MODULE 3

COURSE TITLE: MAINTENANCE OF THE BODY: CARDIOVASCULAR AND RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

OVERVIEW
WEEKS 11-15 LEARNING OUTCOMES
This module provides an By the end of this module, you should be able to:
understanding of the
Cardiovascular and  Trace the pathway of blood through and from the
Respiratory Systems in relation heart.
 Name and explain the effects of various factors
to the performance of physical
involved in regulation of stroke volume and heart
activity and sustained rate.
involvement in an active and  Explain the role of the autonomic nervous system
in regulating cardiac output.
health lifestyle.
 Describe the structure and function of blood
vessels.
KEY TERMS  Explain the relationship among blood flow, blood
Cardiovascular system - refers pressure and resistance.
to the heart, blood vessels and  Explain the causes of cardiovascular diseases (e.g.
the blood. athero- arteriosclerosis, hypertension).
Respiratory system – The  Explain the mechanics of breathing.
integrated system of organs  Relate the following laws to the events of
involved in the intake and the inspiration and expiration: Boyle’s, Dalton’s and
exchange of oxygen and carbon Henry’s
dioxide between the body and  Describe how oxygen and carbon dioxide are
the environment and including
transported in the blood.
 Explain respiratory adjustments during exercise.
the nasal passages, larynx,
trachea, bronchial tubes, and the
lungs.
Aerobic – a process taking
place in the presence of oxygen
Anaerobic – a process taking
place with insufficient oxygen.

[Pick the date][Edition 1, Volume 1]

 course title: Maintenance of the body: cardiovascular and respiratory system

LESSON 1: REVIEW OF HEART STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

The following sections will help you review your

The interaction between the heart,
vascular and respiratory systems
knowledge about the structure and function of the 4
heart. This for you to describe and explain the events
of the cardiac cycle, linked to the conduction Respiratory system
Takes in O2 and removes CO2 in the
system of the heart. Lungs

Skeletal muscles require a good supply of oxygen

Heart
to supply the energy to perform physical activity. In Receives blood from lungs and
acting as a double pump forces the
figure 1 of this chapter shows that blood vessels of blood around vascular system to the
lungs and body tissues/muscles
the vascular system transport the oxygen in the
blood away from the heart. But where does the Vascular system
Blood and blood vessels which
force or pressure to circulate the blood around the transport and direct O2/CO2 to and
from the lungs, heart and body
body come from? This is the primary function of the O2 = oxygen
Body Tissues/muscles
CO2= carbon
heart. dioxide

The heart acts as a dual action pump – two

Figure. The interaction between the heart, vascular
separate pumps that work simultaneously to pump
and respiratory systems.
blood to two different destinations. The right side
1
pumps deoxygenated blood (indicated below in
blue) towards the lungs and the left side pumps
oxygenated blood (indicated below in orange
towards the rest of the body – see Figure 2)
Before we look further at how the heart works as
dual pump, it is essential to have a basic knowledge
of its structure in order to describe, understand and
explain how it functions.
The heart is located within the thoracic cavity,
underneath the ribs of the chest, and is the
approximate size of a clenched fist. Clench your
right fist and place your extended thumb on top of
your sternum. Your fist represents the approximate
size and location of your heart just left of center.

Figure. The Heart as left and right dual –action

pumps 2
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 course title: Maintenance of the body: cardiovascular and respiratory system

