spon­

taneously” or “automatically” met by the normal business
generation of “internal” funds in the manner of sponta­
neous liabilities, by which we primarily refer to accounts
payable (not notes payable or the current portion of long-
term debt payable). Last year, such internal funds repre­
sented a certain percentage of sales: (A0/S0). If we multiply
this dollar figure by the projected sales increase (ΔS), we
may see to what extent spontaneous liabilities reduce the
original “gross requirement.”

Finally, the firm will also – hopefully – generate and retain

231
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 232

some of its earnings, thereby further reducing its “gross

requirement.” If we take the firm’s net profit margin (NI/S
= M0) and multiply it by next year’s sales (S1), we get next
year’s projected net profits: (M0) (S1) = NI1. If we the net
profit margin (i.e., M0= NI/S) times next year’s sales, we
get next year’s net profits. If we further multiply this by
the firm’s retention rate (RR0), we get the firm’s projected
retained earnings.

After all is said and done, we have a figure – the dollar

amount of EFN – that enables the firm to plan for next
year’s acquisition of external financing, and hence
increased asset levels in support of the planned sales
increase. Interestingly, this formula does not instruct us
relative to the extent to which the external requirement
should be met by either debt or equity, and in what Debt-
to-Equity proportion.

Note:

For simplicity of presentation only, below we will ignore

the “rule” of using an average balance sheet datum when
concocting mixed ratios (i.e., those that include both bal­
ance sheet and income statement data). This simplifica­
tion is in addition to the static analysis already assumed.

Some useful formulae:

• ΔS = S1 – S0
• M0 = NI / S
• RR = (NI – D) / NI = A.R.E. / NI = 1 – PR
233 Kenneth S. Bigel
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 234

9.7 EFN Application

EFN Application

You are given the following income statement and balance

sheet. Solve the question listed at the bottom of this page.If
Sales are projected to grow to $2,500, what is the addi­
tional amount of funds needed (“EFN”) to finance the
growth in sales?

Balance Sheet for “TC Corp”

As of Fiscal Year Ending 12.31.20XX

($ Millions)

Income Statement for “TC Corp”

For Year Ending 12.31.20XX

234
235 Kenneth S. Bigel

($Millions)
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 236

9.8 EFN Solution

EFN = [(A0/S0) ΔS] – [(AP0/S0) ΔS] – [(M0) (S1)

(RR0)]

= [(1,000/2,000) (500)]– [(100/2,000) (500)] –

[(50.40/2,000) (2,500) (0.70)]

= $250 – 25 – 44.10

= $180.90

Question #1: What does this number mean?

Answer: It means that, if my company wishes to grow its

sales next year by $500, it will need to add on $250 worth
of assets, of which $180.90 will be funded externally.
Remember: If it wishes to increase assets by $250 in order
to achieve its sales objective, it will have to increase the
other side of the balance sheet by the same amount. In this
case, $25 will be provided internally by accounts payable,
$44.10 will be provided internally through retained earn-
ings, and $180.90 will be provided externally by some mix
of debt and equity.

236
237 Kenneth S. Bigel

Note 1:

1. Use spontaneous changes only, that is, AP for

liabilities, exclude Notes Payable (NP) and
Long-term debt (LTD).
2. This was based on a static ratio analysis – our
restrictive assumption.
3. This has been an incremental analysis; we were
only interested in the additional amount of
funds needed, and that’s what we got!

Question #2: How much of the $180.90 will be externally funded

by debt and how much by equity?

Question #2, Answer 1:

The present debt/equity ratio is 3:7, i.e., 30% debt and 70% equity.
Total capital is $1,000, with $300 of debt and $700 of equity (D ÷
TA = 30%). Assuming static analysis, 30% of the $180.90 will be
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 238

financed by debt and 70% by equity. This will maintain the capital
ratios in the same proportions as prior to the new external fund­
ing.

Question #2, Answer 2:

Another, perhaps better, way of calculating the debt ratio, for this
purpose, would be by excluding internal capital from the figures.
In this way, we would be establishing only how much external
debt and external equity should be raised, an approach, which
would be more consistent with the purpose of the EFN formula.
We agreed that the firm needs $180.90 of external funds.

Thus presently, external debt ÷ external equity = 200 ÷ 500; that is

28.5% (2/7) in debt as compared to the total of external capital.
We had raised $2 of external debt for every $5 of external equity.
Total external capital was $700 (5/7) (not the $1,000 in total capi­
tal used in the prior calculation). In this alternate calculation, we
have ignored internal accounts payable ($100) and retained earn­
ings ($200). Incremental internal funds will be provided over the
coming year as in the past.

Below we illustrate both answers.

Note 2:
239 Kenneth S. Bigel

In the first two expressions in the EFN model, i.e., [(A0/S0) ΔS]
and [(AP0/S0) ΔS], we utilize the incremental, projected sales
increase (i.e., ΔS) whereas the third portion [(M0) (S1) (1 – PR0)],
we utilize the entire projected sales amount (S1).

Why, in fact, may Financial Ratios change?

In the foregoing analysis, we assumed that financial ratios

do not change over time. In fact, ratios are dynamic. Here
are some reasons why, in fact, ratios will change.

1. Economies of scale – as companies

grow larger and produce more, they
benefit, according to Microeconomic
theory, from lower production
costs per unit produced, even though
total (production) costs are rising. The
phenomenon will continue until the
firm reaches full capacity and needs
to add on assets in order to continue
growing. The Asset/Sales and Profit
ratios will be affected. Assets will
remain flat as sales grow – until full
capacity is reached. With unit costs
down, gross profits will increase.
2. “Lumpy Assets” i.e., firms may reach
a level where they have to acquire
more (expensive) assets (assets don’t
grow smoothly or in the same propor-
tion as the sales increase, which is
likely smoother). For example, the
factory may be at only 60% of capac-
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 240

ity, which affords substantial growth

in production and sales without adding
on capacity or expanding to an addi-
tional facility. Should sales continue to
grow beyond present capacity, it
would be incumbent upon the firm to
add to its fixed assets at some point.
Such assets would suddenly jump in
size. Sales, by contrast, may grow rel-
atively smoothly over time. The Sales/
Total Asset ratio will provide some
insight.

3. Capital Costs (i.e., the economic

costs to the corporation of borrowing
money and issuing stock) will likely
change over time – interest rates will
go up and down, causing changes in
the cost of debt, borrowed money. If
the cost of debt decreases, after-tax
income may increase. It will then be
cheaper to finance new fixed assets, so
the firm may then decide to add on
more P, P, & E. The T.I.E. Ratio
(EBIT / Interest Expense) may pro-
vide some added insight here. Also,
stock investors will demand that the
company produce dividends and
increased profits – to be retained if not
241 Kenneth S. Bigel

distributed as dividends. Additions to

Retained Earnings will increase the
company’s value and hence its share
price. (Capital Costs should not be
confused with Capital Assets Costs.)
In short, what investors require or
demand, the corporation must provide;
return to the investor is an economic
cost to the corporation.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 242

9.9 Summary: The Fundamentals of

Accounting and Financial Analysis

This might be a good place to review what we have learned

thus far. First, we highlighted some difficulties in reading
financial statements for financial analysts. We did this by
focusing on examples of current (inventory) and long-term
asset accounting (depreciation) respectively. These high­
lights assisted us in listing and understanding the four pri­
mary issues related to accounting data interpretation
namely, historical bias, the arbitrary use of cost method,
and problems having to do with estimates and reserves. For
us, the statements may not be what they seem, with conse­
quent reduced usefulness. If we are going to use accounting
data as inputs for ratio analysis, we must first and fore­
most be cognizant of this, and (later) learn how
to adjust the numbers, a skill, which you would acquire in
a Financial Statements Analysis course.

Between highlighting accounting problems and presenting

ratio analysis, we discussed the creation of pro forma
financial statements and created a projected income state­
ment. We also looked at a model for projecting free cash
flow, a very important predictor of a company’s ongoing
performance, and a metric by which possible investment
projects are evaluated. Finally, we discussed the External
Funds Needed model, an important tool in capital plan­
ning in order to accommodate growth.

242
243 Kenneth S. Bigel

9.10 Chapters Eight & Nine: Review

Questions

Chapters 8 – 9: Review Questions

1. Define each of the following terms: Incremen­

talism, Sunk Costs, and Cannibalization.
2. In words, explain what is meant by Free Cash
Flow.
3. Why is FCF important? Give two reasons.

▪ How do we use this

model – for individual
projects, for the entire
corporation, or both?
Explain.

▪ What options does the

company have regard­
ing how it may choose
to utilize its Free Cash
Flow?
4. Create a Free Cash Flowtemplate and spread
the forecasted numbers based on the following
assumptions:

◦ Last year’s sales were $15.5 million

243
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 244

and are expected to grow for the

next two years at 15% per year, fol­
lowed by three years of 8% growth.
◦ Cost of Goods Sold last year were
$12.6 million and are expected to
grow at a 7% rate per year indefi­
nitely.
◦ Depreciation is $550,000 per year at
a straight-line rate; in the fifth year,
the building will have been fully
depreciated. This company has no
depreciable equipment.
◦ There is no amortization.
◦ Selling and General Administrative
expenses last year were $200,000
and will grow modestly at an annual
2% rate.
◦ This company is in the 30% tax
bracket, including Federal and
State. There are no local taxes.
◦ The company expects to spend $2
million each year on “CapEx,” all
of which will be necessary.
◦ Last year’s Current Assets, exclud­
ing Cash, were $2.5 million, and is
expected to grow at a 5% rate per
year indefinitely.
◦ Last year’s Current Liabilities were
$2 million and are expected to grow
at a 3% rate for at least five years.
5. How does the analyst handle depreciation in
245 Kenneth S. Bigel

the FCF Model? Why does s/he handle it that

way? Note that depreciation occurs twice in the
formula.
6. Can you list all four capital items, which are
included in the Balance Sheet?
7. Why don’t we include capital costs in
the FCF Model?
8. An increase in Current Assets provides for/
uses funds. Which is it? Why?
9. On what basis do we distinguish between
“internal” and “external” funds?
10. List some internal and external funds.
11. Calculate the External Funds Needed formula
for the LCM Company (below), based on the
following assumptions.

◦ Last year’s sales were $5,000 mil­

lion.
◦ Next year’s objective is to increase
sales by 30%.
◦ Variable costs will be 70% of sales.
(Variable costs change with sales
volume.)
◦ Fixed Costs are expected to run
30% of P, P, & E (Fixed costs do
not change and are unrelated to
sales volume.)
◦ Interest Expense is 5% of Notes
Payable and 7% of Long-term debt.
◦ Taxes are 40%.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 246

◦ The company expects to maintain

its Payout Ratio at 20% of income.
What is the company’s EFN if it is to meet its growth
objective?

1. What do this year’s three Solvency ratios look

like?
2. Why will the company’s financial ratios change
next year?
247 Kenneth S. Bigel

Selected Answers To Chapters 8 and 9

FCF Table

• You are ill-advised to do this by XL. Do it by

hand. Place it in a Word table.
• One needs to figure EBIT by adding in the
Income Statement data to the template in the
chapter.
• “Last Year’s” numbers are not illustrated in
this Spread Sheet.
• “Year 1’s” numbers follow “Last Year’s.” For
example, Last Year’s Sales were $15.5 Million.
“This Year’s” sales increased by 15%. There­
fore: (15.5) (1.15) = $17.825.
• Be careful about the Current Assets and Current
Liabilities numbers. We first calculate increases
or decreases, not the gross numbers. Which
data add to FCF?
($ Millions)
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 248

EFN Formula
($ Millions)
I have assumed, in the question itself, that the B/S and I/S
data are stated in Thousands, rather than Millions. This is
more palpable. Note that here, the numbers are simplified
to Millions; it’s shorter. Assume that PR = 20%. Beware the
differences!
249 Kenneth S. Bigel

◦ D/E = (900 + 475) / 1,415 = 0.97

◦ D / TA = (900 + 475) / (900 + 475 +
1,415) = 0.4828
◦ TIE = EBIT / I = 1.050 / 0.068 =
15.44x

• EFN = [(A0/S0) ΔS] – [(AP0/S0) ΔS] – [(M0)

(S1) (RR0)]
• We will assume “Static Analysis.”
($ Millions)

• Sales and VC will change next year, but FC will

remain the same. Therefore, we should see a
change in the net profit margin, and changes in
the dividend paid and retention rates – assum­
ing no change in payout (percent of earnings)
policy.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 250

Part III: The Time Value of

Money

Part III: The Time Value of Money

Chapter 10: The Time Value of Money: Simple Future- and

Present-Values
Chapter 11: The Time Value of Money: Annuities, Perpetu­
ities, and Mortgages

250
251 Kenneth S. Bigel

Chapter 10: The Time Value of

Money: Simple Present- and
Future-Values

251
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 252

10.1 Chapter Ten: Learning Outcomes

Learning Outcomes

In this chapter, you will:

• Calculate Simple Future- and Present-Values

both mathematically and with a simple calcula-
tor, and by using an Interests Rates Tables.

• Apply the Three Commandments of the Time

Value of Money (TVM).

• Differentiate between simple interest and inter-

est-on-interest.

• Consider the curvilinear nature of compound

interest and TVM.

• Compare the relative volatilities of short-term

versus long-term cash flows.

Note: Review questions for Chapters Ten and Eleven will

appear at the end of Chapter Eleven.

252
253 Kenneth S. Bigel

10.2 The Time Value of Money and

Interest

For each of the following questions,

assume you have $1 and that interest on it
will be paid in full, at the END of the
Key stated period. What are the future values
Terms: (FVs) given each of the following ques­
tions? In other words, how much money
will you have at the relevant future points
in time? (If you had more than $1, the
Future
Value answers would be the appropriate multi­
ple thereof.)

As we go through the
questions and calcula­
tions, observe how the
outcomes, or solutions,
change. Try to explain
the reasons for the dif­
Present
Value ferences in the out­
comes. Also, observe
that the seemingly small
differences in outcomes
are really not as trivial as may seem at first glance. We are
illustrating Future Values, in each question, of just one dol­
lar of money that we have now – of Present Value. Sup­
pose we were instead dealing with millions of dollars?

As we go through each question, we will, methodically and

253
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 254

painstakingly, create a general symbolic formula, which

may be employed for any similar problem. Insert the
appropriate values into the formulae to solve the prob­
lems numerically. (Solutions follow.)

1. You will earn 5% interest, paid once a year, at the END

of the year, for one year.

You have $1 now of Present Value (PV). In one year,

you will receive your “principal” of $1 back plus
interest at an annual rate of return (R) of 5%. A gen-
eral Future Value (FV) formula will therefore be:

FV = PV (1 + R)

Insert the relevant data into the formula in order to

solve for the Future Value.

As we go through this analysis, you will need

to learn and remember the symbols or abbreviations.

2. Same as question #1, but R = 10%.

Here we will use the same formula as above, but you
will insert a different rate for R. What is the Future
Value? Why is the outcome different?

3. Same as question #2, i.e., R = 10%, but for two

years (n years), rather than just one.
We will now have two years of compound interest;
n = 2. Therefore, we apply the FV formula, slightly
modified, a second time:

FV = PV (1 + R) (1 + R)
255 Kenneth S. Bigel

FV = PV (1 + R)n

Here, the exponent, “n,” stands for the number of

years in which the money compounds.Once again, in
this case, n = 2. What is the Future Value? Why is the
outcome different than in the prior question?

4. 10% interest, twice a year, for one year.

Interest is always quoted as an annual rate, unless
explicitly noted otherwise.

Our annual rate is still 10%, but we will receive

half of it, i.e., R ÷ p = 0.10 ÷ 2 = 0.05, at the end of
each half-year. The letter, “p” stands for the number
of compounding periods per year; here p = 2.

FV = PV (1 + R/p)(1 + R/p)

Notice that, while n = 2, there are now two com-

pounding periods per year, so the exponent must
reflect that. Our exponent is therefore now: “n × p.”

Whenever p ≠ 1, we must make two adjustments to

the formula: “R/p” in the rate part of the formula and
“n × p” in the exponent. While in theory P can take
on any integer value, it will actually be equal to 1, 2,
4, 12, or 365 for annually, semi-annually, quarterly,
monthly, or daily respectively. (In this example, n =
1; when p = 1, we tend to leave it out as the power of
one is implicit.) Our general formula now becomes:

FV = PV (1 + R/p)n × p
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 256

Our Future Value formula is now complete. What

Future Value do you get? Why is the outcome differ­
ent than in question #2?

Note that, when solving for Future

Value, we multiply the Present
Value by a “factor” of (1 + R/p) n ×
p
. A factor is simply a multiplier.
This multiplicative and exponen­
tial process is referred to as com­
Factor
pounding.
Multiplier
5. Same as question #4, but for two Exponen-
years. tial
Com-
We can employ the formula in the pounding
prior question. Remember, “p”
occurs twice in our formula. Here,
n = 2, and p = 2. What is your
Future Value? Why is the outcome different than in
question #3?

6. What happens to future values as interest rates (“R”), the

number of years (“n”), and compounding frequency (“p”)
increase? In answer to this question, we present, in sum­
mary, the “Three Commandments” of the Time Value of
Money.

The Three Commandments of TVM

257 Kenneth S. Bigel

Of course, the opposite will occur if R, N, and/or P

decline. Below, we explain Present Values.

7. For each of the above questions, what would be the pre­

sent valueof $1 to be received at the end of the stated peri­
ods? In other words, where in questions 1 though 5, we
assumed $1 of PV and had to calculate its FV, we will now
assume $1 of FV and calculated its PV using the data in
each of the first 5 questions. Here, we will re-employ our
Future Value formula, but transpose the FV and PV num­
bers so that we can solve for PV, rather than for FV.

PV = FV ÷ (1 + R/p)n × p

Thus, when solving for Present Value

we divide the Future Value by the (1 + R/
p) n × p factor. This division process is
referred to as discounting.

Rather than dividing, we can also multi-

Discount-
ing
ply the Future Value by the reciprocal of
the divisor.
Reciprocal
PV = FV × [1 ÷ (1 + R/p)n × p]

Definition: A reciprocal is the inverse of

a number, which is arrived at by turning the num­
ber upside down! So, 1/2 or 0.5 is the reciprocal of
2. The reciprocal of 5 is 1/5 – or 20%. So, (1 + R/p) n
×p
and [1 ÷ (1 + R/p) n × p] are reciprocals of one
another.

In using Interest Rate Tables (soon), which display

ready-made, already-calculated factors, you will
note that all the factors’ values are stated as multipli­
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 258

ers, including the Present Value Factors (PVFs). We

will use tables in order to cut down on the number
of calculations that we must make and to thereby
reduce errors.

8. Is it a realistic question to ask what the PV is? How

might this actually occur?

Of course it is! We will often know the future pay­

ments and wish to figure out the PVs! For example,
you may wish to put aside some money for the down
payment on a house in “n” years. Assuming you
know the “discount rate,” how much must you set
aside today in order to fund that amount? How much
will you need to set aside today to fund your new­
born child’s college tuition? A bond pays interest
every six months in a known amount. How much
should you pay today in order to receive those future
amounts?