Internal and External Structure of the Heart

The heart consists of two pumps, separated by a

muscular wall called SEPTUM. The left and right
pumps each consist of two chambers, an atrium
and a ventricle, which make up the four chambers
of the heart.
The left and right atria are the upper, low-pressure
chambers that principally collect and store blood
before pumping it below into the left and right
ventricles. Having only to pump blood directly
below, to the ventricles, the muscular walls of the
atria are relatively thin compared with those of the
ventricles.
The left and right ventricles are the lower, high- Figure 3 The Internal/external structure of the heart
pressure chambers that generate the force/pressure
required to pump blood around the whole body. The points below show which blood vessels transport
The greater force generated requires a greater blood to/from the internal structures of the heart
contraction, therefore the muscular walls of 1. SUPERIOR/INFERIOR VENA CAVA –
ventricles are thicker than the atria walls. deoxygenated blood from body to right
Similarly, the right ventricle only pumps blood to the atrium
lungs, whereas the left ventricle pumps blood 2. PULMONARY ARTERY – deoxygenated blood
around the whole body and consequently the left from the right ventricle to the lungs
ventricle has a thicker muscular wall than the right 3. PULMONARY VEINS (x 4) – oxygenated blood
one. from lungs to the left atrium
4. AORTA – oxygenated blood from left ventricle
Heart Valves to whole body
5. CORONARY ARTERIES – left and right branches
Four one-way valves are situated within the heart from the aorta encircle and supply the heart
and function to: muscle with oxygen and glucose.
 Control the forward direction of blood flow 6. CORONARY VEINS - Alongside the
through the heart coronary arteries, drain deoxygenated blood
Prevent the backflow of blood within the heart directly back into the right atrium via the
chambers coronary sinus
Two atrioventricular (AV) valves separate the atria
from the ventricles. The right AV valve is called Tasks 2
TRICUSPID VALVE and the left AV valve, the BICUSPID 1. Suggest reasons why the heart never fatigues.
VALVE. The two remaining valves are called the
SEMILUNAR (SL) valves. The right SL valve is called the
PULMONARY VALVE, and exits the right ventricle into 2. Does the heart work aerobically or
the pulmonary artery. The left SL valve, called the
3

anaerobically?
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AORTIC VALVE, exits the left ventricle into the aorta.

 course title: Maintenance of the body: cardiovascular and respiratory system

and the path of the cardiac impulse through the

TASK 3 heart. Follow this path with the numbers below that
Imagine you are a red blood cell returning to the correspond to those in Figure 4.
aorta from the superior/inferior vena cava. Describe
the structural features you pass through on route.
Include where you are and what you are carrying.

Figure 4 This shows the location of the structures

involves in the conduction system, and the path of
the cardiac impulse through the heart.

The cardiac impulse is initiated from the sinoatrial

(SA) node (1) located in the posterior wall of the
right atrium and is often termed the pacemaker. The
impulse travels through the left and right atrial walls
(2) causing both atria to contract. The ventricles are
HEART’S CONDUCTION SYSTEM LINKED TO THE insulated from the atria and cannot be stimulated at
CARDIAC CYCLE
this point. The cardiac impulse reaches and

Now that you have reviewed the structural activates the AV node (3) in the right atrium which
features of the heart, it is time to look at how the passes the impulse down into the Buddle of His (4)

heart functions as a dual action pump. You have a located with the septum of heart.

basic understanding that each individual pump of The AV node actually helps delay the impulse

represents one heartbeat, but the more technical allowing the contraction of the atria to finish before
term used is the cardiac cycle, that is the the ventricles begin to contract. The Buddle of His
mechanical events of one heartbeat. However, splits into left and right branches (5) and spreads the
because the heart generates its own electrical impulse down to the bottom of the heart and then
impulse to control these mechanical events, we up and around the walls of both the ventricles’ walls
need to consider the electrical conduction system via a network of Purkinje fibers (6), causing both
first. ventricles to contract. The ventricles relax and the
CONDUCTING SYSTEM cycle is repeated with the next cardiac impulse
The electrical impulse responsible for stimulating the initiated from the SA node.
heart to control is called the cardiac impulse. Check out this website and watch the
4

Cardiac conducting system and understanding ECG,

The heart is said to be myogenic – it generates its
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Animation @ www.AlilaMedicalMedia.com /
own electrical impulse. Figure 4 shows the location conduction system of the heart @ youtube channel
of the structures involves in the conduction system,
 course title: Maintenance of the body: cardiovascular and respiratory system

DIASTOLE (0.5 secs)

SUMMARY
Task 4 OF
27
CARDIAC
1. Sketch a diagram of the heart and label its four CYCLE
1. Both atria fill with blood. AV valves
closed.
PHASES
chambers
2. Draw and number (in order) the structures
2. Atrial blood pressure rises above
involved in conducting the cardiac impulse through ventricular pressure.

the heart – use arrows to represent flow table.

3. Rising blood pressure forces AV valves

open and blood passively passes into
both ventricles. Semilunar valves close.

SYSTOLE (0.3 secs)

SYSTOLE (0.3 secs)

4. Both atria contract, actively forcing the remaining 28

atrial blood into ventricles
ATRIAL SYSTOLE

5. Semilunar valves remain closed.

6. Both ventricles contract increasing ventricular

pressure

7. Aortic and pulmonary valves forced open. AV valves

closed. VENTRICULAR
SYSTOLE

8. Blood forced out into: aorta to body tissues/muscle =

Stroke volume; pulmonary arteries to lungs. N.B. only
40/50% blood is ejected at rest during ventricular systole
(SV).

9. Diastole of the next cardiac cycle begins. Semilunar

valves close presenting backflow of blood from aorta
and pulmonary arteries.

CARDIAC CYCLE
The cardiac cycle represents the mechanical events
of one heartbeat. At rest, one complete cycle lasts RELATIONSHIP AND RESTING VALUES: HEART RATE,
0.8 seconds and is repeated approximately 72 times STROKE VOLUME AND CARDIAC OUTPUT
a minute. The cardiac cycle consists of two phases We have previously identified the primary function of
that represent the contraction and relaxation of the the heart as a dual action pump. But how can we
heart muscle. measure its performance and ability to pump and
1. DIASTOLE: lasting 0.5 seconds, represents the circulated blood around the body? Simple, measure
relaxation phase its output- how much blood the heart pumps out per
2. SYSTOLE: lasting 0.3 seconds, represents the minute. The output of blood is calculated by
contraction phase. measuring both the heart rate and volume of blood
pumped with each heartbeat (stroke volume)

Key terms: knowledge of how the heart rate and stroke volume

BRADYCARDIA – a resting interact is vital in measuring the performance of the

rate (HR) below 60 heart and in identifying how its adaptations to

HYPERTROPHY – increase sustained physical activity can lead to a more

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in size of heart muscle wall healthy lifestyle.

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 course title: Maintenance of the body: cardiovascular and respiratory system

HEART RATE (HR)

 Represent the number of times the heart CARDIAC OUTPUT
ventricles beat in one minute.  If you have understood the relationship
 The average resting HR is 70-72 beats per between SV and HR, your definition should
minute (bmp) read something like:
 Your approximate maximal HR is calculated THE VOLUME OF BLOOD EJECTED BY THE
by subtracting your age from 220. HEART VENTRICLES IN ONE MINUTE.
220 – Age = Max HR this is called your CARDIAC OUTPUT (Q) and
A low resting HR may indicate a high level of if you calculated the task above correctly you
aerobic/endurance fitness and highly trained should already know the average resting value is
endurance athletes have been reported to have a around 5 liters per minute (L/min).
HR as low as 28bpm.
 BRADYCARDIA - A resting heart rate (HR) The relationship between Q, SV and HR is
below 60, meaning slow HR; it is due to an summarized as follows:
increase in stroke volume due to its long Q = SV x HR
term adaptation ‘hypertrophy’ (L/min) = (ml per beat) x (beats per min)
 HYPERTROPHY – Increase in size of heart
muscle wall Task 6
If an athlete has a resting Q of 5ml/min, but a resting
STROKE VOLUME HR of 60, what is their resting SV? Suggest reasons to
 Blood ejected from heart ventricles every explain why SV has increased.
beat
 The volume of blood ejected each time a
ventricle contracts.
 In other words, SV is the difference in the
volume of blood in the ventricle, before and
after ventricle contraction.
Task 5
If we know the average resting HR is 70 to 72bpm
and SV is 70ml we can calculate a third volume by
multiplying the above two figures. Calculate this
figure and attempt to give a definition to describe
this volume.

Always remember that 1000ml = 1L. So, when

calculating blood volumes, always present figures of
1000ml and above in L/min, especially when
referring to Q.
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 course title: Maintenance of the body: cardiovascular and respiratory system

Task 7
1. Interpret the following in the table below
2. Suggest reasons as to how and why HR decrease
and SV increase in a trained athlete compared to a
untrained athlete.
Definition Number of ventricular Volume of blood Volume blood ejected
contractions in one ejected from heart in from the heart ventricles
minute one ventricular in one minute
contraction (beat)
Untrained 70bpm 70/72ml 5000ml (5 liters)
Trained 50bpm 100ml 5000ml (5 liters)

SV, HR and Q Response to Different Intensities of their maximal running speed. After this point, SV
Physical Activity values reach a plateau and this suggests that
maximal SV values are reached during sub-maximal
In the last section we looked at SV, HR and Q at rest, exercise (40%-60%). SV increases from values around
but what happens to them during exercise? When 70-80ml per beat at rest to maximal values of around
an athlete begins to cycle or run, their breathing 120-140ml per beat during exercise.
rate quickens, increasing their oxygen consumption
in response to the increasing demand of oxygen by
the working muscles. It is the role of the heart to
increase its output in order to boost the rate at
which oxygen is delivered to the working muscles.

Having identifies that Q is a product of SV and HR,

we now need to understand how they respond to
meet the increasing demand of oxygen, during
physical activity.