Solutions and Explanations:

The $1 in the question is referred to as Present Value (PV).

The amount of money we will have in the future is referred
to as Future Value (FV). Remember, we are, so far, assum­
ing that the interest payments are made at the end of each
relevant payment period.
259 Kenneth S. Bigel

An investment in knowledge pays the best interest.

-Benjamin Franklin
Introduction to Financial Analysis 260
261 Kenneth S. Bigel

10.3 Interest-on-the-Interest: The

Nature of Compound Interest

After one year (as noted in the example above), the investor
will have earned $0.10 for every dollar invested at 10%.
This was represented by the formula: $1 (1.10) = $1.10.

We noted that if the investor had invested for two years

(again at 10% per year) he would have $1.21. This was rep­
resented by: $1 (1.10)2 = $1.21. In other words, in the first
year, s/he earned $0.10 in interest, while in the second year,
he earned $0.11. Why does he earn more interest in the sec­
ond year if the interest rate – 10% – remains the same?

In the second year, he once again receives $0.10 interest

on his principal investment of $1. However, since he has
already earned $0.10 of interest from the prior year, he will
also earn 10% on that dime! That is equal to another penny
of interest earned: ($0.10) (10%) = $0.01. Thus, in the sec­
ond year he will have earned another $0.10 plus $0.11 or a
total of $0.21. The following summarizes this notion:

261
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 262

This is the nature of interest-on-the-interest: Compound

Interest! Each year, the interest-on-the-interest will con-
tinue to compound.
263 Kenneth S. Bigel

10.4 Some More Simple TVM Problems

What is my Future Value under the following scenarios?

(After each solution, write out the equivalent mathemati­
cal, symbolic notation.)

Scenario 1: Assume I have $1 and I invest for one year,

receiving an interest payment of .12 at the year’s end.

$1 (1.12) = ___________

Scenario 2: What if I invest for two years, receiving an

interest payment of .12 at the end of each year?

$1 (1.12) (1.12) = $1 (1.12)2 __________

Scenario 3: What if Scenario 1 is changed to account for

semi-annual compounding?

$1 (1 + .12/2) 1 x 2 = __________

Scenario 4: What if Scenario 2 is changed to account for

semi-annual compounding?

$1 (1 + .12/2) 2 x 2 = __________

• If I know the Future Value of $1, how do I cal­

culate the PV? Solve for each.

263
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 264

Note:

Asking “what is the present value of some money to be

received in the future,” is equivalent to asking how much
money is needed today in order to have a certain amount
later, assuming a given investment rate. In other words, for
a person to have one dollar five years from now, i.e., FV,
how much will s/he have to invest today at x%?

Some More Simple TVM Problems

(Solutions)

1. $1 (1.12) = $1.12
2. $1 (1.12) (1.12) = $1 (1.12) 2 = $1.2544
3. $1 (1 + .12/2) 2 x 1 = $1 (1.06) 2 = $1.1236
4. $1 (1 + .12/2) 2 x 2 = $1 (1.06) 4 = $1.2625

Notice how the above solutions display the fundamental

principles of the Time Value of Money about which we
already spoke. Namely, as interest rates, the number of
compounding periods per year, and time increase, the
Future Value increases and the Present Value decreases.

It is very easy to make mistakes in doing these calculations.

For example, remember that the compounding frequency
adjustment, “p,” occurs twice in the basic TVM formula;
don’t forget to make the relevant adjustments here. Be
methodical and go slowly.
265 Kenneth S. Bigel

In the end, “eyeball” your solution. If it does not look right

in terms of the TVM rules that we already know, it prob-
ably is not! It will look correct if it seems to be consistent
with the above-cited characteristics of TVM.

So far, in all the foregoing examples, we have used $1 as

present value. This makes it easy to learn and allows one
to focus on the manner in which present and future val-
ues multiply out. In reality of course, present values would
be other, greater numbers, such as $1,237,874.32. All one
need do is substitute in the relevant number where hereto-
fore we had the lonely $1 value.

Time is money.
-Benjamin Franklin
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 266

10.5 Simple Future and Present Values

(Formulas)

Having done the foregoing work, it is plain to see that we

can symbolically represent the mathematics using the fol­
lowing “language.”

Key:

The expression, or “factor,” (1 + R/p) n x p, may be used

as a “multiplier” when compounding from present to future
values and, in its reciprocal form, as a multiplier again
when discounting from future to present values. You will
find the factors, calculated out, in interest rate tables, trun­
cated versions of which you will find on the pages follow­
ing.

266
267 Kenneth S. Bigel

“R/p” means that if the annual interest rate (R) is 12%

and the number of compounding periods (p) is 12 (i.e.,
monthly compounding) the periodic compound rate is .12
÷ 12 = .01. After one year, the FV would be $1 (1.01)12
= $1.1268. (Notice that this compares with once–a–year
compounding at 12%: $1 (1.12) = $1.12. The difference in
Future Values is nottrivial.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 268

10.6 Compounding Frequency

Assumption

Let’s examine the effect of changing the compounding (or

discounting) frequency on both the Present- and Future-
Values. Assume that we earn 10% for five years (R =
0.10; n= 5). Assume that we are given $1 of Present- and
Future-Values respectively.

Notice how, as “P” increases, FVs increase, and PVs

decrease – both at decreasing rates!

268
269 Kenneth S. Bigel

The mathematics for continuous compounding and dis­

counting follow on the next page. You will note that the
difference between daily and continuous compounding and
discounting is very small. Today, we don’t often – if ever –
see instruments that exhibit continuous compounding.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 270

10.7 Simple Future and Present Values:

Continuous Compounding
(Supplemental)

In order to solve for continuous compounding, we must

engage the “rule of limits” or otherwise utilize the “natural
log.” The natural logarithm is the logarithm to the base
e, where eis equivalent to the irrational number 2.71828.
The following presents an exemplary solution for continu­
ous compounding.

FV = PV (e Rn)

and

PV = FV (e -Rn)

Where, e = 2.71828

R = interest rate

Note:

P is omitted since the compounding is continuous rather

270
271 Kenneth S. Bigel

than periodic.

Example: PV = $1

R = .09

N = 10 years

FV =?

Solution: FV = ($1) (2.71828 (.09) (10) )

= $2.4596
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 272

10.8 Characteristics of the Time Value

of Money: FV and PV

The following summarizes and reviews some key char­

acteristics of the Time Value of Money about which we
already learned.

• As the interest rate increases, Future Value also

increases.
• As the number of years (n), periods per year (p),
or total periods (n × p) increases, the Future
Value increases.
• As the compounding frequency per year
increases, the Future Value increases.
• Restate each of the above statements for Present
Values.
• FV and PV factors – or multipliers – are recipro-
cals of one another.

You will find below a partial interest rate table. If you use
such tables properly, you will be able to locate the correct
multipliers – or “factors” – for a given situation. You will
note that the PV factors are expressed as the reciprocals of
their corresponding FVs. In order to arrive at the FV or PV
of a specified dollar amount, one need only choose the cor­
rect cell and multiply the specific dollar amount by the fac­
tor.

For example, the FV of $1 at 5% for ten years is $1 ×

272
273 Kenneth S. Bigel

1.6289. The PV for 10% compounded semi-annually for

five years is $1 × .6139.

In cases where we have more than one compounding or

discounting period per year, we would need to make the
same adjustments that were made mathematically earlier.
For example, the multiplier for 10% and 5 years semi-
annually would be found under the 5% column and
10-period row. “Period” in the tables would be equivalent
to “n × p” in our, more mathematical, nomenclature.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 274

10.9 Future and Present Value Factors

(Multipliers)

Here is another look at a somewhat less abbreviated inter­

est rate table. Assume that we are given $1 of Present-
and Future-Values respectively. (Fill in the empty 15% col­
umn by hand and compare your answers to the factors in
the published tables; see the link to Interest Rate Tables
below.) Note that, in using tables, “Periods” = n × p.

Future Value Factors Formula: FV = PV (1 + R/

p)n×p

Present Value Factors Formula: PV = FV ÷ (1 +

R/p)n×p

274
275 Kenneth S. Bigel

Here are some interest rate tables for you to use:

http://www.retailinvestor.org/pdf/futurevaluetables.pdf
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 276

10.10 A Word on Compounding

Frequency and Annual Equivalent Rates

Questions:

1. What is the difference between 10% annual

rate, compounded annually versus a 10%
annual rate, compounded quarter- in terms of
FV of $1?
2. How may the two rates be equated? In other
words, how may I define the annual frequency
at a rate equivalent to the quarterly frequency?
3. What happens as the compounding frequency
increases?

Solution to Question #2:

In general, (1 + R/p) np = FV
Annually, (1.10) 1 = 1.10
versus

276
277 Kenneth S. Bigel

Quarterly, (1 + .10/4) 1 x 4 = (1.025) 4 =

1.1038

That is, 10% quarterly is equivalent to 10.38% annu-

ally!
In other words, the Annual Percentage Rate (APR)
for 10% compounded quarterly, is 10.38%!
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 278

10.11 Interpolation

What if we have a fractional compound or discount rate

– such as 9.5% – which is not to be found in published
tables? Can we still use the tables? Or do we need to solve
the problem mathematically (or by financial calculator)?

One way to get around this is by estimating the multiplier

by means of averaging the two whole multipliers that
bracket the fractional one in question. We call this process
“interpolation” because we insert the average number in
between the relevant values or factors, which are stated in
the table. Let’s use the future value table below to illustrate
this.

Future Value Factors

What is the appropriate, estimated future value multiplier

for 10 years at 9.5%? This can be approximated by taking
the simple average of the multipliers for 9% and 10%:

(2.3674 + 2.5937) ÷ 2 = 2.4806

This is only an estimate. Remember that time value factors

increase (in this case – or decrease in the case of present
values) at an exponential rate. The true mathematical future
value for 9.5% for 10 years is:

278
279 Kenneth S. Bigel

1.09510= 2.4782

This differs from the simple average estimate, of 2.4806 –

2.4782 = 0.002. We first note that the simple average pro­
duces a higher number than the true, exponential figure;
this is notable. This is as expected because, in dealing with
future value factors, the numbers grow exponentially or
more quickly, and thus we would start off with a lower
number. Put differently, we do not grow from 9% to 10%
at a linear rate, but at an increasing, curvilinear rate.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 280

10.12 Interpolation Illustrated

Interpolation may be useful in order to estimate future (and

present-) values when one does not wish, or have the abil­
ity, to calculate more precise measures. The reason for the
error has to do with the curvilinear relationship between
(discount- and) compound interest rates and their related
multipliers. This is best seen by illustration.

One may readily see that, by connecting the asterisks, the

interpolated value of 2.4806 resides on a straight line
between the correctly calculated future value multipliers
for 9% and 10% respectively.

However, the time value of money is not linear. Any time

an exponent is involved, you will not get a linear rela-
tionship, but a curvilinear outcome of some sort. Hence,
the correct multiplier for 9.5% is 2.4782, which is lower

280
281 Kenneth S. Bigel

than the interpolated arithmetic average of 2.4806. If one

joins the asterisks for 9% and 10% to the mathematically
calculated middle value of 2.4782 (represented by “#”),
one readily observes the curvilinear relationship between
compound interest rates and their respective multipliers. In
short, as rates increase, future values increase in non-linear
fashion. Correspondingly, present values would decrease
non-linearly. The non-linear nature of these curves will
soon be discussed in greater depth when we get to “Volatil-
ity.” Basic mathematical examples will be presented.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 282

10.13 Some TVM Practice Questions

You will need to solve all these problems by hand. You will
not be able to use the tables.

1. You are given the following. Investment =

$2,800, Rate = 0.54%, P = quarterly, N = 8
years. What is the Future Value?
2. You are given two choices: 1. invest at an
annual rate of 10% compounded monthly, or 2.
at 10.1% compounded semi-annually. Which
will you prefer?
3. Bonus question: You will receive $24,000,
$29,500, $58,000 and $87,000 each year con­
secutively for the next four years. What are
both the Present- and Future-Values of this
unevenincome stream? Assume an annual rate
of 4.6%. (We will learn how to do Uneven Cash
Flowsafter we do Annuities– below.)
Solutions
1. ($2,800) (1 + 0.0054/4) 8 x 4= $2,923.5256
2. First Choice: (1 + .10/12) 1 x 12 = 1.1047 This is the one.
Second Choice: (1 + .101/2) 1 x 2 = 1.1036
3. Present Value =

282
283 Kenneth S. Bigel

($24,000 ÷ 1.046 1) + ($29,500 ÷ 1.0462) + ($58,000 ÷

1.0463) + ($87,000 ÷ 1.0464) =
$22,944.55 + $26,962.41 + $50,679.57 + $72,676.25 =
$173,262.78
Future Value =
($24,000 × 1.0463) + ($29,500 × 1.0462) + ($58,000 ×
1.0461) + ($87,000 × 1.0460) =
$27,466.69 + $32,276.42 + $60,668 + $87,000 =
$207,411.11

Notice the nature of the exponents in the Future Value cal-

culation; the exponents decrease as we near the horizon.
Interestingly, it is also true that $173,262.78 ×1.046 (to
the fourth) = $207,411.11. If you had already calculated
the Present Value of this uneven series of cash flows, you
would not have had to go through the long calculation of
the Future Value.

(If you have trouble with this, it’s OK. We will get to
Uneven Cash Flow series soon. You can come back to it
later.)
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 284

10.14 The Volatility of the Time Value

of Money

Discrepancies in TVM factors will widen as time increases,

as one observes the relative factors between interest rate
columns.

For example, a five-year IOU with a future value of $1,000,

using the tables, would have a present value of $1,000
(0.7835) = $783.50 – at a discount rate of 5%. The IOU
could be purchased or sold for that amount, or price. Think
of present value as an item’s dollar price. If the discount
rate instead were 10%, the present value would be only:
$1,000 (0.6209) = $620.90. In percentage terms, the pre-
sent value of $1,000 to be received five years from now,
discounted at a rate of 5% is greater than at 10% by a dif-
ference of (783.5 ÷ 620.9) – 1 = 26.2%.

If however the IOU had a 30-year term, the difference in

present value would itself compound. At 5%, the present
value would equal $1,000 (0.2314) = $231.40. At 10%,
the PV would equal $1,000 (0.0573) = $57.30. In percent-
age terms, the present value of $1,000 to be received thirty
years from now, discounted at a rate of 5% is greater than
at 10% by a difference of (231.4 ÷ 57.30) – 1 = 303.8%.

284
285 Kenneth S. Bigel

5% 10% Percentage Difference

5% over 10%

5 Years 0.7835 0.6209 (783.5 ÷ 620.9) – 1 = 26%

30 Years 0.2314 0.0573 (231.4 ÷ 57.30) – 1 = 303%

This demonstrates the volatility and

geometry of TVM! By geometry here we
refer to its non-linear and exponential
Key nature. Whenever there is an exponent in
Terms: a formula, we get some kind of curve. As
time increases, differences in present- and
future-values for a given number of years
themselves increase non-linearly.
Geometry
If you had purchased a thirty-year IOU as
an investment, any changes in interest
rates (i.e., due to market conditions) would have a far
greater impact on the value of your IOU investment than if
you had, instead, purchased a five-year obligation. For a
given change in discount rates of interest, the impact on the
multipliers is greater the greater the time is. The impact on
price, which is present value, is greater, the greater the
time–period. “Price volatility,” so to speak, increases as the
future payment grows more distant.

Again, this is because, the time value of money is non-lin-

ear; it is exponential. We are dealing, quite literally, with
compound interest, i.e., interest on the interest. Holders of
long-term fixed obligations, such as bonds, may experience
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 286

greater price, or market value fluctuations, when discount

rates for their bonds suddenly change.

Bonus Question: In the example above, we examined the

increase in the Present Value Factor when interest rates
drop from 10% to 5%. What would be the percentage
change in the Factors if rates increased from 5% to 10%?
Would it be same percentage change?

Rates of Change in TVM Factors

287 Kenneth S. Bigel

Percentage Difference In Present

Value:
Years Discount Rate
5% over 10%

(Rate of Change)

5% 10% First Derivative

5 0.7835 0.6209 (783.5 ÷ 620.9) – 1 = 26%

10 0.6139 0.3855 (0.6139 ÷ 0.3855) – 1 = 59%

15 0.4810 0.2394 (0.4810 ÷ 0.2394) – 1 = 101%

20 0.3769 0.1486 (376.9 ÷ 148.6) – 1 = 154%

25 0.2953 0.0923 (0.2953 ÷ 0.0923) – 1= 220%

30 0.2314 0.0573 (231.4 ÷ 57.30) – 1 = 303%

The virtually instantaneous changes in present values,

when going from a discount rate of 10% to 5%,
increases(“first derivative”) at a decreasing rate(“second
derivative”). The table displays the extent to which 5% dis­
counted present values exceed 10% discounted values.

When going from 10% to 5%, a five-year payment will

 Introduction to Financial Analysis 288

increase in value about 26%, while a thirty-year payment

by over 300%! Imagine if you could buy an IOU at 10%
and immediately (“instantaneously”) turn around and sell it
at 5%! Your profit would be much greater had you invested
in the thirty-year obligation. While this case is exaggerated,
the bond market works in similar fashion. Bond prices
can, at times, be quite volatile due to changes in market
rates although large changes do not occur instantaneously)
except in the case of a disaster). Remember: prices are the
present values of a bond’s future payments!

These relationships can also be illustrated using Differen-

tial Calculus, which would give you a more “continuous,”
rather than a “discrete,” view of the progress of the num-
bers.

The Take-away: If interest rates change, (bond) prices

could change dramatically!!
289 Kenneth S. Bigel

10.15 The First and Second Derivatives

Illustrated

• We have just demonstrated that changes in

longer-term discount rates affect present value
(i.e., prices) more than in the case of short-term
rates and cash flows. In our example, the rate of
changes in present value factors increased in
time, e.g., from 26%, to 101%, to 303%.
• However, the rate of increase is decreasing (i.e.,
“deceleration” or second derivative), e.g., from
126%, to 71%, to 38%.
• In Calculus, we would say here that the first
derivative is positive while the second derivative
is negative. If we think of the price of the cash
flows as distance covered as a function of time
(“speed”), then we can think of the “First Deriv-
ative.” We can think of the “Second Derivative”
here as the change in the rate of speed (“deceler-
ation”) Were the second derivative positive, we
would be speaking of “acceleration.” We
observe these characteristics in this diagram:

289
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 290

Imagine a payment due in the future; its present value

would be determined by its rate – a short-term rate (and
PVF!) for a short-term payment and so on. The rate of
change in present value was noted in the first derivative
column, while the “rate of change in the rate of change” in
the present value was noted in the second derivative col­
umn.

In other words, as time increases, the differences in present

values – for 5% versus 10% – increase, but the rate of
increase decreases! Remember: the price of a financial
asset today is its present value!

The Take-away (again): If rates change, prices (i.e., present

values) could change dramatically!!

Interest (lit. “bite”). Exodus, 22:24: “Bite” means

“interest,” since it is like the bite of a snake, which
bites a small wound on one’s foot, which he does
not feel, but suddenly it swells and blows up as far
291 Kenneth S. Bigel

as his head. So, with “interest,” one does not feel

(it) and it is not noticeable until the interest
increases and causes him to lose much money.

-Rashi’s commentary on the Bible.

(Translated by Ben Isaiah and Sharfman, Brooklyn,
NY: S. S. & R. Publishing Company, 1949)

On Work

Success in business requires training and discipline

and hard work. But if you’re not frightened by these
things, the opportunities are just as great today as
they ever were.

-David Rockefeller

Economist and Banker

 Introduction to Financial Analysis 292

If you train hard, you’ll not only be hard, you’ll be

hard to beat.
-Herschel Walker
American professional football player
and Politician

What doesn’t kill me makes me stronger.

-Friedrich Nietzsche
German Philosopher

Whenever heaven is about to confer a great respon­

sibility on any man, it will exercise his mind with
suffering, subject his sinews and bones to hard
work, expose his body to hunger, put him in poverty,
place obstacles in the path of his deeds, so as to
stimulate his mind, harden his nature, and improve
wherever he is incompetent.

-Meng Tzu, Third Century B.C.E.

293 Kenneth S. Bigel

Quoted in The Coddled Mind, Chapter One, by

Jonathan Haidt

Ben Heh-Heh used to say: “According to the effort

is the reward.”

-Mishnah, Avoth, 5:26

No pain, no gain.

-Somebody

When the goin’ gets tough, the tough get goin’.

-Somebody Else
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 294

Chapter 11: The Time Value of

Money: Annuities,
Perpetuities, and Mortgages

294
295 Kenneth S. Bigel

11.1 Chapter Eleven: Learning

Outcomes

Learning Outcomes

In this chapter, you will:

• Derive the additive nature of Annuities.

• Calculate both Future- and Present-Value
Annuity dollar values, using a simple calculator
and Annuity Tables.
• Adjust Ordinary Annuity factors to Annuities
Due.
• Relate the Law of Limits to Perpetuities.
• Provide the numerical analysis of No-Growth
and Constant Growth Perpetuities, and Mort­
gages.
• Determine the total amount of interest paid on
a mortgage over time in comparison to the prin­
cipal originally borrowed.

295
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 296

11.2 Annuities

An annuity is a series of cash flows that must satisfy both

of the following conditions, in order to qualify as an annu-
ity, namely it:

• Consists of equal dollar amounts.

• Arrives (or leaves) in regular intervals.

If a series of cash flows may be defined as an annuity, we

will employ an Annuity Table to figure the series’ FV/PV.

In investments, most (if not all) annuities may be qualified

as “Ordinary Annuities,” since their cash flows occur at
the end of the relevant periods.

Other annuities are called “Annuities Due,” meaning that

the CFs occur at the start of the relevant periods.

If, as in most cases, the cash flows do not qualify as an

annuity, then their FV/PVs may be derived only by calcu­
lating the FV/PV of each discrete CF and then aggregat­
ing.

This is the same process by which we shall derivethe

“short-cut” Annuity TVM factors.

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297 Kenneth S. Bigel

11.3 The Derivation of (Ordinary)

Annuity Factors

You are given the following information. Column by col-

umn, complete the table by filling in the appropriate future
value factors (FVF), the future values of each respective
cash flow (FVCF), as well as the same for the present value
factors and cash flows (PVF and PVCF). Once completed,
add up the columns at the bottom.

Note that here we are dealing with “ordinary” annuities,

which means that all the cash flows in the series are
received at the end of the relevant period. Soon, we will
examine another convention. Use the timeline below to
properly place each of the three cash flows temporarily (see
the timeline below). Placement will determine the proper
exponents and hence periods.

Given:

3-year annuity

$100 received per year.

Annual Discounting/Compounding Factor = R = .10

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 Introduction to Financial Analysis 298

Code:

FVF = Future Value Factor

CF1 = First Cash
FVCF = Future Value of the Cash
Flow
Flow
CF2 = Second
PVF = Present Value Factor
CF3 = Third
PVCF = Present Value of the Cash
Flow
299 Kenneth S. Bigel

11.4 The Derivation of Annuity Factors

(Solution)

Below you will find the solution to the problem on the

prior page. Note that if you had an interest rate table for
annuities, you would be able to multiply the annuity cash
flow (in this case, $100) by the appropriate factor. You
would then arrive at the future- or present-values of the
cash flows, in one step. Such annuity interest tables exist;
a link is provided at the bottom of this page.

What may we observe from this table? Future value annu­

ity factors are always greater than the number of periods.
Here the FVF was 3.31, or greater than n · p = 3 periods.
This is because the annuity multiplier is the sum of each
respective yearly factor, each of which is greater than 1.0
(except the last one, which = 1.0) since they are all multi­
ples of (1 + R) n. (This assumes that R > 0.)

Contrarily, each PVF is less than the number of periods

because the respective factors are all less than 1.0, as each
factor is the reciprocal of (1 + R) n. (Again, this assumes
that R > 0.)

When utilizing a table, it is always a good idea to “eyeball”

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 Introduction to Financial Analysis 300

the factors you are using to make sure you didn’t lift the
figure from the wrong table or make some other error. Use
your head at all times. Do not be a robot!

The present value of the annuity is $248.68. If you, alter­

natively, had had a single sum in the amount of $248.68,
and had invested it for three years at 10%, you would have
$331 at the horizon:

($248.68) (1.10)3 = $331

and

$331 ÷ (1.10)3 = $248.68

Here are some more simple- and annuity- interest rate

tables for you to use:

http://www.cengage.com/resource_uploads/downloads/
0324406088_41656.pdf
301 Kenneth S. Bigel

11.5 Future and Present Annuity

Values: The Nature of Their Cash Flows

Note the differences in the nature of compounding versus

discounting of annuity cash flows. Let’s assume that the
Cash Flows are to be received at the end of the respective
periods. In the examples following, there are five cash
flows.

Compounding:

There are, altogether, four compounding “periods”; the last

cash flow to be received is not compounded because it is
received at the “horizon” of the deal. Indeed, the last CF
does have a zero-exponent attached to it: [1 + R] 0 = 1. The
exponents are zero through four.

Discounting:

In contrast, there are five discounting periods. The expo-

nents are one through five. Note that the arrows go in the
opposite direction from before as we are now discounting
to present values rather than compounding to future values.

301
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 302

While Simple Future and Present Values factors (as

observed by the relevant tables earlier) are reciprocals, or
mirror images of one another, annuities are not.
303 Kenneth S. Bigel

11.6 Future and Present Annuity

Factors: Mathematical Formulas

Let’s “put on the table” the formal mathematical formulas

for ordinary annuities’ factors. Remember: a “factor” is a
multiplier (for the given cash flows). These formulae will
be useful when your tables do not have a particular inter-
est rate that you need, and especially when you need to
calculate a fractional rate, e.g., 10.23%.

Key: PVAF – Present Value Annuity Factor. FVAF – Future

Value Annuity Factor.

Example 1: R = 0.10; N = 5; P=2

Solution 1: [(1) ÷ (0.10/2)] – [(1) ÷ (0.10/2) (1 + 0.10/2) 5

×2
] = 7.72173493

*This multiplier should be the same as in your Present

Value Annuity Table.

Example 2: R = 0.095; N = 5; P=2

Solution 2: [(1) ÷(0.095/2)] – [(1) ÷(0.095/2) (1 + 0.095/2)

5×2
] = Fill in your answer

303
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 304

*This multiplier is not in your Present Value Annuity

Table. Compare the two solutions.

Example 3: R = 0.10; N = 5; P=2

Solution 3: [(1 + 0.10/2)5 x 2

– 1] ÷0.10/2 =
12.57789253554883

*This multiplier should be the same as in your Future Value

Annuity Table.

Example 4: R = 0.1012; N = 5; P=2

5x2
Solution 4: [(1 + 0.1012/2) – 1] ÷0.1012/2 = Fill in
your answer

*This multiplier is not in your Future Value Annuity Table.

Compare the two solutions.
305 Kenneth S. Bigel

11.7 Characteristics of Annuity Factors:

A Review

Let’s review the basics of annuities:

• The number of periods counted in discounting

versus compounding are different.
• The Future Value Annuity Factor (FVAF) must
always be __________ than the number of com-
pounding periods.
• The Present Value Annuity Factor (PVAF) must
always be __________ than the number of dis-
counting periods.
• FVAFs and PVAFs, unlike simple TVM factors,
are not reciprocals of one another for the follow-
ing reasons:

1. The counting of the time periods is different for

each, i.e., the timelines and “arrows’ directions”
are different, therefore so are the simple factors’
respective exponents!
2. The annuity factors are themselves the result of
an additive (aggregating) process for which reci­
procals do notapply, e.g., 1 ÷ (1 + 2 + 3) ≠1/1 +
½ + 1/3. The reciprocal of a sum is not equal to
the sum of reciprocals.

305
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 306

The answers to the fill-ins above are:

• The FVAF must always be – greater – than the

number of compounding periods.
• The PVAF must always be – less – than the
number of discounting periods.

Notes:

1. Over 30 years, an investor who has invested

$100 per year at 10% will have put down $100
×30 = $3,000 in nominal terms. The FV of the
$100 annuity at 10% in comparison will be
$100 ×164.49 = $16,449
2. Notice how quickly both the present and future
value annuity factors increase. That is because
we are constantly adding additional cash flows
each year. That is also why the PVAFs increase,
in contrast to the simple PV factors, which, of
course, may only decrease – as per our three
commandments – as time increases.

Key:

PVAF = Present Value Annuity Factor

FVAF = Future Value Annuity Factor

307 Kenneth S. Bigel
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 308

11.8 Annuities: Practice Problems

For each of the following problems, solve for both the pre­
sent- and future values of the given annuity – at the given
rate and for the stated number of years. Try not to look at
the solutions in the table below.

1. $2000 each year for 5 years @ 5% =

_________
2. $1,000 each year for 10 years @ 5% =
__________
3. $1,000 each year for 10 years @ 10% =
__________
4. $500 every six months (semiannually) for 10
years @ 10% = __________

308
309 Kenneth S. Bigel

N
FV/ R÷ ×
Problem Dollars Factor Solution
PV P= P
=

FV 5.5256 $11,051.20
1 $2,000 5% 5
PV 4.3295 $8,659.00

FV 12.578 $12,578.00
2 $1,000 5% 10
PV 7.7217 $7,721.70

FV 15.937 $15,937.00
3 $1,000 10% 10
PV 6.1446 $6,144.60

FV 33.006 $16,503.00
4 $500 5% 20
PV 12.4622 $6,231.00
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 310

11.9 Annuities Due

Annuities Due

An “annuity due” is a type of annuity whose cash flows

occur at the start of each period. To illustrate, we will use
the example – and chart – from above. Since the timing of
the cash flows is different than in an ordinary annuity, the
factors (and exponents) are also different. As you fill in the
factors and the dollar amounts, draw the appropriate time-
line.
Question: What would be the PV and FV for the $100
three-year annuity at 10%?

Timeline

310
311 Kenneth S. Bigel

Questions:

1. Notice that both PV and FV annuity due factors

(and dollars therefore) are larger than the
respective ordinary annuity factors.
2. The PV of an annuity due is equal to the PV of
an ordinary annuity multiplied by one plus the
discount rate (1 + R/P)1 for one period.
3. The FV of an annuity due is equal to the FV of
an ordinary annuity multiplied by the com­
pound rate for one period. Show this mathe-
matically.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 312

11.10 Annuities Due (Solutions)

Question: What would be the PV and FV for a $100 three-

year annuity due at 10%?

Note:

The PV and FV for an ordinary annuity with the same term

(time), rate of interest, and dollar amounts, were calculated
at $248.68 and $331 respectively. Since an annuity duepro­
vides each of its cash flows one period earlier than the ordi­
nary annuity, the PV and FV of the annuity are both equal
to the ordinary annuity multiplied by (1 +R/p)1. In this
case, that would be:

$248.68 (1.10)1 = $273.55

$331.00 (1.10)1 = $364.10

312
313 Kenneth S. Bigel

Due to the fact that the cash flows come in sooner there
are both more compounding periods and fewer discounting
periods. The fewer number of periods leads to more com-
pounding and less discounting, hence greater future- and
present-values.

This is handy to know because most interest rate tables pro-

vide ordinary annuities factors, but not annuities due.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 314

11.11 Adjustment from Ordinary

Annuity to Annuity Due

The PV and FV for an ordinary annuity with the same term,

rate of interest, and dollar amounts, were calculated earlier
at $248.68 and $331 respectively. (See the table at the bot-
tom of this page for a key summary of the differences in
exponents.) Since an annuity due provides each of its cash
flows one period earlier than the ordinary annuity, the PV
and FV of the annuity is equal to the respective ordinary
annuity factors multiplied by (1 +R/p)1. (Note that in all
instances the exponent is one because the cash flows are
pulled ahead just one period.) In this case that would be:

$248.68 (1.10)1 = $273.55

$331.00 (1.10)1 = $364.10

The fact that the cash flows are received (or paid) sooner
in the example of an annuity due has an interesting impli­
cation (as noted in the adjustment formula above). In the
case of the PV, there will be fewer discounting periods than
with an ordinary annuity, so the PV will be higher. In the
case of the FV, there will be more compounding periods,
hence the FV is also higher. Again, in both instances, the
ordinary annuity factor is adjusted by a multiple of (1 +R/
p)1. Note that even when p ≠ 1, the exponent will always
be one, representing just the one period (even if part of a
year) in which the series is “pulled ahead.”

Question: How would the adjustment in our example be

314
315 Kenneth S. Bigel

made if the compounding frequency instead were semi-

annual?

Answer: In this case, one would multiply by (1 +R/p)1= (1

+ 0.10 / 2)1= (1.05)1.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 316

11.12 Uneven Cash Flows

Not all cash flows series are as neat as annuities. Using the
TVM Tables, calculate both the PV and FV for the series
of Uneven Cash Flows presented below. Assume a periodic
discount/compound rate of 6%.

The method by which this exercise will be done is the same

as that which was done for deriving ordinary annuity fac-
tors earlier – except that the cash flows here are uneven (or
unequal) rather than all the same. While we have already
done a similar exercise earlier, well, you know, practice
makes perfect!

316
317 Kenneth S. Bigel

11.13 Uneven Cash Flows (Solutions)

Solution Guidelines: First, fill-in the first or uppermost cell

in the PVF column by dividing 1 by 1.06; then fill in each
subsequent lower cell by once again dividing by 1.06 itera­
tively – or by copying the rates from the tables. Next, mul­
tiply each cash flow horizontally by the appropriate PVF.
Aggregate.

In order to complete the FVF column, start at the bottom-

most cell and fill in 1.00; in the next cell up, fill in 1.06. As
you go up, continue multiplying by 1.06. Remember, the
arrows in the FV timeline are pointed in the other direction.

Take note of the fact that the PV of the series is less than
its nominal value and that the FV is greater. You will also

317
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 318

note that, if you know the PV of the uneven series, you can
simply multiply it by (1 + Rn) in order to arrive at the FV
of the series. Wow!

(If you were unable to solve question #3 on Some TVM

Practice Questions, you can go back to it now.)
319 Kenneth S. Bigel

11.14 Uneven Cash Flows (Practice

Problem)

For the following series, assume a discount/compound fac­

tor of 7%.

319
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 320

11.15 Uneven Cash Flows (Practice

Problem Solutions)

320
321 Kenneth S. Bigel

11.16 Uneven Cash Flows: Another

Self-Test Practice Problem

• Fill in the empty cells. Use 8% as your com-

pound and discount rate.
• What if the order of the cash flows were exactly
reversed? Answer each of the following three
questions below.

1. Would the nominal value of the cash flow (i.e.,

the bottom cell at left) be changed? Answer
“Yes” or “No.”
2. Would the total PVCF increase/decrease/not
change?
3. Would the total FVCF increase/decrease/not

321
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 322

change?
323 Kenneth S. Bigel

11.17 Solution to Another Uneven Cash

Flow Practice Problem

Answers to questions:

1. No change. When dealing with nominal figures,

the order of the cash flows is irrelevant.
2. Higher – when larger cash flows come in sooner
there is less discounting of the greater numbers
– PVs increase!
3. Higher – when larger cash flows come in sooner
there is more compounding of the greater num-
bers – FVs increase!

323
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 324

11.18 Perpetuities: No-Growth

Perpetuities

A perpetuity is a series of equal cash

flows that arrive in equal intervals and are Key
never-ending, a kind of forever annuity. Terms:
We cannot evaluate its FV since it would
be infinite, as would be its nominal
value. However, we can figure the PV.
Perpetuity

Infinite
The PV of a perpetuity is simply the Nominal
(fixed) payment divided by the interest
rate. For example, if the cash flows are
$100 and the discount rate is 10%, the PV would be:

PV = $100 ÷ .10 = $1,000

The general formula would thus be:

PV = CF ÷ i

This works because of the mathematical “law of limits.”

Simply put, as the cash flows grow more distant, the
respective PVs of these cash flows approach zero. Adding
increasingly distant cash flows will have an infinitesi­
malimpact on the outcome, the present value. Thus, the

324
325 Kenneth S. Bigel

sum can be calculated as mentioned. Let us examine this

further.

For example, a $100 annuity for five years at 10% has a

PV of $379.08. A ten-year annuity has a PV of $614.46.
An annuity of 25 years has a PV of $907.70 and a 50-year
annuity would be $991.48. As time goes on, the PV of each
additional year’s cash flow becomes very, very small (i.e.,
time increases, PV decreases) so that adding such infinites­
imal amounts provides no material addition to the aggre­
gate. In the end, you will note that the above present values,
when aggregated, will eventually approach, and theoreti­
cally equal $1,000.

This formula is applicable to preferred stock whose divi­

dends ad infinitum are fixed.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 326

11.19 The “Law of Limits” and

Perpetuities

We have already seen that present value of a perpetuity

can be described by the formula: P0 = CF ÷ i. We have
also provided both the algebraic derivation of this formula
and a discussion as to how the present value of a perpetu-
ity approaches (but never quite reaches) the price
described by the formula.

Still, many students find the idea of limits – and of the

infinitesimal – difficult to grasp. Our intent here is to fur-
ther elucidate the notion that present values decrease over
time with the result that distant cash flows become so
small, so infinitesimal – they have so many decimal places
– that they add virtually nothing to the aggregate present
value. In making this observation, you will also note that,
as a result, the cumulative value of the perpetuity’s present
value approaches the theoretical price described by the for-
mula, as posited by mathematicians. This is as it should be.

Let us say that a perpetuity’s cash flows are $1 and the

interest rate at which we shall discount the series is 10%.
The present value therefore would be: P0 = $1 ÷ .10 = $10.
This is confirmed in the table below.