STROKE VOLUME RESPONSE TO EXERCISE SV response to increasing intensity

When an athlete starts running, their SV increases
linearly as their running speed/ intensity increases,
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The wine glass analogy will help you understand

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but only up to 40-60% of

how SV increase
 course title: Maintenance of the body: cardiovascular and respiratory system

However, their SV has already reached its plateau

(maximal value) during sub-maximal work, so what
happens to allow Q to increase further?

Task 8

Suggest reasons to explain why:

a. SV reaches maximal values during sub-maximal
work, and
b. SV may even decrease as heart rate increases
towards maximal levels.

To understand why SV increase, we need to identify Refer back to the timing of the cardiac cycle and
the factors that determine it. Put simply, SV is see if this helps your reasoning.
determined by the heart’s ability to fill and empty at
each beat.
1. The heart’s ability to fill is dependent upon:
 Venous Return – SV primarily increases due
to an increase in blood returning to the heart
(venous return)
 The ventricle’s ability to stretch further and
enlarge.
Together, these increase the filling capacity of the
heart and hence the EDV.
2. The heart’s capacity to empty is dependent
upon:
 A greater EDV provides a greater stretch on
the heart wall
 A greater stretch increase the force of
ventricular systole (contraction of ventricles).

Together this increase ventricular contractility which

almost completely empties the blood from the
ventricles, whereas, only 40-50% of the blood in the
ventricles is pumped out at rest. At rest, venous
return is lower and therefore less filling and emptying
takes place. HEART RATE RESPONSE TO EXERCISE
Let us continue the example of the runner above. If Before, during and after exercise HR is continually
the runner increases their running speed towards changing, but it may do any of the following
their maximal exercise intensity level, above 40 – depending upon the exercise undertaken. See
60%, they will need to increase their Q further. below figure which shows HR response to both sub-
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maximal and maximal exercise:

 course title: Maintenance of the body: cardiovascular and respiratory system

3. Complete the table here and plot your data onto

a graph.
Activity Hate Rate
supine (lying flat)
sitting
standing
light exercise

4. Describe changes in HR due to changes in body

HEART RATE RESPONSE TO EXERCISE
position from prone to exercising positions. Give
A Increase well above resting values even before
reasons to account for these changes.
exercise is started. This is termed the anticipatory rise
and is a result of the early release of adrenalin which
stimulates the SA node to increase HR.
B Increase as exercise intensity increase.
C Increase with intensity but slow down just prior to
maximal HR values.
D Decrease as exercise intensity decreases.
E Increase with intensity, but reach a plateau during
sub-maximal work and represent the optimal steady
state HR for meeting the demand for oxygen at the
specific intensity of work.
F Decrease rapidly, immediately after exercise stops
due to a decrease in the demand for oxygen by the
working muscles.
G Gradually and more slowly decrease, but still
remain elevated, towards resting values, to allow the
body to recover – termed the oxygen debt.
H A much slower and longer recovery towards
resting values due to a greater oxygen debt.
CARDIAC CONTROL CENTER

Task 9
The medulla oblongata in the brain contains the
Investigate HR response to different body positions.
cardiac control center (CCC), which is primarily
1. Use an HR monitor or take HR values manually at
responsible for regulating the heart. The CCC is
the radial (wrist) or carotid (neck) pulse.
controlled by the autonomic nervous system (ANS),
2. Measure and record your HR while lying flat
meaning it is under involuntary control and consists
(prone), sitting, standing and during light exercise.
of sensory and motor nerves from either the
Wait 2-3 minutes after changing posture, before
sympathetic or parasympathetic nervous system.
measuring. If you measure manually, count for 10
seconds, starting from zero, and multiply by 6.
Sympathetic nerves increase HR while
parasympathetic nerves decrease HR. But how does
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the CCC actually regulate HR?

 course title: Maintenance of the body: cardiovascular and respiratory system

Each cardiac cycle is controlled by the conduction The CCC responds to the neural information by
system, the SA node initiating the cardiac impulse stimulating the SA node, via the sympathetic
causing the heart to contract. The CCC quite simply cardiac accelerator nerve to increase HR and SV.
initiates the sympathetic or parasympathetic After exercise stops, all the neural factors are
nervous systems to stimulate the SA node to either reversed gradually and the CCC increases
increase or decrease HR. stimulation via the parasympathetic vagus nerve, for
the SA node to decrease heart rate.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE CARDIAC CENTER
Three main factors affect the activity of the CCC
 NEURAL CONTROL – primary control factor
 HORMONAL CONTROL
 INTRINSIC CONTROL
Factors affecting the CCC