326
327 Kenneth S. Bigel

After 25 years, we reach 90% of the aforecited aggregate

present value, and by the 50thyear, we exceed 99% of the
$10 value. With the passage of more time, we shall get
closer and closer to $10, but only reach $10 in infinite
space.

Perpetuities: Pondering the Infinite

He counts the number of the stars; to all of them, He

assigns names.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 328

-Psalms 147:4

Lift high your eyes and see: Who created these? He

who sends out their host by count, who calls them
each by name: Because of His great might and vast
power, not one fails to appear.
-Isaiah 40:26

If you always put limits on everything you do, physi­

cal or anything else, it will spread into your work
and into your life. There are no limits. There are
only plateaus, and you must not stay there, you must
go beyond them.
-Bruce Lee
329 Kenneth S. Bigel

11.20 Growth Perpetuities

A “growth” perpetuity is a perpetual cash flow stream (CF)

that grows at a constant rate of growth, which we shall call
“g.” It is a special case of perpetuity. If, in the last period,
we received a cash flow of $100 and its growth rate is 5%,
the next cash flow would follow this formula: (Last Cash
flow: CF0) (1 + g) = Cash flow in next period (CF1). “G”
represents a constant rate of growth in the cash flow over
time.

CF1 = CF0 (1 + g)

$105 = $100 (1.05)

The formula for a growth-perpetuity is: (Cash flow next

period) ÷ (Discount rate – Growth rate). Symbolically, this
may be expressed as:

PV = CF1÷ (r – g)

In the above example (where r = 0.10), if the growth rate

had been 5%, the present value would be (assuming here
that the next CF is $105, that is, [$100] [1.05] = $105):

$105 ÷ (.10– .05) = $2,100

Notice that for this formula to work, “g” cannot equal or

exceed “r.” Mathematically, if g exceeds r we would get a
negative denominator, resulting in a negative present value,
which makes no sense. A mathematical rationale, while

329
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 330

necessary, is however not sufficient to justify this relation­

ship. There must be a financial explanation.

One, theoretically, earns some positive return – “r” – for

1
investing in a no-risk asset ; otherwise, no one would
invest at all. Even with no risk (and no growth!), there is
a positive return. Therefore r > g. As growth rates increase
(in linear manner), so too does risk; higher growth rates
are more difficult to achieve and hence are riskier. R (“r”)
should exceed g, as a practical, non-mathematical matter.
This is depicted in the diagram below.

This formula may also come in handy for Key

Terms:
cases of negative growth. Since “g”
would be negative, in this case, the for­
mula would require that one add the
growth rate to the interest rate in order to Negative
determine the present value. Growth

Suppose the last cash flow (CF0) was

$100, there is a nominal cash flow growth
rate of negative 5%, and a discount rate of 10%. What
would the present value be?

1. As this is being written (2021), we observe an unusual environment wherein

interest rates in many parts of the world are negative.
331 Kenneth S. Bigel

[($100) (1 – (0.05)] ÷ [.10 – (-.05)] =

$95 ÷ .15 = $633.34

Of course, the PV in the case of positive growth far

exceeds the outcome we observed with negative growth.
Is that not as it should be?

This formula is applicable to common stock, whose divi­

dends may grow – positively or negatively.

Note:

Looking at this graph alone one may conclude that, at some

point, r < g. This is because the line is steeper than at a hor­
izontal plane, thus, there would be less “rise” than “run,”
leading eventually to growth exceeding the discount rate,
and producing a negative present value. While this may be
true if one limits the analysis to the graph alone, it cannot
be correct, in fact, that dividend growth is not reflected in
return – which is also the discount rate, and part of the
denominator. As dividends rise, so too must return.
(Remember: discounting and compounding are the same;
just the arrows go in different directions.) This anomalous
and paradoxical case will be discussed in depth when we
discuss the “Dividend Discount Model.”
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 332

11.21 Fractional Time Periods

So far, we have dealt only with whole periods and, there­

fore, whole exponents. True, you may argue that we have
also broken whole periods into halves (or other pieces),
such as (whole period) half years, so that, for example, an
annual rate of 10% compounded / discounted semi-annu­
ally became 5% per period; exponents were still whole
numbers. But let’s not stop here!

Occasionally, cash flows may occur before the end of a

period. Suppose you earn 10% per year, compounded daily.
What would be the FV after ¾ of a year?

If we assume a 360-day year13, ¾ ×360 = 270 days. (In

short-term financial analysis, we often deal with, or oth­
erwise assume, twelve 30-day months to a year.) Further,
10% ÷360 = .0002777. Therefore, after 270 days, you will
have earned:

$1 (1 + .10/360) 270 =

$1 (1.0002777) 270 = 1.077850

By comparison, if the compounding period is three months

or a quarter of a year, then:

1 (1 + .10/4) 3= 1.0769

If, in fact,the compounding period is a whole year, then we

may employ a fractional exponent:

332
333 Kenneth S. Bigel

1 (1.10) 3/4= 1.0741

All of the foregoing choices are arithmetically correct. The

compounding convention you use matters. In practice, you
will have to know the proper convention commonly used
in each situation.

Here are some more examples. Notice that if we calculate

the FV of $1 at 10% annually, after half a year we would
have arrived at an FV of $1.05 ($1 (1 + .10/2)1) – as we
may have assumed until now. However, if we use fractional
exponents, we get a slightly different result:

$1 (1.10)1/2 = $1.048809

$1 (1 + .10/2)1 P ≠ $1 (1.10)1/2

It is therefore very important to understand the context of

the problem and the use of the appropriate compounding/
discounting convention.

The Take-away: Compounding assumptions matter. Be

sure you use the correct assumptions.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 334

11.22 Loans: The Conventional

Mortgage

Mortgages are different from ordinary loans. With most

loans, interest is paid over the term, or life, of the loan, and
the entire principal is paid in one fell swoop at the loan’s
term, or maturity. In contrast, mortgages are self-amortiz­
ing, which means that all payments include portions of
both interest and principal, resulting in decreasing princi­
pal balances over time until, at maturity, the entire loan will
have been paid off. Let us see, by way of (an unrealistic)
example how this may work.

Given: Principal: $100,000 Rate: 9%

Term: 10 Years Period: Yearly

Mathematical Rationale:

The loan proceeds, i.e., $100,000 in this case, represent the

present value. The “periodic payment” represents the annu­
ity payments to be made over future years and will include
both Interest and Amortization. Amortization goes toward
the reduction of the loan or principal balance. The present
value of the annuity payments should equal the loan prin­
cipal:

Principal = Periodic Payment x Present Value Annuity

Factor

334
335 Kenneth S. Bigel

Calculation:

Payment = Principal ÷ PV Annuity Factor = $ 100,000 ÷

6.42 = $ 15,576.32

Interest = Opening Balance × Rate

Amortization = Annuity Payment less Interest

Balance = Opening Balance less Amortization

Payment and Amortization Schedule:

In the first year, the interest portion of the payment is 9%

of $100,000 or $9,000. This leaves $15,576 less $9,000
= $6,576 going toward amortization. The new, amortized
balanceis hence $100,000 less $6,576 = $93,424. Each
year the annuity installment is first used to pay the interest
on the loan and the balance is used to reduce the capital
outstanding. This continues for each period until maturity.
In the maturity year the last annuity installment is sufficient
to cover the interest still owed and the remaining balance.
(You will note a rounded number in the last year.)
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 336

Note:

Mortgage payments are usually made in MONTHLY

installments, and often with greater maturities. Mortgages
in the USA today are at least 15 years in term and usually
up to 30 years. Rates as of this writing are also substantially
lower than illustrated. This has been simplified for illustra­
tion purposes, so that the reader may easily refer to stan­
dard interest rate tables.
337 Kenneth S. Bigel

11.23 A Few Thoughts about

Mortgages

There are a few key points regarding mortgages, which

require summary and notice.

1. Interest payments are tax deductible. Tax

deductibility is important simply because it
reduces the after-tax cost of the mortgage. Funds
that would otherwise have gone to pay tax
instead go to debt service. This benefit is
reduced as the interest portion of the mortgage
payment is reduced with time.
2. Partway through the loan, half the loan will have
been paid off. A mortgage has a kind of “half-
life.” In the foregoing example, half the loan
will have been paid off after six years. This half-
life will be greater than half the length of the
mortgage because initially the annuity payments
are used mainly to pay interest on the loan!
3. Total interest paid may be much greater than and
in longer-term cases, a multiple of the principal
– this can be calculated by evaluating the total
payments minus the principal.

In the foregoing example, over the ten years the borrower

will have paid a total of 10 annual payments of $15,576.32
for a total of $155,763.20. If you subtract from this figure
the loan principal of $100,000, you are left with a figure of

337
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 338

$55,763.20, which represents the total amount of interest

paid over the life of the mortgage (unadjusted for time
value). In other words, interest paid represents an addi­
tional 55% approximately of the principal borrowed. (We
take note again that most mortgages require monthly pay­
ments and that, in today’s marketplace, most mortgages are
15 to 30 years.)

Let us compare 15- and 30-year mortgages in terms of the

ratio of interest payments made relative to the principal.
We remind ourselves that in the above instance (10 years
and 9%) we had 55% interest payments relative to the loan
principal. Let us use $100,000 of principal again, and, this
time, 6% in interest. We shall again employ the formula:

Principal ÷ PV Annuity Factor = Periodic Payment

15 years: ($100,000) ÷ (9.7122) = $10,296.33

Over 15 years total payments will equal (15) ($10,296.33)

= $154,444.95. In this case, interest payments will equal
54.44% of the principal.

30 years: ($100,000) ÷ (13.7648) = $7,264.91

Over 30 years, total payments will equal (30) ($7,264.91)

= $217,947.30. In this case, interest payments will equal
117.95% of the principal.

Even though the annual payments are less in the 30-year

case, we see that interest payments multiply enormously
over time.
339 Kenneth S. Bigel

11.24 Summary Comparison of 15- and

30-Year Mortgages

The following table presents a comparison of the $100,000

annual pay mortgage (above) at 6% interest for 15- and
30-years.

Notes and Questions:

• The shorter-term mortgage presents a higher

periodic payment requirement but entails less
overall interest payments over time.
• The longer-term mortgage presents a much
higher total interest payment requirement but
requires a lower periodic outlay.
• Question: Under what conditions does it pay to
take out the shorter-term mortgage?
• Answer: It pays if the mortgagee has sufficient
cash flow, and wishes to minimize total pay­

339
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 340

ments, especially interest, over time.

• Question: Under what conditions does it pay to
take out the longer-term mortgage?
• Answer: It pays if one does not have sufficient
cash flow, is unwilling to settle for a less-costly
home, and is relatively unconcerned about the
long-term, larger amount to be paid; perhaps he
does not intend to stay for the full thirty years.
• In most circumstances, a 15-year mortgage will
bear a lower rate than a 30-year mortgage –
unlike this illustration. Here we focused on a
single variable – time – which greatly impacts
the scenario depicted relative to the minimal
impact that a small premium interest rate would
have for the increased term to maturity.
• Taxation will also have an effect. Recall that
interest payments on mortgages are, under cur­
rent law, tax-deductible.

The mortgage formula is important to master as it will be

used again in three additional contexts: 1. Leasing; 2. Bond
Accounting; and 3. Capital Budgeting: The Annual Annu­
ity Approach.
341 Kenneth S. Bigel

Mortgages in the New Millennium

Innovation has brought about a multitude of new

products, such as sub-prime loans and niche credit
programs for immigrants… Unquestionably, innova­
tion and deregulation have vastly expanded credit
availability to virtually all income classes. Access to
credit has enabled families to purchase homes, deal
with emergencies, and obtain goods and services.
Home ownership is at a record high, and the num­
ber of home mortgage loans to low- and moderate-
income and minority families has risen rapidly over
the past five years.

-Dr. Alan Greenspan (2005)

Chairman of the Federal Reserve Bank

http://www.federalreserve.gov/BOARDDOCS/
Speeches/2005/20050408/default.htm

Following an extended boom in construction driven

in large part by overly loose mortgage lending stan­
dards and unrealistic expectations for future home
price increases, the housing market collapsed –
sales and prices plunged and mortgage credit was
sharply curtailed. Tight mortgage credit conditions
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 342

are continuing to make it difficult for many families

to buy homes, despite record-low mortgage interest
rates that have helped make housing very afford­
able… the contribution of housing investment to
overall economic activity remains considerably
below the average seen in past recoveries.

-Dr. Janet Yellin (2013)

Chairman of the Federal Reserve

http://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/speech/
yellen20130211a.htm
343 Kenneth S. Bigel

11.25 Personal Financial Planning

Problem

You are given the following:

1. This year, Abraham will start graduate school.

The annual cost is $30,000 per year for each of
two years, payable at the start of the year.
2. The tuition will increase by 3% in the second
year, due to inflation.
3. Abraham currently owes $25,000 from his
undergraduate student loans.
4. When he finishes his M.B.A. in two years, his
parents will give him a $50,000 gift.
5. Upon graduation, Abraham plans to pay off his
loans fully in ten years. How much will he have
to pay annually in order to achieve his goal?
6. Assume throughout an 8% cost of funds rate,
compounded quarterly, except for the annuity
payoff payments, which will be at an 8%
annual rate.

Solution Plan:

• First lay down the given data, in nominal terms,

in their proper places in a timeline; then, import
the numbers into a spreadsheet.
• Calculate the future value of the costs at the end

343
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 344

of year 2, using the cost of funds rate given.

Note the gift as money in.
• Use the mortgage formula to calculate the annu­
ity payment required to pay off the accumulated
debts in the last 10 years.

Solution:

Calculations:

Step 1: ($30,000) (1 + .08/4) 2 × 4= $35,149.78

Step 2: $30,000 × 1.03 = $30,900

($30,900) (1 + .08/4) 1 × 4 = $33,447.15

Step 3: $25,000 × (1 + .08/4) 2 × 4 = $29,291.48

Step 4: $50,000 gift

Step 5: Sum of Steps 1-4

Step 6: Calculate the annual annuity payments.

(47,888.41) = (x) (PVAF 0.08; 10)

(47,888.41) (6.7101)

x = 7,136.77
345 Kenneth S. Bigel

11.26 Summary: The Time Value of

Money

Virtually everything one does in the finance discipline

involves, at some level, the time value of money. It is cen­
tral to all of financial analysis and must be mastered. It is a
basic tool.

In the prior two chapters, we developed a rationale for

assessing “simple” future- and present-values. We defined
the two qualifications for a cash flow series’ being cate­
gorized as an annuity, and then defined an ordinary annu­
ity as the sum of the series’ present- and future-values. We
further defined “annuities due” and outlined a means for
converting an ordinary annuity into an annuity due. Addi­
tionally, we determined how interest rate tables may be
used as a shortcut tool for calculating the time value of
money.

Then we assessed uneven cash flow series that do not qual-

ify as annuities. We examined two cases of perpetuities
(no-growth and growth) as a special case of annuity. We
examined fractional time periods and discovered the arbi-
trary nature of certain time value calculations, which have
to do with the varying conventions regarding the definition
of “period” and the use of interest rates in this regard.
Finally, an illustration of a mortgage was presented and
evaluated.

“Before one continues further in this text, it is imperative

345
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 346

that the student master fully the critical concept of time

value of money in all its variety.”
347 Kenneth S. Bigel

11.27 Chapters 10 - 11: Review

Questions

1. You are given $2.30 in the present. It will com­

pound quarterly at annual rate of 12% for ten
years. What is its Future Value?
2. What if you willhave $2.30 in ten years – in the
prior question. What is its Present Value?
3. Define “Annuity.”
4. Why are simple Present- and Future-Value fac­
tors reciprocals of one another while annuity
factors are not?
5. How are Ordinary Annuities and Annuities Due
different?
6. How does one adjust an Ordinary Annuity in
order to make it an Annuity Due?
7. Give real world examples of Annuities.
8. How are annuities and perpetuities different
from one another?
9. An annuity due pays $138.55 every quarter for
seven years at a rate of 4.375%. Calculate both
its present- and future-values. (Hint: use the
mathematical formula for calculating annuity
factors and also use the annuity adjustment

347
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 348

multiplier.)
10. What is a “Growth Perpetuity”?
11. Explain the “Law of Limits.” How does it apply
to Perpetuities? (Search Law of Limits online if
it helps.)
12. Simple Future Factors grow at a(n) increasing/
decreasingrate. Which is it? Why?
13. The rate of change in Future Value factors is
increasing/decreasing. Which is it? Why?
14. A mortgage is self-amortizing. Explain.
15. Over time, interest expense on a mortgage is
increasing/decreasing. Which is it? Why?
16. Over time, a mortgage’s amortization increases
ordecreases. Which is it? Why?
17. You are given an 8% annual rate on a bank Cer­
tificate of Deposit, which pays quarterly. What
is its Annual Percentage Equivalent Yield?
18. A mortgage charges 5% interest payable annu­
ally for thirty years. How much interest and
amortization will there be in the second year?
Assume a loan of $1 million.
19. Over the life of this mortgage, how much inter­
est will there have been – above and beyond the
principal payments?
20. An investor will receive a $400, 4% annual
annuity for the next ten years, payable semi-
annually; that is $200 every six months. What
are the present- and future values of the annu­
ity?
21. What if this were an Annuity Due?
349 Kenneth S. Bigel

22. In the case of a Perpetuity, why is Present Value

unaffected by discounting frequencies?
23. A semi-annual, “constant-growth” cash flow
series last paid, $5.80. Payments will be made
every six months and will grow at an annual
rate of10% per year. Assume a four-year hori­
zon. What is the Present Value of the cash flow
series?Utilize a 12% discount rate.
24. In the prior question, what if “G” were negative
5% (annually)?
25. A Perpetuity last paid $1.50. It will be dis­
counted at an annual rate of 16% and its cash
flow will grow at an annual rate of 8% to be
paid in quarterly installments. What is its Pre­
sent Value? Be sure to adjust for frequencies.
26. What would the future values be in each of the
prior two questions?
27. Besides for the mathematical necessity, why
must “R” exceed “G,” in the Perpetuity model?
We are assuming here, “normal” economic cir­
cumstances.
28. The Present Value Annuity Factor must have a
value greateror lessthan “n × p.” Which is it and
why? What about the Future Value Annuity
Factor?
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 350

Part IV Interest Rates,

Valuation, and Return

Part IV: Interest Rates, Valuation, and Return

Chapter 12: Fixed Income Valuation

Chapter 13: Interest Rates
Chapter 14: Equity Valuation and Return

350
351 Kenneth S. Bigel

Chapter 12: Fixed Income

Valuation

351
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 352

12.1 Chapter Twelve: Learning

Outcomes

Learning Outcomes

In this chapter you will:

• Define three forms of Income.

• Introduce the “Valuation Premise.”
• Calculate both the Holding Period Returnand
the Dollar Price of a Bond.
• Distinguish the characteristics of Discount, Par,
and Premium bonds.
• Explore how Creditability and Maturity affect
Market Yields, i.e., the Yields-to-Maturity.

Note: Review questions for Chapters Twelve through Four­

teen will appear at the end of Chapter Fourteen.

352
353 Kenneth S. Bigel

12.2 Security Return: The Holding

Pattern Return (Raw Calculation)

In order to figure the return on an asset (a percent), it is

useful to first outline the various components of the return
on the asset – and then to calculate the return. The two
principal components of return are income and profit, i.e.,
sales or “exit” price less investment cost. Income is com­
mon to many assets including bonds (interest), stocks (div­
idends), and real estate (rent). The exit price may be equal
to, greater or less than the asset’s original investment cost,
hence “profit” is included in return.

Example:

• Stock/bond/real estate cost or investment (C) =

$1,000. This is an “outflow.”
• Income (I) received over the course of the hold-
ing period = $100.
• Sales (exit) price (P) = $1,050.
• The income and sales price are “inflows.”

Holding Period Return (HPR):

HPR = inflows ÷ outflows -1 = [(I + P) / C] – 1

353
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 354

HPR = [(100 + 1,050) / 1,000] – 1 = + 15%

Alternatively, we could have calculated the HPR by focus­

ing only on the profit (“Π”), in which case, we would have
left out the “-1” expression at the end. Note that the profit
= $1.050 – $1,000 = $50. The result is the same this way as
depicted below.

HPR = [(I + Π) / C]

HPR = [(100 + 50) / 1,000] = + 15%

Note:

In either application, this is a “raw” calculation in that it

does not account for the time value of money. This
approach ignores the length of the holding period and the
timing of the cash flows. Clearly one would rather earn the
raw 15% return over a shorter period than longer. Would
you rather 15% over one year or ten? A dollar earned today
is worth more than a dollar earned tomorrow.

While the HPR has severe conceptual limits, it provides

key information upon which a better model may be con-
structed. In this section, we will present the calculation for
dollar price and return of a bond.
355 Kenneth S. Bigel

When you make a sale to your fellow…do not vic­

timize one another.
-Leviticus 25:1

And when you transact a purchase to your friend, or

acquire from the hand of your friend, you shall not
defraud one another.
-Leviticus 25:14
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 356

12.3 Valuation Premise

So, the HPR is not acceptable because it does not include

the critical notion of time value of money. In general, we
will find that the (dollar-) valuation of any asset will
adhere to the following rule:

The value of an (financial) asset is equal to

the future cash flows the asset is expected to produce,

each of which cash flow is discounted to its present

value

and then all such present values are aggregated to

a single value.

This says that in valuing an asset, we must first identify

its future cash flows, and then discount each of those cash
flows at an appropriate discount rate, and aggregate the
figures into a sum, which shall be the asset’s valuation or
price.

We will also find that, in a certain sense, the dollar value

and the discount rate are interchangeable; in fact, we will
note that the discount rate, in a large sense, is the “true”
price of the asset.

These premises are not universally applicable nor accepted

356
357 Kenneth S. Bigel

by all analysts and researchers, but are nonetheless essen-

tial to finance.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 358

12.4 Fixed Income Securities: Bond

Components and Valuation Formula

Since the coupon cash flow of a bond constitutes an annu­

ity, the calculation of a bond’s dollar price involves a sim­
ple solution:

The above formula says that every (annuity) coupon pay­

ment plus the one-time face value payment are discounted
and aggregated to present value, which is the bond’s price.
This is based on our “valuation premise.” Here are some
important terms to know:

Face Value = Maturity Value = Par Value = Principal:

These phrases are synonymous and interchangeable. Matu­
rity value is the amount of money the investor, or bond­
holder/lender, gets back when the bond matures. This
represents, in most instances (and herewith) a one-time
cash inflow to the investor.

Coupon Rate (C) = Interest Rate (I): This is the amount of

interest that the bond pays. (An exception would be a vari­
able rate, but we do not deal with that here.) The dollar
amount paid is this rate times the face value. Thus, if the

358
359 Kenneth S. Bigel

rate is 10% and the Face Value is $1,000, it will pay $100
per year. If this bond pays semi-annually, the investor will
receive two $50 payments per year, one every six months.
This represents an annuity series of cash flows for the life
of the bond; this is the bond’s second set of cash flows.

Yield-to-Maturity (YTM) = Market Rate = Discount

Rate:This is the market-determined rate at which the
bond’s cash flows – both the Face Value and the coupon
payments – are “priced,” or discounted, to present value.
Do not confuse coupon and market rates; they are separate
and mathematically distinct. The market yield will con­
stantly change. Coupons are (generally) fixed.

We may think of Face Valueand the bond’s Dollar Pricein

terms of $100s or $1,000s or any multiple thereof. Since
the bond’s price is expressed in terms of 100% of the
bond’s “Par” value, it doesn’t matter for calculation pur­
poses, how many zeros we add on in an illustration or exer­
cise. This will be demonstrated immediately below.

The bond trader will quote the bond in terms of a percent

of par and will then ask the buyer or seller what the “size”
of the trade is? In other words, how much they are dealing
with. Of course, in reality, buying or selling a thousand, or
a million, dollars’ worth of bonds matters a great deal. An
example follows.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 360

Creditors have better memories than debtors.

-Benjamin Franklin
361 Kenneth S. Bigel

12.5 Fixed Income Securities: Dollar

Price and Yield-to-Maturity

Fixed Income Securities: Dollar Price and

Yield-to-Maturity Calculation

Since the coupon cash flow is an annuity, a simple valua­

tion solution would utilize the following formula. Take
note, that it does not matter how many zeros you use,
although, we shall always figure a face value in this text of
$1,000 for consistency and convenience, unless otherwise
noted:

Example:

Coupon .10 (Semi-annual)

Term-to-Maturity 5 years

Market/Discount Rates
.08, .10, and .12
(Y-T-M)

You’ll need calculators and interest rate tables for this!

361
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 362

Discount Rates

Here you shall need to insert the appropriate present value

annuity factor (PVAF) for the coupon and the present value
factor (PVF) for the Maturity Value. Do not forget to make
the proper adjustments for semi-annual discounting.

Dollar Values
Here you shall need to multiply the above factors by the
dollar amounts of the coupon/annuity and face value
respectively.

The “true” price of the bond may, in fact, be considered the

YTM. It is conceivable that there exist two bonds with the
same maturity (or even issued by the same company) but
due to having been issued at different times, the two bonds
carry different coupons. Thus, the YTM will be the same
for each, but the dollar prices will be different. Therefore,
YTM is the true market price, at which bonds’ values are
assessed.
Question: What would the prices be if the above bond’s
coupon were 0%?
363 Kenneth S. Bigel

Answer: The PV of just the Face Value at the appropriate

YTM / Discount Rate.

Fixed Income Securities: Dollar Price and

Yield-to-Maturity (Solution)

It is important not only to solve problems, but to interpret

them as well.

• Note that this illustration has used ordinary

annuity factors, rather than only simple present
value factors.
• The “Quoted Price” is stated as a Percent of
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 364

Par.
• Premium/(Discount):
◦ You get more (less), you pay more
(less)!
◦ You get more (less) coupon than the
current market yields, you pay more
(less)!

It is interesting to note, for instance, using the discount

bond above, that the future value of the bond’s price equals
the future value of its cash flows. 926.41 (1.7908) = $50
(13.181) + 1,000.
365 Kenneth S. Bigel

12.6 Bond Dollar Prices: Discount, Par,

and Premium

In the case of investment grade bonds (but not in the case of

“junk bonds”), corporate issuers usually endeavor to set the
coupon so that the initial offering price for the new bond at
the time of issuance is Par (100% of the bond’s face value).
The coupon and other important terms of the underwriting
are written into a legal document called the indenture.

Once the indenture is completed, prospective bonds

investors are provided with a “prospectus,” which lays out
the terms of the bond, the financial condition of the com­
pany, and other important facts. Investors have some time
until the bond is issued in which to decide whether they
wish to purchase the bond or not. In this short time, market
yields are subject to fluctuation. As a result, at the ultimate
time of issue, the coupon rate and the contemporary mar­
ket yield (Yield-To-Maturity or “YTM”) will likely have
diverged.

Therefore, it is not terribly common to see new bonds being

issued at a price of precisely Par; this of course results in
new issue prices being at either discounts or premia to Par.
There are these two possibilities. Moreover, over the life of
the bond, market yields may diverge still further from the
coupons.

For example, when an investor purchases an “old” bond,

which may have been issued when market yields – and
hence coupons – were lower, it may be looked at as inferior
365
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 366

to newer bonds in that its coupon pays less than bonds

issued today with the same maturity and credit rating. This
is why – mathematically – such lower paying bonds trade
at a discount to par. You get less (i.e., a lower coupon
rate of interest than the current YTM), so you pay less.Of
course, this is also true in reverse.

Similarly, for premium bonds, you pay more, because you

get more (coupon than the current YTM). The time value of
money discount rate (i.e., YTM) is the great equalizer. You
may take two bonds that are similar in all respects except
the coupon; they will trade at the same market yield, as
they should, by definition, but their dollar prices will differ.
Therefore, the “true” price of a bond is the YTM!

While many people believe that bond prices are stable, any
volatility can increase investment risk relative to bond port­
folios. Volatility may stem from default risks and macro­
economic causes and will be reflected as changes in YTM.

You get more (Coupon than Market Yield) you pay more!
367 Kenneth S. Bigel

12.7 The True Price of a Bond

Once again, it may be said that the “true price” of a bond

is its yield-to-maturity. YTM is the means by which the
bond’s cash flows are discounted or “priced.”

Two bonds may have the same credit rating and maturity
but may have been issued at different times and thus will
have different coupon rates, and therefore will be valued at
different dollar prices even though, the market yields today
are the same for both.

To illustrate this, solve the following problem for two

bonds. You will note that the YTMs and TTMs for each of
the two bonds in the example are the same, but the coupons
differ, causing the dollar prices to differ. We assume equal
creditability for each.

YTM = 4%
N = 10

P=2

Cpn. Bond #1 = 4%

Cpn. Bond #2 = 0%

Solve this without glancing at the solutions.

367
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 368

Price Bond #1 = ($20) (16.3514) + ($1,000) (0.6730) =

100%

You should have known that the price would be Par- with-
out having to calculate.

Price Bond #2= ($00) (16.3514) + ($1,000) (0.6730) =

67.30%

We now also see, that as the coupon rises, so too does the
dollar price.

Note:

Review questions for Chapters Twelve through Fourteen

will appear at the end of Chapter Fourteen.
369 Kenneth S. Bigel

Chapter 13: Interest Rates

369
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 370

13.1 Chapter Thirteen: Learning

Outcomes

Learning Outcomes

In this chapter you will:

• Distinguish between the return on an invest­

ment and the firm’s Cost of Capital.
• Define various qualitative bond risks.
• Contrast Price or Interest Rate Risk versus
Reinvestment Rate Risk.
• Compare Investment Grade to High-Yield
Bonds, and their different Credit Ratings.
• Discuss Liquidity Preference Theory and its
impact on the slope of the Yield Curve.
• Define each of four Yield Curve Theories.
• Calculate the Spot Curve.
• Explore Credit Spreads
• Consider the Macroeconomic circumstance
under which Credit Spreads will narrow and
widen.
• Utilize Credit Spreads in a predictive manner.

370
371 Kenneth S. Bigel
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 372

13.2 Interest Rates: Returns to

Investors; Cost to the Corporation

Interest rates, and, hence securities’ returns, are a function

of economic circumstances that are manifest in the finan-
cial markets. Return to investors represents cost to the cor-
porations that issue the securities; they are the two sides to
the same coin. As in the case of “return on investment,” the
phrases “return” and “cost of capital” to a corporation are
described in percentage terms, i.e., as a rate, and not as a
dollar amount. Cost of capital refers to the weighted-aver-
age cost of the corporation’s debt and equity.

Both debt and equity provide the corporation with funds

with which to acquire assets, so that the corporation may
grow. Investors who provide these funds to the corporation
expect a return on their investment; this return represents
an “economic cost” to the corporation. The money is not
free. “Economic Cost” is a financial term, not an account-
ing term such as “expense,” and should be understood dif-
ferently.

• The cost of debt capital to the corporation is

the after–tax cost of interest paid on the debt.

372
373 Kenneth S. Bigel

• The cost of equity capital includes the

dividends paid to investors plus their
expectations of capital gains resulting
Key from the growth in earnings. Remember,
Terms: shareholders may expect to receive divi­
dends and to see additions to retained
earnings. Should the investors’ expecta­
Cost of
tions, which we may also view as their
Debt Capi- minimum required return, not be met,
tal they may sell the security.
Cost of
Equity Investors expect that retained earn­
Capital ings and other capital sources be
productively employed in the
growth of the company so that their
shares’ value increases – due to
increased earnings and growth expectations. Cor­
porations therefore must provide the assurance of
price appreciation, or shareholders will sell, and/or
hire new managers and directors. This prospective
price appreciation is also part of the firm’s capital
costs, as viewed from the economist’s eye.
In general, the required return (R)
whether for stocks or bonds, con­
sists of two parts: one, a return
associated with the “risk-free”
instrument and the risk-free rate of
Required return (RF); the other, a premium,
Return or extra, return for incremental risk
above zero-risk. That is, the
Risk-free
required return equals the risk-free
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 374

rate of return plus a “market risk

premium” (MRP).
Rate of
R = RF + MRP Return

MRP = RM – RF

Here, you will find a graph that depicts these concepts.

◦ The phrase “risk premium” (referring

to RM – RF) is a bit of a misnomer, as
the term “risk” draws your attention
toward the horizontal axis rather than
the vertical axis where the premium (-
return for incremental risk) is
observed.

◦ The “Market Risk Premium” (MRP) =

Market Return (RM) less Risk-free
Rate-of-Return (RF).
• In the graph above, we have risk (a quantifiable
measure) and return, which is measured in per­
centage terms. We also have the overall or aver­
age “market risk” and its corresponding market
375 Kenneth S. Bigel

return.

There is also a theoretical zero-risk investment and its cor-

responding risk-free rate of return. Even though the zero-
risk investment has no risk (excuse the redundancy), it still
provides a positive rate of return. If it provided no return,
no one would invest in it. There is no agreement about the
real-world proxy for the risk-free instrument; it is usually
taken as either the three-month Treasury Bill, or the ten-
year Treasury Note. More precisely, the risk-free instru-
ment’s expected and required returns will be the same, and
the standard deviation of its return will be zero.

Again, the Market Risk Premium

(MRP) will be the difference
between the risk-free and market
rates of return. In other words, the
Market market return provides a premium
Risk Pre- or additional return to the investor
mium for taking on a level of risk greater
(MRP) than zero. Any particular invest­
ment, or portfolio of investments,
may provide more, or less, risk and
return than the overall market.

In such cases, the investor’s portfolio may contain

a level of risk greater than or less than the market’s
risk level, i.e., to the right or left of the Market
Risk on the horizontal axis. Accordingly, the
investor may expect to earn more than the market
return, or less. The investor’s expected return will
then be either above or below the Market Return
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 376

on the vertical axis. Can you draw this? What

would be the investor’s Portfolio Risk Premium?
Take note, once again, of the odd
use of the term “risk premium” rel­
ative to additional return. The more
risk one takes on, the proportionally
greater should the return be. This is
due to the notion of Rational Rational
Expectations. One might say that Expecta-
to accept more risk for no added tions
return is irrational, and no one Portfolio
would do that. That is why the slope Risk Pre-
of the diagonal is positive. The mium
diagonal market line in the diagram
reflects this positive risk/reward
relationship. The more the risk, the more the
(expected) return.
• Many researchers will use the 3-month Treasury
Bill as the proxy for the theoretical risk-free
instrument. This choice has to do with three
explanations.

◦ First, the United States Treasury is

considered the least risky of all
debtors (although that may no longer
be true).
◦ Second, because the 3-month term is
so short, market price fluctuation is
not at issue; in a very short while, the
bills will mature and pay their full,
face value.
377 Kenneth S. Bigel

◦ Third, Liquidity is also enhanced by

the sheer size of the Treasury market
itself; size comes with greater trading
volume and hence more liquidity.

• Not all agree about the risk-free proxy. Some

argue for the use of the 10-Year Treasury Note
as the real–world equivalent of the risk-free
instrument. This is because Equities tend to be
longer-term investments and, more importantly,
because Credit Spreads (to be discussed in a
later chapter) are usually figured in a ten-year
timeframe.

The sages of Yavne used to say: I am a creature of

G-d and my neighbor is also;

my work is in the city and his is in the field;

I rise early to work and he rises early to his.
As he cannot excel in my work, I cannot excel in
his.
But you may be tempted to say,

‘I do great things and he small things!’

We have learned that it matters not whether one

does much or little,
if only he directs his heart to heaven.
Introduction to Financial Analysis 378

-Babylonian Talmud

Tractate Berachoth, 17a

 379 Kenneth S. Bigel

13.3 Inside the Banker’s Brain

It is important to know both what you are getting into when

dealing with a financial adviser and who may be some of
your co-workers if you choose to work on “the street.”
1
What insights do you derive from the table below?

1. From: Inside the Banker’s Brain: Mental Models in the Financial Services
Industry and Implications for Consumers, Practitioners, and Regulators, by
Susan M. Ochs (November 2015). Initiative on Financial Security, The
Aspen Institute, Washington, D.C. [email protected].

379
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 380

13.4 Fixed Income Risks

Risk in theoretical finance is defined mathematically usu-

ally as the chance or extent to which the actual return may
differ from the required or expected return.

“Differ” allows for the actual or “realized” return to be

either less or greater than the expected return.

From the investor’s perspective, bond risks may be divided

into the following qualitative components:

Liquidity Risk – the risk that the security cannot be con-

verted to cash at its reasonable intrinsic or “fair market
value” due, possibly, to a lack of buyers.
Credit- or Default Risk – the possibility that a corporation
may, in the worst case, go bankrupt, or, in a lesser case, not
honor its interest and other related payments timely and in
full.

◦ If the firm is in violation of any of

the technical terms (“covenants”) of
its loan agreement (“indenture”), it
may also be considered in “techni-
cal-” default even if it is timely in
making all its payments.

◦ Note that interest must be paid

before any dividend payments on
preferred and common stocks may

380
381 Kenneth S. Bigel

be made.

◦ If a borrowing company defaults on

its debt, it may thus become insol-
vent which would lead to bank-
ruptcy.
Inflation Risk– the risk that the return, i.e., the interest
payments, will be eroded over time by inflation, i.e., a
reduction in the purchasing power of the interest payments.

◦ Note that, in most cases, interest

payments are fixed.
◦ Many governments sell inflation-
linked, or inflation-indexed bonds
that have payouts linked to the
inflation rate. The United States
Treasury sells Treasury Inflation-
Protected Securities (TIPS).
Interest Rate (or “Price”) Risk– the negative effect on
market values, or prices, due to rising levels of general
interest rates.