NEURAL CONTROL
During exercise the CCC is stimulated by the
following sensory receptors.
 PROPRIORECTORS in muscles, tendons and
joints inform the CCC that motor
(movement) activity has increased.
 CHEMORECEPTORS sensitive to chemical
changes, in muscles, aorta and carotid
arteries, inform the CCC that lactic acid and
carbon dioxide (CO2) levels have increased
and oxygen (O2) and pH levels have
decreased.
 BARORECEPTORS sensitive to stretch within
blood vessel walls, in aorta and carotid
arteries inform the CCC that blood pressure
has increased.

Sympathetic and parasympathetic 57

control of HR via the ANS
Cardiac control
center – autonomic
nervous system (ANS)

SYMPATHETIC NS PARASYMPATHETIC NS
Increase HR and SV Decreases HR

Via accelerator nerve

to: Via vagus nerve to:

SA node
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 course title: Maintenance of the body: cardiovascular and respiratory system

The vascular system consists of blood and blood BLOOD VESSEL STRUCTURE
vessels which transport and direct oxygen and There are three main groups of blood vessels
carbon dioxide to and from the lungs, heart and 1. ARTERIES/ARTERIOLES – which transport
body tissues. Cardiac output is distributed to the oxygenated blood away from the heart towards
various organs/tissues of the body according to their tissues/muscles.
need or demand for oxygen. In essence, blood 2. CAPILLAIRIES – Which bring the blood directly in
represents the substance that actually carries the contact with the tissues where oxygen and carbon
oxygen and carbon dioxide while the vast system of dioxide are actually exchanged.
blood vessels represents a system of tubing that 3. VEINS/VENULES – which transport deoxygenated
directs and delivers the flow of blood toward the blood back towards the heart.
body tissues.

CIRCULATORY NETWORKS

The heart consists of two separate pumps which

pump blood to the two different locations via two
circulatory networks of blood vessels
Comparison of
common structures of
capillaries and veins
Pulmonary circulation – deoxygenated blood from
the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs, and You are not required to know the detail of the three
oxygenated blood back to the left atrium. layers of blood vessels. However it is helpful to
Systemic circulation – oxygenated blood from the understand structural differences to explain how
left ventricle to the body tissues, and deoxygenated blood vessels differ in their function which is
blood back to the right atrium. summarized as follows:
- All blood vessels have three layers except for
single-walled capillaries.
- Arteries and arterioles have a large middle layer of
smooth muscle to allow them to vasodilate and
vasoconstrict to alter their shape/size to regulate
blood flow.
-Arterioles have a ring of smooth muscle surrounding
the entry of the capillairies into which they control
the blood flow called pre-capillary sphincters, they
can vasodilate and vasoconstrict to alter their
shape/size to regulate blood flow.
- Capillaries have a very thin, one-cell-thick layer, to
allow gaseous exchange.
- Larger veins have pocket valves to prevent the
Pulmonary and systemic
circulatory systems
backflow of blood and direct it in one direction
back to the heart.
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- Venules and veins have a much thinner muscular

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layer, allowing them to venodilate and

venoconstrict to a lesser extent, and a thicker outer
 course title: Maintenance of the body: cardiovascular and respiratory system

layer to help support the blood that sits within each At rest venous return (VR) is sufficient to maintain
pocket valve. stroke volume (SV) and cardiac output (Q) to supply
the demand for oxygen. However, during exercise
BLOOD the pressure of blood in the veins is too low to
The main function of blood is to transport nutrients maintain VR, and SV and Q therefore decrease. The
and oxygen to the cells of the body. body needs additional mechanisms to help push the
Blood is made up of four components: blood against gravity through the veins back to the
1. red blood cells – these transport oxygen around heart to increase VR and therefore SV.
the body
2. white blood cells – these fights infection Check out this website and watch an explanation of
how the cardiovascular system works during exercise
3. platelets – these clot to prevent blood loss during
@ www..com
injury
4. plasma – this is the liquid part of blood
Red blood cells are very important for sport and
physical activity because they contain hemoglobin. Impact of different types of physical activity on the
Hemoglobin allows them to carry oxygen from the cardiovascular system
lungs to the working muscles.
Cardiovascular diseases (CHD)
Blood vessels:
ARTERIOCLEROSIS – relates to a loss of elasticity,
thickening/hardening of the arteries which reduce
their efficiency to vasodilate/constrict and therefore
regulates Bp and the vascular shunt mechanism.