◦ Interest rates and prices are

inversely related. If rates go up,
ceteris paribus, bond market prices
go down.

◦ Think of it this way: If you already

own a bond and interest rates, in
general, go up since the time of pur-
chase, then new bonds will be
issued at higher rates than your
bond. All else equal, that will make
your bond relatively less attractive
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 382

and thus its market value will go

down.

◦ Possibly more than any other risk,

this is tied into macroeconomic fac-
tors, including Federal Reserve
policies.
Reinvestment Rate Risk– the risk that cash interest pay­
ments received during the life of a bond will be reinvested
at less than the rate originally expected, thereby reducing
the overall holding period return.

◦ When the investor purchases a

bond, s/he has some expectation to
either spend the money or to rein-
vest the interest payments at some
anticipated future rate. Should rates
go down, the reinvestment rate will
be less than expected (or less than it
was at the time of purchase) and the
investor’s savings at the bond’s
maturity (i.e., the bond’s “future
value”) will have accumulated to
less than that which was originally
anticipated.

◦ Note that interest rate and reinvest-

ment risks are inversely related to
(i.e., the opposite of) one another.
Countryor Sovereign Risk– for example, war, changes in
administration, etc.

◦ When there is war, people ner­

vously sell stock, as occurred in
383 Kenneth S. Bigel

December 1990 when the Gulf War

broke out. When Donald Trump
was elected U.S. President in
November 2016, the stock market
rose sharply.
Foreign Currency Risk– possible negative effect of repa­
triation of funds

◦ In general, most U.S. companies

have substantial assets domiciled or
revenues generated overseas. These
funds may be repatriated or brought
home at an unfavorable exchange
rate. Thus, even American compa­
nies bear some foreign currency
risks even though their stocks are
dollar denominated.

Notes:

• “Nominal” rates (or prices) are not adjusted

(lower) for inflation.

• “Real” means “corrected” for inflation, i.e.,

adjusted. The real rate will be lower than the
nominal rate, given some inflation.

• The following phrases all usually mean percent:

 Introduction to Financial Analysis 384

return, rate, yield, margin, bracket.

385 Kenneth S. Bigel

13.5 Interest Rate and Reinvestment

Rate Risks

An additional, clarifying word about interest rate and rein-

vestment rate risks is warranted at this time.

If in general, interest rates go up, market prices for existing,

“older” bonds will go down – and vice versa. General inter-
est rates and bond prices are inversely related. In an envi-
ronment where market rates have gone up, bond investors
holding “old” bonds will receive less interest income than
if they had purchased “new” bonds that were issued more
recently – at higher (coupon) rates. This will cause market
values for existing bonds to go down; they are simply
worth less competitively. Rising rates are “bad” news for
(existing) bondholders in terms of interest rate risk.

However, bondholders will be able to reinvest their interest

proceeds at higher rates than before if rates rise. Investors
receive regular, periodic interest payments over the life of
the bond, which upon receipt, is assumed to be reinvested
into other alternatives that pay higher rates than before.
Thus, rising rates are “good” news for bondholders – in
terms of reinvestment risk.

In short, interest rate and reinvestment risks are inversely

related to one another. The table below summarizes the
relationships vis á vis the bond investor.

385
Introduction to Financial Analysis 386
387 Kenneth S. Bigel

13.6 Credit Ratings

Corporations are rated by credit-rating agencies that assess

a corporation’s ability to service its debt (i.e., to pay inter-
est and principal in full and on time) and, thus, to avoid a
default and to ultimately keep bankruptcy at bay. This is a
risk, which may also be referred to as “default risk.”

We have already examined three solvency ratios which

attempt to provide some insight into this risk. Clearly, there
are many more tools and considerations that enter into the
process of credit analysis and rating. Companies must pay
for this service, but not all do so, as some bond issues are
too small to justify the expense, while others may be sold
directly to institutional investors and thus do not require a
rating.

Today, there are two major rating agencies: Standard &

Poor’s (S&P) and Moody’s. Fitch is still a third agency,
but it does not enjoy the market presence of the others. In
addition, there are numerous nationally recognized statisti-
cal rating organizations or “NRSRO’s” that perform similar
functions (see: https://www.sec.gov/ocr/ocr-current-
nrsros.html). The agencies rate bonds on the scale illus-
trated below. As you will note, there are some differences
in the rating scales, and, although not visible in the ratings
themselves, the manners in which the agencies conduct
their respective analyses and what they consider important
also differ from one agency to the other. As a result, the
agencies may not rate the same bond issuer the same.

387
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 388

Within each rating category, the agencies may append addi-

tional notation, such as “A-” in the case of S&P. This pro-
vides some further refinement to the ratings.

Note:

The “S&P 500” is a stock index and does not apply to

bonds.

Ratings will clearly affect the bond’s yield – in

inverse relation to the rating, with lower ratings
generally bringing higher yields. That is to say
that the lower the credit rating, the higher the
default risk. A greater default risk means a
lower dollar price, which, in turn means a
higher yield.
The better the bond’s initial rating, the lower the
bond’s coupon rate of interest, and, of course, the
lower the issuer’s cost of debt capital; this is also
389 Kenneth S. Bigel

true for the bond’s subsequent secondary market

yield, (a.k.a. yield-to-maturity; YTM). Do not con­
fuse coupon and market yields; they are separate.
The coupon determines how much the interest
bond pays, whereas the YTM is the ever-changing
market discount rate which is used to price the
bond.
The rating agencies do not collude or necessarily
agree with one another; in some cases, the agen­
cies may rate the same company somewhat differ­
ently. Interestingly, the bond market itself seems to
understand what the true yield for a bond should
be; indeed, yields often adjust long before a rating
change (i.e., either an upgrade or a downgrade)
announcement. Further, a bond’s rating is not nec­
essarily “correct.”
In the case of municipal bonds, the agencies con­
duct similar analyses and provide similar ratings.
The interpretation of municipal ratings, however,
is somewhat different in practice, with municipal
bonds less likely to default than their ratings might
imply. In some instances, municipal bonds may be
insured by private insurance companies, in most
of which cases the bonds will therefore bear a
“AAA” rating regardless of its intrinsic creditabil­
ity. Most insurers are considered to be in the best
financial health.
United States Treasury and Agency bonds are
highly rated but are no longer perceived as being
completely risk free. In 2011, Standard & Poor’s
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 390

lowered its rating for Treasury Securities from

AAA to AA+. The agency felt that the congres­
sional deadlock in arriving at a budget agreement
warranted the downgrade. Since then, the agency
has not upgraded the rating back to AAA. The
other rating agencies have kept the Treasury’s rat­
ing at AAA.
“Agencies” are considered slightly lower in quality than
“Treasuries” and will therefore trade at very slightly higher
yields. The markets “know” how to price their securities
based on YTM and its associated default risk.

While the rating agencies do not provide the details of the

manner in which they conduct their ratings, it is accepted
that their formulae consist of a combination of the exami-
nation of the issuer’s financial health (based on its financial
statements), its economic environment, and an examination
of the bond’s covenants.

Covenants are agreed-upon terms to

which the issuer assures it will adhere; in
a way it is a restriction imposed by the Key
lender in order to secure or strengthen his Terms
position. For instance, the issuer may
assure the investors that its financial
ratios will remain within certain parame­
ters, or that it will not issue any further Covenants
debt, which shall be senior to the issue at Indenture
hand. In general, such negative
covenantswill also prohibit the firm from
paying too much in dividends, selling or
pledging assets to other lenders, maintaining collateral in
good condition, or adding on more debt. Timely interest
391 Kenneth S. Bigel

and principal payments would certainly be included in this

category. These assurances are spelled out in the bond
indenture, a legal document in which all the terms of the
bond issue are spelled out, including the bond’s maturity
and coupon interest rate.

Although a bond issuer, or borrower, may

pay its bond interest in full and on time,
which is to say it is not indefault, any
violation of any of the bond indenture’s
covenants may be interpreted as a techni­
cal default and result in a downgrading
In Default
of the bond’s credit rating. The bond
Technical covenants are aimed at providing
Default
investors with reasonable assurances of
the issuer’s fealty to its obligations under
the bond, but not so much as to disenable
it from running its business effectively. Failure to abide by
the covenants is, thus, a negative circumstance.

The restrictiveness of the bond’s covenants will vary.

Secured, or asset-backed, securities will have less restric­
tive covenants than unsecured issues. Furthermore, lower
rated, non-investment grade, bonds are likely to be more
restrictive and more complex, and hence will require a
more careful reading prior to purchase and investment.
Evaluation of these riskier securities’ covenants is rela­
tively more important than in the case of investment grade
bonds. Moody’s places some emphasis in the determination
of its ratings for high-yield bonds on the issue’s covenants.
High yield bonds tend to attract more sophisticated
investors who are capable of studying the technical terms
of the covenants; moreover, many such issues are placed
privately among institutional investors.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 392

Investment grade bonds will typically contain

three standard covenants. First, there may be a
covenant regarding “liens,” which assure the
investor that no other party may obtain a
“senior” (prior) claim to the asset (or collateral) Lien
subsequent to the bond’s issuance. Under the
law, a lien is a claim by a person upon another
person’s property for purposes of securing pay­
ment of a debt or the fulfillment of an obligation. If there is
a prior lien on a property, no other person can subse­
quentlymake a claim on the same property. By manner of
another example, when you buy a house, your attorney will
conduct a “lien search,” to be sure that no one else owns
the house except the seller with whom you are dealing.

Next, a covenant will protect against any reduction in

seniority of the bond in case of a merger of the issuer
with another corporation. This covenant will ensure that
the bond is paid off first in any case.

Finally, another covenant may address the sale of an under-

lying asset – in the case of a secured bond. Obviously,
should an asset underlying a collateralized bond be sold,
the bond’s financial status will change markedly. Such
assets ought not to be sold unless the bond is also
redeemed.

There is no doubt that credit ratings are critical to pricing

primary and secondary market issues. Ratings influence
both the coupon rates of interest in the primary market, and
market yields, or yields-to-maturity in the secondary mar-
kets.
393 Kenneth S. Bigel

13.7 The Yield Curve

The Yield Curve depicts the relationship

between Yield-to-Maturity (YTM) and
Term (or Time)-to-Maturity (TTM) for
Key a given class of bond, such as Treasury
Terms: Notes and Bonds, Municipal Bonds, or
Corporate Bonds. When one speaks of the
Yield Curve without specifying the
Yield instrument, it is assumed to refer to the
Curve market for Treasury securities. The yield
usually is stated in nominal terms, i.e., not
Yield-to-
Maturity in real terms, which would adjust for
inflation. The horizontal axis is the term,
Term-to-
or Time-to-Maturity (TTM), and the
Maturity
vertical is Yield-to-Maturity (YTM) or
market yield. The slope of the yield curve
can be flat, positive (upward sloping) or
negative. It may, at times, be kinked. As will be shown
later, YTM will determine the dollar-price for a given
bond.

Under “normal” circumstances, the yield

curve will reflect an upward, but not nec­
essarily linear, slope; that is, as maturities
get longer, yields will also rise. The the­
ory of Liquidity Preference attempts to
explain this. Investors prefer being liquid
rather than illiquid. When liquid,
investors have the entire range of options
available to them; they may either spend

393
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 394

or invest their money. When illiquid,

choices and alternatives are reduced or
eliminated. The longer one ties up his Liquidity
money, the greater his illiquidity. As one’s Preference
illiquidity increases, s/he will accordingly
demand more and more return as com­
pensation for the illiquidity, hence a posi­
tively sloped yield curve.

The Yield Curve need not always be pos­

itively sloped, however. For instance, in
times of tight Federal Reserve monetary
activities, short-term rates will be driven
up. As markets have learned to interpret
tight money policy as effective inflation- Inverted
reducing medicine, which takes effect Yield
over future periods, the longer end of the Curve
yield curve tends to decline, leading to a
negatively sloped, or “inverted,” yield
curve. As Fed tightening usually does not
last long (the 2004-2007 period being an obvious exception
to this), inversions are similarly short-lived.

The Yield Curve normallyis positively sloped due to Liq­

uidity Preference – although it does not have to be a
straight line.

Below, we observe average yields for three-month to ten-

395 Kenneth S. Bigel

year government (Treasury) bonds for the decades noted.

Yields are first stated in nominal (unadjusted) terms, fol­
lowed by real (adjusted for inflation) terms. In general, the
yield curve is stated in nominal terms, because that is how
bond yields are quoted in the market.

Note:
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 396

The yield curve, typically, is presented in nominal terms.

The following link provides some insight into the “histor-

ical yield curve,” which is to say, how the yield curve has
changed over the last few decades.

http://fixedincome.fidelity.com/fi/FIHistoricalYield
397 Kenneth S. Bigel

13.8 The Term Structure of Interest

Rates: Four Yield Curve Theories

Here we shall present four theories that attempt to explain

why the Yield Curve may take on one or another slope –
upward (positive), flat, or downward (negative). We can-
not say that any one theory is more correct than the other,
nor can we necessarily reconcile one theory in terms of
another. Still, the following theories are eminently infor-
mative.

1. Pure Expectations – The Market Yield reflects the aver-

age of future short-term rates.

First, we assume that investors think about the future and,

specifically about the future direction of short-term interest
rates. In this notion, we say that the observed Yield Curve
is, in a sense, secondary to what market players believe – in
their minds – future short-term yields will be. If, as in the
mathematical example below, market participants believe
that future short-term yields will go higher and higher,
then the observed yield curve will reflect this collective
belief and be positive in slope – and vice versa. In other
words, the Yield Curve reflects market participants’ a pri­
ori beliefs.

What makes this interesting is that while we can directly

observe the Yield Curve – after all, it is quoted in the
media, and by traders and brokers – it is first the unex-
pressed thoughts and beliefs about the direction of future
short-term rates that determine the Yield Curve’s openly
397
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 398

expressed slope. We know what is in the public’s minds

regarding the future by observing the effect of their collec-
tive thought on the slope and shape of the “Yield Curve.”
The Yield Curve expresses what people think about the
future!

Similarly, the observed Yield Curve – mathematically –

will express the average of market participants’ expecta-
tions about the course of future short-term rates. For exam-
ple, standing here today, in the here and now, and assuming
first that the investor’s horizon is two years, the investor
is faced with two choices: (1) Buy a two-year bond, or (2)
Buy a one-year bond and “roll it over” for another year
when it comes due at the end of the first year.

Given this line of thinking, if his horizon is three years, an

investor can buy a three-year bond, or choose to consecu-
tively roll it over twice. If we assume initially that the two
choices in each case should be and are equivalent, we can
extrapolate the investor’s beliefs about the “Spot Curve,”
i.e., the market’s collective belief about future short-term
rates, from the Yield Curve, working backwards. Let’s clar-
ify by mathematical illustration.

Here is an example of how we may calculate “Spot Rates,”

or the “Spot Curve” given the Yield Curve (“Market Y-T-
M”).
399 Kenneth S. Bigel

Question:

“x” and “y” represent the future short-term rates that market play­
ers anticipate. Specifically, “x” represents the rate for the second
period. Likewise, “y” represents the rate for the third period.
Working backwards from the observed Yield Curve, what are the
values for the two unknowns? Again, we must assume that the two
alternatives are equivalent. This mathematical process, by the way,
is referred to as “Boot Strapping.”

Solution:

(1.08)2 = (1 + .07) (1 + x)
x = .09009 where, x = 2r1 (i.e., the one-year rate in the
second year)

The two alternatives – that of buying (or lending) a two-

year instrument or buying (or lending) a one-year instru-
ment and rolling it over at the end of the first year –
must be viewed as equivalent alternatives if this idea were
to work. And it does because should one alternative be
superior, rational, smart market players would go for that
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 400

one, and the market’s efficient self-correcting mechanism

would drive the alternatives together.

This is known as the Law of One Price. This “law” says

that if two equal alternatives are present, they must offer
the same price or, in this case, yield. If one of the choices
were more attractive, investors would choose that one, dri-
ving up the price and lowering the yield. They would sell
the other, which would have, in the end, an equal and oppo-
site effect. While we have used here the term “investors,”
this argument refers to the activities of both borrowers and
lenders, in fact.

You should be able to draw these two curves (i.e., both the
YTM Yield Curve and Spot Curve, given the calculated
values of “x” and “y”) on a chart, with the yield on the
vertical and the years-to-maturity on the horizontal. Note
that after the first year, the two curves diverge, with the
Spot Curve, in this example, rising above the Yield Curve,
pulling it upward. Investors expect future, short-term rates
to increase! Of course, if the Yield Curve is inverted (neg-
atively sloped), the spot curve would be lower that it and
we would conclude that future, short-term rate expectations
are decreasing.

As for the nomenclature noted above, and more formally

speaking, “2r1” means the “spot rate” starting at the begin-
ning of the second period for the length of one period,
while “3r1“starts at the beginning of the third period for one
period’s length.

Again, and in summary, why does this math work? This is

based on two notions: first, that market players are “ratio-
nal,” and make optimal decisions that maximize their
wealth; second, that markets react “efficiently” to a per-
401 Kenneth S. Bigel

ceived mispricing should the two opportunities not be

equivalent. Together, these two concepts (i.e., Rational
Expectations and Efficient Markets) act in unison and
cause the alternatives to be equivalent at present. What will
actually happen tomorrow is another story.

Under this Pure Expectations Theory, we say that the Yield

Curve has no a priori upward (positive) or downward (neg-
ative; inverted) bias. The slope of the Yield Curve simply
reflects whether people think rates will be going up or
down and will acquire its slope accordingly. The observed
Yield Curve’s slope thus is a consequence of Pure Expec-
tations.

2. Liquidity Preference – Investors prefer Liquidity to

illiquidity.

Investors prefer to be liquid at all times in order to have the

freedom to choose whether to spend or invest their funds.
Don’t we all want to be free? Should investors choose to tie
up their money in an investment, they would demand to be
compensated for the illiquidity that comes with investment.
Should they tie up their money longer and longer, they
would demand that they be increasingly compensated, in
terms of higher yield, for their increasing illiquidity. Under
this theory, therefore, we conclude that the Yield Curve
would have a notable upward bias.

The theories of Pure Expectations and Liquidity Preference

are said to work hand-in-hand. When we get both theories
working in the same direction, that is, when the Spot Curve
is positive, we get a positively sloped Yield Curve. How-
ever, if Pure Expectations are such that market participants
believe that future short-term rates will decline, the slope
will be determined by which force is greater than the other
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 402

– whether Pure Expectation outweighs Liquidity Prefer-

ence or not. The following formula expresses this theoreti-
cal notion:

(1.07) (1 + x + L) = (1.08)2

While we can measure “x,” i.e., the spot rates, and have just
done so, the Liquidity Preferences (L) of the market are not
measurable.

There are two more theories to go.

3. Market Segmentation – different segments of the yield

curve attract different issuers and investors and are thus
subject to varying supply/demand conditions respectively.
These conditions will determine the independent slopes of
each segment.