Interestingly, smoking accelerates the hardening

and narrowing process in your arteries, ahead of the
VENOUS RETURN natural ageing process, and if you start smoking
Is the transport of blood from the capillaries through younger the process will start earlier and blood clots
venules, veins and then either the superior or inferior are two to four times more likely.
vena cava back to the right atrium of the heart.
We know that the main function of the heart is to ATHEROSCLEROSIS – is a form of arteriosclerosis that
pump blood around the body, so why is it important involves changes in the lining of arteries. High levels
to understand how and why blood returns to the of cholesterol and fat deposits accumulate within
heart? Let us look at the dynamics of venous return arterial walls forming fatty plaque, leading to a
in a more detail to find out why. progressive narrowing (diameter) of the lumen –
space within the vessel – which increases the
STARLING’S LAW OF THE HEART likelihood of blood clots forming. This can restrict
State that stroke volume (SV) is dependent upon blood flow and lead to high Bp (hypertension).
venous return(VR). Hence, if VR increases, stroke
volume (SV) increases, if VR decreases, SV
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decreases.
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 course title: Maintenance of the body: cardiovascular and respiratory system

Let us now look more critically at how physical

activity protects us from Cardiovascular diseases
(CHDs). Physical activity can:

 Improve heart-hypertrophy pumping

capacity and circulation; vascularization;
increase capacity/size of coronary
circulation.
 Decrease blood fibrinogen; decreases blood
clotting and decreases blood viscosity
improving blood flow to the coronary
circulation.
 Decrease blood lipids (triglyceride/
cholesterol) which can be deposited on
arterial walls leading to athero- and
arteriosclerosis.
 Decrease low density lipoproteins (LDL – high
in blood lipids/cholesterol which are
deposited on vessel walls leading to arterio-
and atherosclerosis.
 Increase high density lipoproteins (HDL-low in
blood lipids/cholesterol from arterial walls.
 Lower Bp and reduce the risk of developing
hypertension.
 Reduce obesity controlling body weight
which helps against hypertension and
control of diabetes.
 Alleviate tension/stress helping reduce
Heart:
hypertension.

Angina – a partial blockage of the coronary artery Net effect – reduce arterial damage/disease which
causing intense chest pain which occurs when there in turn reduces risk of angina/heart attack.
is an in adequate 02/blood supply to the heart Although there is an increase risk of angina/ heart
muscle wall, normally to a smaller area of the heart. attack during exercise, in general, those who are
Arteriosclerosis and atherosclerosis in the coronary physically active have a lower risk than those who
arteries deprives area of the heart of 02/blood. This are inactive, and far outweigh any potential risk.
can occur during rest, anxiety, but more especially
during physical effort/exercise, when the heart Other factors
requires more 02 than the partly blocked coronary It is not exercise alone that helps reduce CHD;
arteries can supply. additional factors also help protect us from CHD:
 Acts as a stimulus for a healthier lifestyle : to
Heart Attack – is a more severe/sudden or total stop smoking and improve diet
 Cessation of smoking reduces speeding up
restriction in 02/blood supply to a part of the heart of arteriosclerosis.
muscle wall, usually causing permanent damage.  Proper nutrition/diet, thereby reducing:
More likely as a result of blood clots from larger weight/obesity, blood lipids, glucose, body
fat, and therefore most of the factors
coronary arteries that get stuck in smaller ones and bulleted above.
plug them shut. Death can result if the damaged
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area is large enough to prevent the remaining heart

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muscle wall from supplying sufficient Q to the body.

 course title: Maintenance of the body: cardiovascular and respiratory system

CHD primary risk factors

Risk Factor Level of risk
1 2 3 4 5
V Low Low Mod High V High
1 – Physical Activity (mins/wk)
above 60% HR max 120 90 30 0 0
2 – Blood pressure (mmHg)
systolic <110 120 130-140 156-160 >170
diastolic <70 76 82-88 94-100 >106
3 – Smoking (cigarettes p/day) 0 5 10-20 30-40 >50
4 – Blood Lipids
cholesterol (mg/d) <180 <200 220-240 260-280 >300
triglycerides (mg/dl) <50 <100 <130 <200 <300
5 – Obesity (BMI) >25-27 27-30 30-<35 35-<40 >40

Calculation of BMI (Body Mass Index)

Example:

1. Height squared: 1.88 x 1. 88 = 3.53

2. Weight divided by
Height squared: 952 / 3. 53 = 26.9
3. BMI = 27 (overweight)

Task 10

Add up your scores for 1 to 5 in the table above to

calculate a simplistic assessment of your level of risk
of developing CHD. You will not know your blood
lipids results but you may wish to estimate your diet in
terms of its healthy lifestyle, from 1 to 5. You will also
need to know your BMI. Look at the formula and
example below the table, work out your own BMI,
then find the range that your BMI fits into by looking
in the table. Compare your own results with your
chosen classmate.
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 course title: Maintenance of the body: cardiovascular and respiratory system

PASSAGE OF AIR INTO THE LUNGS

LESSON 2: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
1. Air enters the body and is warmed as it travels
Oxygen is essential to produce the energy to fuel all
through the mouth and nose.
our body’s activities. Endurance performance and
2. it then enters the trachea
an active healthy lifestyle depend on the supply of
3. the trachea divides into two bronchi. One
oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide from our
bronchus enters each lung
working muscles.
4. each bronchus branches out into smaller tubes
The respiratory system performs three main
called bronchioles. Air travels though these
processes which are linked via the heart and
bronchioles
vascular system.
5. at the end of the bronchioles, the air enters one of
 PULMONARY VENTILATION – the breathing of
the many millions of alveoli where gaseous
air into the lungs
exchange takes place.
 EXTERNAL RESPIRATION – exchange of
oxygen and carbon dioxide between the Alveoli structures allowing
8
efficient exchange of
lungs and blood oxygen and carbon dioxide

These two processes are linked to the third by the

transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood
to the heart, and around the systemic and
pulmonary circulation.
 INTERNAL RESPIRATION – exchange of
oxygen and carbon dioxide between the
blood and the muscle tissues
The respiratory processes are just as important as the
heart and vascular system. It is no use having an
efficient pump and transport network if the blood it
carries has insufficient oxygen to produce the LOBES OF THE LUNGS
energy for the muscle to work. Lobes are simply divisions of each lung, the right lung
has three lobes and the left has two – this is to
Review of respiratory structures accommodate the location of the heart.
First, we will review the respiratory structures to help
describe and explain the efficiency of the Alveoli increase the efficiency of gas exchange by:
respiratory system with reference to the mechanics 1. Forming a vast surface area (approximately half
of breathing and external respiration. the size of a tennis court) for gaseous exchange to
take place.
Route of air through
the respiratory structure 2. Having a single-cell layer of thin epithelial cells,
reducing the distance for gas exchange with:
 A moist lining/film of water helping to
dissolve and exchange oxygen
 An extensive network of narrow alveoli
capillaries producing a short diffusion path
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 Alveoli capillaries have a single-cell layer

reducing the distance for gas exchange.
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 course title: Maintenance of the body: cardiovascular and respiratory system

Pharynx – a funnel-shaped tube about 13 cm long

LOBES OF THE LUNGS 11 that connects the nasal cavity and the mouth to the
Pleural cavity of the esophagus and the larynx. It serves as a passage for
lungs
air and food, and is generally referred to as the
throat.
Nasal cavity – a space posterior to the nose that is
divided lengthwise by a thin wall. At the front, the
nasal cavity forms the nose, which is the only visible
part of the respiratory system.
Trachea – commonly known as the windpipe is a
Lobes are simply divisions of each lung, the right lung has three lobes and
the left two – this is to accommodate the location of the heart mobile, flexible tube about 12 cm long. It connects
the larynx to the bronchi. This tube is composed of
stacked C-shape cartilage rings.
PULMONARY PLEURA
Diaphragm – is the main muscle involved in
Like the pericardium of the heart, the lungs have
respiration. It lies at the base of the lungs and forms
pulmonary pleura, double-walled sacs consisting of
the floor of the thoracic, or chest cavity separating it
two membranes filled with pleural fluid, which help
from the abdominal cavity beneath.
to reduce friction between the ribs and lungs during
Lungs – are two bulky pinkish masses which take up
breathing. The outer layer attaches to the ribs and
most of the space in the chest cavity. The right lung
the inner layer to the lungs. This ensures the lungs
is divided into three lobes and left lung has two
move with the chest as it expands and relaxes
lobes, leaving space for the heart. The lungs, which
during breathing.
are the site of gas exchange, have a dual function:
oxygenation and the elimination of carbon dioxide
ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
contained in the blood.
Larynx – or the voice box is at most 5cm long. It
The respiratory system can be divided into three
forms the junction between the pharynx and the
main sets of structure: the respiratory passages, the
trachea and houses the vocal cords. The larynx
muscles involved in respiration, and the lungs.
channel air and food towards the appropriate
tubes: the esophagus for food and the trachea for
Task 11
air.
The respiratory system can be divided into three
Bronchi – are the first two branches of the trachea.
main sets. Learn about these structures and the
They are made up o cartilage rings. They enter the
organs of the respiratory system by writing them into
lungs and branch into bronchioles.
the right box.
Respiratory passages – which consist of the nasal
cavity, the pharynx, the larynx, the trachea and the
bronchi, serve as conduits for channeling air into the
lungs. The pharynx also serves as a passage for food,
from the mouth to the esophagus.