In Market Segmentation Theory, we say that participants

generally invest or borrow in limited portions or “seg-
ments” of the market. Commercial Banks invest very little
in the long-term whereas Pension Funds are heavily
invested there. Different players tend to “reside” in differ-
ent “segments.”

Given this segmentation, rates within it would be a func-

tion of the supply and demand characteristics of each indi-
vidual segment, separately and alone. Any changes in a
particular maturity’s yield would not affect any other seg-
ment, or rate, for any other maturity. There would, thus,
be no ex-ante bias whatsoever for the slope of the Yield
Curve. In fact, the Yield Curve could conceivably have
multiple kinks.

4. Preferred Habitats – Market Segmentation may be

403 Kenneth S. Bigel

altered by yield incentives whereby investors and borrow-

ers may be lured away from their Preferred Habitats.

Preferred Habitats Theory comes to the rescue! Maybe.

This theory says that yes, players indeed have their pre-
ferred segments, or habitats, but they (i.e., both lenders and
borrowers) can be lured away from their preferred habitats
if interest rates are attractive enough – low enough for bor-
rowers and high enough for investors.

YOU decide!
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 404

13.9 Credit Spreads

Credit Spreads represent the incremental yield provided

to compensate for additional default risk above a no-risk
alternative (Treasury Notes), and for a given maturity –
usually 10-years. We have drawn in the yield curves for
Treasuries and “B”-rated Corporates. The Credit Spread
below is represented by the difference in yields between
points “B” and “T.” Remember that the lower the credit
rating, the higher the default risk. A greater default
risk means a lower dollar price, which, in turn, means a
higher yield.

Remember that that the lower the credit rating, the

higher the default risk. A greater default risk means a
lower dollar price, which, in turn means a higher yield.

Questions:

Which companies issue credit ratings?

What are the important credit ratings?

404
405 Kenneth S. Bigel

What do “Investment Grade” and “Junk” or “High-Yield”

Bonds mean?

Reality Check: Credit spreads are not constant. During

weak economic periods, credit spreads widen, in response
to fear – but not necessarily the reality – of the perceived
risks associated with lower-rated bonds. In fact, default
rates themselves may not worsen, but still, people get ner-
vous. In such times, people demand more premium return
versus Treasuries than before.

How exactly does this happen? Many will sell their lower-
rated bonds and buy safer Treasuries with the sale pro-
ceeds. Lower-rated bonds’ prices therefore fall and their
yields rise; Treasury prices will thus rise, and yields will
go down. Credit spreads widen. Remember that price and
yield (i.e., discount rates) are inversely related. This does
not say that actual credits, i.e., default risks, have wors-
ened; that may or may not eventually happen. A bond
may be considered a “credit.” This phenomenon – whereby
credit spreads widen – is referred to as a flight to quality.

Below we illustrate the flight to quality.

The Flight to Quality

Yields
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 406

Above, in anticipation of weak times ahead, Credit

Spreads widen from B0 less T0 to B1 less T1. That
does not imply that default rates have worsened
in reality, although, in time, as conditions worsen,
that could happen as well.
When rates increased between 1978 and 1982, the
spread between (Ten-Year) Treasuries and Baa
Corporate Bonds widened. Baa and BBB bond­
holders lost money in part due to increased rates
and, in addition, due to a widening of the spread
(such bondholders would have lost less in Trea­
suries).
Credit spreads were wide when the technology
“bubble” burst in 2000-2001. Greater credit
spreads reduce corporations’ ability to borrow and
thus serve to dampen economic growth.
Just prior to the Banking Crisis of 2007-2008, Credit
Spreads were very narrow by historical standards. To some
prognosticators, the optimism implicit in such narrow
407 Kenneth S. Bigel

spreads boded ill for near-term economic conditions. They

were right.

Many things can happen that may interact with credit

spreads, including moves up or down in the entire yield
curve. What is important to recognize, at the base level, is
that lower grade bonds – and their yields – are (usually)
priced relative to Treasuries, i.e., at some premium to Trea-
sury yields. The lower the credit rating, the greater the
impact of “nervousness” on yield.

For a graph of historical credit spreads, click on: Bond

Yield Credit Spreads – 150 Year Chart | Longtermtrends
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 408

13.10 High Yield Securities: Junk Bonds

and Other Speculative Securities

The phrase “junk bonds” is a bit unfair because no rational

person would throw out something of value, as s/he might
do with something that is truly “junk.” Even bonds in
default may have some monetary value greater than zero.
High yield securities merely have lower credit ratings and
therefore higher yields.

In 1978, there was less than $10 billion worth of junk

bonds outstanding – in terms of aggregate face value. In
2006, this figure exceeded $1 trillion! Whereas in the past,
most issues consisted of “fallen angels,” or securities
issued by corporations that once enjoyed investment grade
credit ratings, but fell on hard times, today most junk bonds
are originally issued as high yield securities. Further,
emerging markets the world over add to new issuance; the
prospective high returns attract many investors.

This low-grade security growth has precipitated two other

interesting phenomena: the markets for “syndicated loans”
and “leveraged loans.” Syndicated loans are package deals
provided often by investment banks rather than commer-
cial banks, which traditionally have made such large loans.
These loans are aggregated and packaged, and then “secu-
ritized,” that is, sold as securities. Many of these bonds
went bad in the 2007-2008 Banking Crisis. A leveraged
loan is one which is made to companies that already may

408
409 Kenneth S. Bigel

have low-grade bonds outstanding; such loans are then

often syndicated.

Distressed debt consists of junk bonds whose companies

are in such dire straits that their yields are substantially
higher than the risk-free rate. “Defaulted debt” represents
corporations who have defaulted on their bond issues. A
“default” may consist merely of the violation of its bank
lending agreement or its bond’s indenture, i.e., the legal
document, which sets forth all the terms of the loan, and
which may require that the issuer maintain its financial
ratios within certain parameters. It may also result, more
seriously, from a late or missed interest payment.

Vulture funds are often operated by

hedge funds and attempt to profit off the
Key remains of bankrupt corporations by pur­
Terms: chasing the defaulted bonds and repos­
sessing the company’s assets. The
vultures then sell off the assets at a profit.
Distressed
Typically, default rates increase as the
Debt
economy enters a recession. Default rates
Vulture are sometimes defined as the dollar
Funds amount of defaults relative to the aggre-
gate amounts outstanding. The credit rat-
ing agencies define default rates in
connection with the number of high-yield issuers who
default.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 410

13.11 Summary: Interest Rates, the

Corporation, and Financial Markets

Corporations are intimately connected with the financial

markets because the value of the corporation depends on
ever-changing prices reflected in the markets, and because
corporations periodically require access to the financial
markets in order to acquire capital for growth. In this chap-
ter, we outlined four financial markets: money, capital,
derivatives, and foreign exchange markets. The focus was,
of course, on securities markets, that is, the markets for
stocks and bonds. Securities markets, in turn, are connected
to the macroeconomic world, and monetary and fiscal poli-
cies are a key component of security markets analysis.

The means by which corporations gain access to the finan-

cial markets and its capital raising function is the subject of
investment banking. In particular, we are interested in new
securities’ issuance, or initial public offerings (IPOs), but
I-banking serves various other essential roles in our finan-
cial sector.

Interest rates affect securities’ valuations, most visibly

affecting bonds’ prices, but the impact on equities is
notable also. This is but one example of the connections
between macroeconomics and securities markets. In this
section, we also glanced at the interconnections between
interest rates of various sorts.

There is much to know.

410
411 Kenneth S. Bigel

Note:

Review questions for Chapters Twelve through Fourteen

will appear at the end of Chapter Fourteen.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 412

Chapter 14: Equity Valuation

and Return Measurement

412
413 Kenneth S. Bigel

14.1 Chapter Fourteen: Learning

Outcomes

Learning Objectives

In this chapter, you will:

• Calculate the prices of both Preferred and

Common Stocks, and Capital Gains using the
Dividend Discount Models.

• Explore the various approaches to stock valua-

tion.

• Uncover the various sub-elements within the

Dividend Discount Model.

• Provide both Annual Portfolio Returns and

Multi-year Geometric Returns.

413
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 414

14.2 The Philosophy of Equity

Valuation

Earlier, we read that “the value of an asset is equal to the

future cash flows the asset is expected to produce, dis-
counted and aggregated to its present value.” We refer to
this value or price as “intrinsic value.” This Valuation
Premise shall serve as the starting point for the valuation
(i.e., pricing) of equity.

In this section, we will commence with a simple example

of stock valuation, one which perfectly corresponds with
this statement. We shall then observe that the formulation
does not conform to, or is not applicable to, many, or
most, equity situations. For example, our starting point
will be the application of this TVM premise to Preferred
Stocks that have fixed dividends. However, what about
other stocks, whose dividends are not constant? For this
there will be another model, a variation on the original
model.

What about investors who buy stocks for capital growth

rather than income? In other words, what about investors
who do not care about dividends, but instead purchase
stocks for profit? Most American stocks pay no dividends
at all! What are such stocks worth? For that too, we shall
offer a further refinement of the original model.
414
415 Kenneth S. Bigel

To summarize, we shall systematically address shortcom-

ings in the initial model and progressively build more com-
prehensive and complex models, which encompass all, or
many “complaints” about the simplicity of the earlier mod-
els. Keep this in mind as we proceed down the equity valu-
ation path.

For most things are differently valued by those who

have them and by those who wish to get them:
what belongs to us, and what we give away, seems
very precious to us.

– Aristotle
Nicomachean Ethics, Book IX
(F. H. Peters translation)
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 416

14.3 Equity Valuation

We look at Equity Valuation from different perspectives.

• Going-Concern value sees the firm from a per-

petual operating perspective. It is an ongoing
concern that will produce EBIT (or EBITDA)
forever.

• Liquidation Value is diametrically opposed to

the going concern value. Here we imagine what
the firm’s assets would fetch were the firm to go
out of business and its assets liquidated, i.e.,
sold off to the highest bidders or available buy-
ers.

• Book Value (BV) represents the accountant’s

stated net (common) equity divided by the num-
ber of shares outstanding (NOSO).

• Relative Value compares a security to another

based on some shared or relative metric, such as
default risk.

416
417 Kenneth S. Bigel

• Market Value (P for Price per Share) is defined

as the market value of the firm’s equity. Markets
can misprice assets on occasion.

• Intrinsic Value (V) represents the “intrinsic” or

“internal” worth of the company based on finan-
cial analytic formulae and models. You may
think of this as what the shares are “really”
worth. Such formulae often rely on a discounted
cash flow paradigm, e.g., the DDM. The intrin-
sic value may differ from the market price,
thereby offering investors the opportunity to
purchase shares cheaply or sell the shares short,
if over-valued. Does V = P? If not, what advan-
tage does the investor have?

All the foregoing valuations may differ from one another.

In a perfectly efficient market, observed market prices
should equal intrinsic values.

Equity Valuation and the Macroeconomy

How we value the stock market now and in the

 Introduction to Financial Analysis 418

future influences major economic and social policy

decisions that affect not only investors, but society
at large, even the world. If we exaggerate the pre­
sent and future value of the stock market, then as a
society we may invest too much in business start-ups
and expansions, and too little in infrastructure, edu­
cation, and other forms of human capital. If we
think the market is worth more than it really is, we
may become complacent in funding our pension
plans, in maintaining our savings rate, in legislating
an improved Social Security system, and in provid­
ing other forms of social insurance. We might also
lose the opportunity to use our expanding financial
technology to devise new solutions to the genuine
risks – to our homes, cities, and livelihoods – that
we face.

-Irrational Exuberance by Robert J. Shiller

Preface, p. xii
(Princeton University Press, 2000)
419 Kenneth S. Bigel

14.4 The Dividend Discount Model

(DDM): Fixed Dividend or No- Growth
Version

We shall assume that the security’s Intrinsic Value (V) will

be equal to the market price (P), i.e., that P = V. Intrin­
sic value refers to what the security is “truly” worth. To
the extent that P ≠ V, one would be presented with the
opportunity to earn an extraordinary profit (by either buy­
ing cheaply or selling “richly”). Hereforward, we shall use
P rather than V, although you may see V used elsewhere.

A stock is a kind of perpetuity; the corporation, as a going

concern, is eternal. Dividends will be paid in perpetuity.
Unlike bonds, there is no face value to be paid at a spec-
ified time in the future. The only cash flows are the divi-
dends.

This formula says that the price of a stock is equal to its

aggregated discounted future cash flows, i.e., the dividends
discounted to present value. Since, for the moment we
assume that dividends are fixed (as in a preferred stock),
the foregoing, never-ending equation may be simplified
algebraically to the following (as was demonstrated for a
perpetuity, only the terms have been modified to accommo-
date stock):
419
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 420

This simplification works because of the “Law of Limits,”

discussed earlier in our TVM section. Interestingly, by
transposing, the above formula may be re-formulated as:

Note: D ÷P is the Dividend Yield!

While corporations pay dividends quarterly, the formula

looks at annual dividends. Recall that, in the case of a
perpetuity, discounting frequency has no effect on Present
Value.
421 Kenneth S. Bigel

14.5 The Dividend Discount Model

(DDM): Constant Growth Version

a.k.a. “The Gordon Model”

Of course, not all stocks pay fixed dividends. Let us take

a small step forward and assume that the dividend grows –
at a constant rate of growth. In this version of the Dividend
Discount Model (DDM), the constant dividend growth rate
is designated as “G”:

This formula is identical to a constant growth perpetuity.

The nomenclature was altered here in order to suit common
stocks. With some simple algebraic transposition, we can
re-formulate the DDM so as to isolate the discount rate to
one side:

421
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 422

Code: D0 = the last reported Annual Dividend (i.e., the

sum of the last four, quarterly dividends)

D1= D0(1 + G)

G = the imputed growth rate for dividends.

Note, interestingly, that this means that the discount rate is

equal to the sum of the dividend yield plus the growth rate
in dividends. This formulation presents a percentages view
on the model; all terms are percentages.

Note also that when G = 0, we have the “no-growth” ver-

sion of the DDM. If G > 0, we have the “Constant-Growth”
DDM. As discussed in the TVM section, R must exceed
G for both practical / financial and mathematical reasons.
Remember that when we speak of “growth,” we refer to
growth in dividends, which, in turn, comes from growth in
sales and profits.

Questions:
423 Kenneth S. Bigel

Given: R = .15 D = $1.50 G=0

1. What is the price?

2. What happens to P if R goes down?
3. What happens to P if G goes down?

Solutions:

1. P = ($1.50) / .15 = $10

2. Just as in the TVM, as the discount rate

decreases, present values (P) increase. So too
here!

3. “R – G” increases, and D1 decreases, both of

which result in, or cause, a lower price

Note:

This version of the DDM is a.k.a. “The Gordon Model,”

named after Myron Gordon. This idea is not without its
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 424

controversy or weaknesses, the discussion of which is

beyond our current scope.
425 Kenneth S. Bigel

14.6 Dividend Discount Model (DDM)

(Problems)

Let us now apply all that we learned regarding calculating

Price using the DDM. Solve the following problems. In
the course of doing so, explain why Price and Return (at
bottom) change from solution to solution.

425
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 426

Buy when there’s blood in the streets.

– Nathan Mayer Rothschild (1777-1836)

427 Kenneth S. Bigel

14.7 Dividend Discount Model

(Solutions)

The following table presents the solutions to the problems

on the prior page.

• As G increases, R – G decreases, and P

increases. G, as the growth rate in dividend, also
affects D1 (because D1 = D0 [1 + G]). As G
increases, so too does D1.

427
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 428

• So far, we have assumed that P = V, i.e., Market

Price = Intrinsic Value. If however, V > P, we
then have an unusual opportunity to achieve an
excess (“unearned”) return; if the opposite per-
tains, we should sell the stock – if we already
own it, or sell it short – if we are aggressive

Stock prices climb a wall of worry.

-Anonymous
429 Kenneth S. Bigel

14.8 What About Quarterly Dividends?

No doubt you have noticed that the Dividend Discount

Model, as so far presented, assumed that dividends are
paid annually. We all know that companies pay dividends
in quarterly payments. Does this difference in payment
frequency matter? Should we not employ the DDM using
quarterly payments? If dividends are paid quarterly, most
of the funds will arrive sooner. Is it not a basic principle of
the Time Value of Money that if the funds come in sooner
the present value is greater, and isn’t a stock’s price pre-
sent value? Ought that not affect the way we write the
formula?

To adjust for this, we modify the formula and arrive at the

following, using the simpler no-growth version:

Price = (D / 4) ÷ [(1 + R)1/4 – 1]

To illustrate this, we shall assume that:

D = $1

R = 0.10

When we calculate based on annual dividends, we get:

P+D/R

P = 1 ÷ 0.10 = $10

429
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 430

When we calculate based on quarterly dividends, we get:

P = (D / 4) ÷ [(1 + R)1/4 –1]

P = (1 / 4) ÷ [(1.10)1/4 –1] = $10.37

This value is substantially higher!

On Speech and Deed

On Accurate Speech

Speak clearly, if you speak at all: carve every word

before you let it fall.

-Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr.

Justice of the Supreme Court

Speak softly and carry a big stick.

-Theodore Roosevelt

President of the United States

431 Kenneth S. Bigel

… a sage weighs his words carefully…. Every argu­

ment and opinion expressed by the Sages is subject
to close scrutiny. The same is true for their actions.

-Rabbi Adin Even-Israel Steinsaltz

Reference Guide to the Talmud, p. 124 (2014)

The noble man is modest in his speech, but exceeds

in his actions.

-Confucius

I sez what I means and I means what I sez.

-Popeye
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 432

Famous Sailor And Philosopher

On Accuracy in Deed

Simon Says.

-Source and date unknown

433 Kenneth S. Bigel

14.9 Components of the Dividend

Discount Model

The DDM formula contains several variables whose values

must be ascertained in order to solve for Price (P). Here is
the formula (again).

P = [D0 (1 + G)] ÷ (R – G)

= D1 ÷ (R – G)

The variables are:

Price = Intrinsic Value

We must solve for “P.” The market price (P) will equal the
security’s intrinsic value (V) if the security is efficiently –
or correctly – priced in the market. That is what we are try-
ing to uncover with the formula. We will assume here that
P = V.

The Last Annual Dividend

433
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 434

D0 is the prior year’s dividend, and is thus a known, histor-

ical fact. D1 is the next dividend.

Next Year’s Dividend

Next year’s dividend depends on our expected dividend

growth rate, “G.”

D1= D0 ×(1 + G)

Growth Rate in the Dividend

The dividend’s growth rate is defined as:

G = (D1÷ D0) – 1

However, we do not know D1, the next year’s dividend.

Therefore, we need a formula for “G.” Here, is the non-
intuitive formula for G.

G = ROE × RR

ROE = Return-on-Equity = (NI ÷ Eq.)

RR = Retention Rate = (NI – D ÷ NI) = (A.R.E. ÷ NI)

A.R.E. = Addition to Retained Earnings = NI – D

Therefore:

G = (NI ÷ Eq.) (A.R.E. ÷ NI)

G = (A.R.E.) ÷ Eq.
435 Kenneth S. Bigel

The “G,” which we formulated above represents the

growth rate of the firm’s Equity and not of the Dividend!
We must demonstrate that the two growth rates are the
same. We will examine “G” more closely below and intro­
duce “R.”
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 436

14.10 A Closer Look at Dividend

Growth

In order to fully understand the “g” term in the dividend

discount model, a term which is not intuitive, let us have a
closer look. (As you go through this example, keep in mind
that, as the company retains earnings the balance sheet gets
“bigger.”) We are given the following information about a
company:

If:

Then:

Given this information, G = (ROE) × (RR) = (.10)

× (.90) = .09. By definition, G, the growth rate in
the dividend, must also be defined, far more simply,
as: G = [(D1) ÷ (D0)] – 1. This simple formula is
readily understood. Remember that G = ARE / NI,
436
437 Kenneth S. Bigel

or the rate at which the Equity grows. Take note

that, here, we have assumed that G, ROE, and RR
are constants.
Let’s see if the two formulae work out to be the
same; if so, we will therefore also know that the
“G = (ROE) (RR)” formula makes sense, given the
same data. Let’s see first how the simple formula,
G = [(D1) ÷ (D0)] – 1, works out using an account­
ing–type (i.e., chronological) approach.

This gets us the same result – as it should! (In fact, we

could not have known the value of D1 had we not had the
first formulation!) This notion assumes that the retention
rate (and payout ratio), dividend growth rate, and ROE are
constants. You’ll note that the equity is growing at the same
rate of 9%. This latter table says that if we earn and retain
earnings, we will be able to pay out more money in dollars
as dividends later.

To assist you with the above formulae:

(EQ) (ROE) = (EQ) (NI / EQ) = NI and

(NI) (PR) = (NI) (D/NI) = D

 Introduction to Financial Analysis 438

14.11 Summary of DDM Variables'

Sources

Buy low, sell high.

438
439 Kenneth S. Bigel

-Bernard Baruch (1870 – 1965)

To buy when others are despondently selling and to

sell when others are greedily buying requires the
greatest fortitude and pays the greatest reward

-Sir John Templeton

 Introduction to Financial Analysis 440

14.12 Value Prediction Problem

You are given the following information:

• Next year’s projected EPS for the S&P 500 =

$132 per share
• The dividend growth rate has been = 0.04
• The risk-free rate = 0.025 (either the T-Bill or
the 10-Year Note, your choice)
• The MRP (Market Risk Premium) = 0.06
• The Return-on-Equity has been = 0.11.

Using the data given, what is the value for the S&P (per
share) for next year?

Solution Plan:

Let’s use the DDM!

First, write out the DDM formula first to see what variables
you already have and which are missing.

P0= [D1÷ (R – G)]

Then, in no necessary order:

1.G = (ROE) (RR)

440
441 Kenneth S. Bigel

2. 0.04 = (0.11) (RR)

3. RR = 0.36

4. PR = 1 – RR

5. PR = 1 – 0.36 = 0.64

6. D = (EPS) (PR)

7. D1 = [($132) (0.64] = $84.48

8. R = RF+ MRP = 0.025 + 0.06 = 0.085

9. P0= D1÷ (R – G)

10. P0 = $84.48 ÷ (0.085 – 0.04) = $1,877

 Introduction to Financial Analysis 442

14.13 A Qualitative Look at The

Discount Rate

The discount rate, or “R,” for the market (RM) or for a

company’s stock (RS) is a variable, which itself is deter­
mined by general market levels of interest rates, the
default risk of the company’s bonds, and credit spreads.

R = f (general levels of interest rates, default risk, credit

spreads)

General levels of interest rates: All interest rates are inter-

related. In general, if rates go up for a base rate, such as
Treasuries, other rates will follow.

Default risk: If a company’s bond default risk increases, the

dividend on preferred stock will also be less secure. Dis-
count rates on “Preferreds” will go up and prices will go
down. So too will the discount rate and price of common
equity follow. The company’s ability to pay common stock
dividends and to retain additional earnings will be reduced.
Remember: Default risk, essentially, has to do with the
chance that a corporate borrower, or issuer of bonds, will
not pay the interest on its borrowings in full and on time.

Credit Spreads: We know that credit spreads reflect rate

differentials between, typically, 10-year Treasury Notes

442
443 Kenneth S. Bigel

and 10-Year B-rated Corporates. However, we can create

spreads between Notes and anything, such as discount rates
on “Preferreds.” Thus, spreads may be observed between
T-Notes, Preferred-, and Common-Stock Returns. And we
already know that spreads narrow or widen according to
economic circumstances and outlooks. If spreads widen,
required stock returns will go up and prices will go down.

These three variables, when aggregated, will constitute the

stock’s risk (β). “R” can be stated (again) formulaically:

RM = RF + MRP

MRP = Market Risk Premium = RM – RF

RM = RF + (RM – RF) βM

The Market Return (RM) equals the Risk-free Rate (RF)

plus a Market Risk Premium.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 444

A specific portfolio’s or security’s return (RPor RS) will

equal the Risk-free Rate (RF) plusa Market Risk Premium
(RM– RF), adjusted for the relative risk (βS) of the portfo­
lio. βP (portfolio risk) or βS (individual security risk) can be
equal to, greater than, or less than the Market’s Risk level
(βM). Thus, we can also speak of a “Portfolio Risk Pre­
mium” (RP– RF). We can substitute “RS” for “RP” at the
individual stock level and use “RS” as the discount rate in
the DDM.
445 Kenneth S. Bigel

14.14 Business Ethics: The Small

Investor's Experience of Insider Trading

We have just completed a discussion of the elements in

securities’ valuation. Some individuals try to get an upper
hand in their stock selections by engaging in illegal activi-
ties. The following is a salient example.

“Insider Trading” has to do with the personal use of mate-

rial nonpublic information about the future prospects of
a company – whether good or bad, in order to garner
an unearned profit by trading its securities ahead of any
public announcements regarding the pertinent information.
An “insider” is an employee, a relative, or friend of an
employee. Insider trading, in the United States, is illegal.
Don’t even think of it.

Is such trading, from a moral point of view, fair or not? Is

it fair that an insider may have an exploitable advantage
to enrich himself/herself? Is the law “correct” in making
it illegal? Imagine the scenario below and respond to the
questions that follow:

Suppose we focus on three parties to a series of transac-

tions on a security at a point in time. Mr. X is interested
in selling 1,000 shares of ABC corporation; Mr. Y is inter-
ested in purchasing 1,000 shares; Mr. Z, an informed cor-
porate insider, is interested in purchasing a large block of
the stock. Messrs. X and Y are small investors each of
whom has personal reasons for engaging in the transaction.

445
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 446

In a normal market, X would sell to Y at the current price.

Both parties would be satisfied at having engaged in the
transaction. However, Mr. Z holds some critical informa-
tion concerning the very favorable portents of the shares
and wants to buy before the word gets out. His bid causes
the share price to rise and thus Mr. X gets a higher price
than he may have otherwise received, all else equal. No
harm done.

Due to the rise in share price, Mr. Y pays more than he

may have otherwise. Such possible harm may be overcome
by the pending rise of the shares once the information is
announced. The slight short-term harm is overcome by the
longer-term profits Mr. Y shall earn. Mr. Y may nonethe-
less feel harmed.

However, had Mr. X known about the pending release of

favorable information, he may have either waited before
selling or changed his mind completely about his decision
to sell. Mr. X may feel harmed.

Questions:

1. Justify Mr. Z’s insider trading on a moral basis.

2. Denounce Mr. Z’s trading – morally speaking.
3. What is your own view of Mr. Z’s trading? Find
a moral justification for your position – apart
from what you stated already.
447 Kenneth S. Bigel

Bottom Line: It is illegal. Don’t even think about it!

 Introduction to Financial Analysis 448

14.15 Capital Gains

It is interesting to note that, if G > 0, the model will auto­

matically generate capital gains. Here again is our for­
mula. Below is a problem whose resolution illustrates the
model’s automatic generation of capital gains.

Question:

Formula:
P0 = [D0 (1 + G)] / (R – G)

P0 = D1 / (R – G)

Given:

D0 = $1 The Last Dividend

R = 10% The Discount Rate

G = 5% The Dividend’s Constant

Growth Rate

448
449 Kenneth S. Bigel

What is the price today?

What would the price be in one year?

Solution:

Price Today:

P0= $1 (1 + .05) / (.10 – .05)

= 1.05 / .05
= $21

Price in One-Year:
P1 = D2 / (R – G)
P1 = $1.05 (1 + .05) / (.10 – .05)
= 1.1025 / .05
= $22.05

We observe that $22.05 / $21 = 1.05. That is to say that

next year’s price will be greater than last year’s by 5%, or
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 450

the same as the stock’s growth rate (again, assuming a con-

stant pay-out ratio).

We often say that a stock is “ahead of itself,” if the rate

of growth in price exceeds the dividend – or earnings –
growth rate (assuming a constant pay-out ratio).

Capital Gains, Dividend Growth: Some Practice

Problems

The following should help summarize some relevant con-

cepts.

1. Complete the empty cells, given the data noted below

for a stock. The basic formula for the Dividend Discount
Model is:

P0= [(D0) (1 + G)] ÷ [R – G]

451 Kenneth S. Bigel

2. Once again, complete the spreadsheet, given the data

noted for a particular stock.
Given:

Solve:

• Explain, in words, what is meant by the term,

“G,” in question #2.

• Assuming G is a constant (question #1), P0 (1 +

G) = P1.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 452

Capital Gains, Dividend Growth: Some Practice

Problems (Solutions)

Problem 1:

Problem 2:
453 Kenneth S. Bigel

14.16 Portfolio Return (Weighted

Averages)

Now that we know all about individual bond and stock

returns, what about portfolios of securities? A portfolio is
a collection of individual securities.

If the market values of the portfolio’s constituent securities

were the same, the portfolio weights would be equal, and
the simple arithmetic- and weighted-averages would be
the same. In calculating the simple arithmetic return, one
would take the observed returns and divide by the number
of observations. Here, the weights are unequal, so we must
employ a weighted average calculation as below.

Example: Calculate the (historical or expected) weighted

average return for the following portfolio, which consists
of three securities (A, B, and C) and has the market values
and individual returns as noted.

453
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 454

Note: Portfolio risk is not simply a weighted-average of

the portfolio constituents’ respective risks – due to “covari-
ance” among securities.

Portfolio Return (Solution to Problem)

Solution (table form):

Solution (by formula):

RP= 1/6 (.10) + 1/3 (.12) + 1/2 (.16) = 0.1367

455 Kenneth S. Bigel

Short-cut solution:

RP= [(100) (.10) + (200) (.12) + (300) (.16)] ÷ 600 =

0.1367

In the short-cut solution, we do not take the weights first.

Instead, we multiply the dollar values by each expected
return and, at the end, divide by the entire portfolio value.

The 0.1367 return means that the investment would

increase by 13.67% in one year. If you had invested
$1,000, after one year’s time, you would have one thousand
dollars plus $136.70 for a total of $1,136.7. Some of the
return, presumably, would come from income (rent, inter-
est, or dividends) and some from capital growth (price
appreciation). The constituent security returns, as given
here, were themselves represented without any further
detail as to the breakdown of income and growth portions.

If the weights had all been equal (i.e., .3333, in this case),
we could have calculated a simple average by adding the
sum of the returns and dividing by (n =) 3. In other words,
a simple average implies equal weights.

If one of the constituent security’s returns were negative,

we would of course get a different result. Let us say that
the return on Security “A” were -.10, rather than positive.
In this case, the portfolio return would be:

RP = 1/6 (-.10) + 1/3 (.12) + 1/2 (.16) = .1033

 Introduction to Financial Analysis 456

Another way in which we could have calculated this would

have been as follows:

0.1367 – (2) (.0167) = .1033

457 Kenneth S. Bigel

14.17 The Geometric Average Return:

Multi-year Returns

Generally, we quote return in annual terms. In order to

calculate the return for multiple years, we must arrive at a
reasonable, average annual return figure.

Suppose you observe the following three (historical or pro-

jected) annual returns:

.10 .25 .35

The simple, arithmetic average return would be:

[.10 + .25 + .35] ÷ 3 = .2333

For the average to be valid in terms of the time value of

money, its future value should equal the product of the
three observations. However,

(1.2333) 3≠ (1.10) (1.25) (1.35)

Again, the conceptually correct average must be consistent

with the time value of money and its “(1 + R) n” format. By
modifying the line above and asking what the correct aver-
age rate, “R,” should be, we arrive at:

(1 + R) 3= (1.10) (1.25) (1.35)

(1 + R) = [(1.10) (1.25) (1.35)] 1/3

R = [(1.10) (1.25) (1.35)] 1/3 – 1

457
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 458

R = .228981

Thus, the average multi-period return is 0.2290. This cal-

culation is referred to as the “geometric average” and is
consistent with the manner in which we do the time value
of money. The general notation for this formula requires
the use of product summationnotation – “Π” (as opposed
to using the usual sigma summation notation, Σ). The nota­
tion reads as follows:

Geometric Average = [Π (1 + Ri) 1/n] – 1

Question: What would this average be if the 10% observa-

tion were negative?

Answer: 0.1495. How did you get this?

Note: Should there be a negative return in the mix as above,

the same method should be used as always. The follow-
ing should make common sense. For example, should one
experience a 50% loss and a 100% gain in consecutive
years, the geometric average return would be: [(1 +
{-0.50}) × (1 + 1)] ½ – 1 = 0.0.

Had you instead calculated the simple average, you would

have gotten: [(-0.50) + (1.0)] ÷ 2 = 25%. That cannot be
correct!
459 Kenneth S. Bigel

14.18 Chapters 12-14: Review

Questions

Chapters 12 – 14: Review Questions

1. How are the Return to the Investor and Cost to the Issuer
related?

2. What is the cost of debt? Are taxes included? What is the

relevant formula?

3. What is meant by “Technical Default”?

4. What are the two elements in the Cost of (Common)

Equity Capital?

5. The investors’ “Required Return on Equity” (RM) con-

sists of what elements?

6. What is meant by “Market Risk Premium”?

7. What is meant by “Portfolio Risk Premium”?

8. What is meant by “Rational Expectations”?

9. Define each of the following Risks:

• Liquidity

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 Introduction to Financial Analysis 460

• Credit
• Inflation
• Sovereign / Country / Political
• Foreign Currency
With respect to Inflation Risk, utilize the phrases
“Nominal” and Real” properly.

10. How are Price and Reinvestment Risks related?

Explain.

11. Who are the two major credit rating agencies?

12. Do the agencies agree with one another on all ratings?

Explain.

13. What is the difference between “Investment Grade” and

“High-yield”?

14. How do credit ratings relate to default risk?

15. To what do “Indenture” and “Covenants” refer?

16. What is a “lien”? What relevance does it have to bonds?

17. What two variables are depicted on the “Yield Curve,”

and on what axes are they depicted?

18. If the bond category is not stated on the Yield Curve,

what is the default option?

19. Define “Liquidity Preference.” What impact does this

concept have on the “normal” slope of the Yield Curve?
461 Kenneth S. Bigel

20. What is meant by an “Inverted” Yield Curve? Why does

it come about? How long does it usually last?

21. Discuss each of the four Yield Curve theories.

22. Observed rates are stated below. Fill in the Spot Rates.
Graph it.

23. Draw in a fictitious Yield Curve for Treasuries of your

liking. Then, draw in a B-rated Corporate Bond Yield
Curve. Posit a Credit Spread for the Ten-year bonds.

24. Using the graph you drew in the prior question, show
how Credit Spreads may expand or contract.

25. Why do Credit Spreads expand and contract?

26. What is meant by a “Flight to Quality”?

27. Define the three forms of income. To which financial

instruments does each refer?

28. Explain the “Valuation Premise.”

29. Calculate the “Holding Period Return” (HPR), given the

following:

• Initial cost: $12 million

• Income over holding period: $1.3 million
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 462

• Sale Price: $11 million

30. What is the key deficiency of the HPR?

31. Define each of the following. Can you find another

name for each?

• Face Value
• Coupon

• Market Yield
32. What is meant by “Par, Discount. and Premium”? Why
are bonds priced one or the other of these ways?

33. Given the following, calculate the price of this bond?

Your answer should be stated in percentage terms.

• Coupon: 4%
• Term-to-maturity: 10 Years

• Discounting Frequency: Semi-annual

• Yield-to-maturity: 8%
34. What would be the price for the bond in the prior ques-
tion if its coupon were 0%? Explain in words why the price
is higher or lower.

35. Why does compounding frequency matter in pricing

bonds?

36. What two variables determine a bond’s market yield?

Explain your terms.

37. Why may it be said that the “true” price of a bond is its
Market Yield and not its dollar price?
463 Kenneth S. Bigel

38. Is it reasonable to ascribe the Valuation Premise to equi-

ties, or just to bonds? Why?

39. Define each of the following terms relative to equity

valuation:

• Going-concern Value
• Liquidation Value

• Book Value
• Market Value
• Intrinsic Value
• Relative Value
40. Why are equities so important to our Macroeconomy?

41. Given the following, calculate the stock’s Intrinsic

Value, and its current and prospective Dividend Yield.

• Last Dividend = $3.20

• Discount Rate = 8%
• Growth Rate = 3.5%
42. In addition to a mathematical explanation, why must a
stock’s discount rate exceed its dividend growth rate?

43. What categories of equity are best suited to the no-

growth and constant growth Dividend Discount Models
(DDM)?

44. Does it matter that the DDM is based on yearly divi-

dends when stocks pay dividends quarterly? Explain.
 Introduction to Financial Analysis 464

45. You are given the following. Calculate the stock’s divi-
dend growth rate.

• Common Equity = $100 million

• Return on Equity = 10%

• Number of Common Shares Outstanding = 5

million
• Payout Ratio = 20%
46. If the Equity Discount Rate in the prior question is
10%, what is the Intrinsic Value of the stock?

47. What will be next year’s price for this stock?

48. Explain each of the three variables that determine the

Equity Discount Rate.

49. What is the relationship between the growth rates of the

dividends and the price of the stock? Explain.

50. Given the following data, what is the expected portfolio

return? (Note the signs.)

51. Following are the annual returns for Joseph’s portfolio

for the last five years.
465 Kenneth S. Bigel

a. What are his arithmetic and annualized geometric

returns?

b. Does it matter that the data are not ordered

chronologically?

c. Why are the two measures related as such, i.e.,

where one is higher than the other? Which calcula-
tion is more conceptually accurate?

Solution to Question #22:

A = 1r1 = 2.0%

B = 2r1 = (1.02) (1 + B) = 1.0252

C = 3r1 = (1.02) (1.030024) (1 + C) = 1.03253

D = 4r1 = (1.02) (1.030024) (1.047687) (1 + D) = 1.044

E = 5r1 = (1.02) (1.030024) (1.047687) (1.062827) (1 + E)

= 1.03755