NOSE (inside the nasal cavity)

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The nose is a pyramid-shaped organ located

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centrally on the face, about a third of the way

 course title: Maintenance of the body: cardiovascular and respiratory system

down. During inhalation, air passes through the The term given to the process of taking air into and
nares, or nostril into the nasal cavity. out of the lungs.

 Also called external nares.

 Divided into two halves the Nasal septum.
 Contains the Paranasal sinuses where is
responsible for filtering out foreign bodies.
 Internal nares – opening the exterior
 External Nares – opening the pharynx
 Nasal Conchae- folds in the mucous
membrane that increase air turbulence and
ensures that most air contracts the mucous
membranes
Provides and airway for respiratory
 Moistens and warms entering air
 Filters and cleans inspired air
 Resonating chamber for speech

Task 12
Pharynx or Larynx?
The pharynx and larynx are part of the upper
respiratory tract together with the nasal cavity and
the oral cavity. Place each of the following organ
characteristics and names in the appropriate
column of the table, depending on whether they
are associated with the larynx or pharynx.

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BREATHING
 course title: Maintenance of the body: cardiovascular and respiratory system

Two important structures for breathing are the

Inspiration (active) Expiration ( passive)
diaphragm which is a sheet of muscle that separates 17
1 Diaphragm contracts 1 Diaphragm relaxes
the chest (or thoracic) cavity from the rest of the - active - passive
External intercostals External intercostals
Contract - active Relax - passive
body and intercostals muscles that are found
between the ribs and they control rib movement. 2 Diaphragm flattens/ 2 Diaphragm pushed
pushed down upward
ribs/sternum move Ribs/sternum move
up and out in and down
Recall that the pulmonary pleura attaches the lungs
to the ribs so the lungs will inflate and deflate as the 3 Thoracic cavity 3 Thoracic cavity
Volume increases Volume decreases
volume of the thoracic cavity increase and 4 Lung air pressure 4 Lung air pressure
Decreases below Increases above atmospheric air
decrease. This describes the process of pulmonary Atmospheric air (outside)

respiration but what makes the ribs of the thoracic 5 Air rushes into lungs 5 Air rushes out of lungs

cavity expand and therefore initiate breathing?

The term MECHANICS suggests levers are involved
but what applies the force for levers to move?
Muscles produce the force to initiate respiration at
both rest and during exercise.

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Active Task 13
inspiration Put the following structures in order, to show the
(a), and
passive route of atmospheric air to the site where gaseous
expiration
exchange takes place: nose/trachea, mouth,
(b) at rest
alveolus, larynx, pharynx, oral cavity, alveoli sacs, left
and right bronchi, nasal cavity, lungs, bronchioles.

Shows all the respiratory muscles

involved in the mechanics of
breathing

The mechanics of respiration are easier to learn and

understand by linking five steps
1. MUSCLES – actively contract or passively relax, to
cause
2. MOVEMENT – of the ribs and sternum and
abdomen, which causes
3. THORACIC CAVITY VOLUME – to either increase or
decrease, which causes
4. LUNG AIR PRESSURE – to either increase or
decrease, which causes
5. INSPIRATION OR EXPIRATION – air breathed in or
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out.
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 course title: Maintenance of the body: cardiovascular and respiratory system

Muscles of
inspiration (a), and 19 RESPIRATORY VOLUMES AT REST
Expiration (b) at Let us recall from cardiovascular topic that to
rest
calculate the efficiency of the performance of the
heart we used three definitions and their average
values to compare resting with exercise levels. In
exactly the same manner, the respiratory system has
three definitions and values, which help calculate
the efficiency of the respiratory system. Let us look at
the link between these three definitions and values
The additional muscles for both at rest.
inspiration and expiration
LUNG VOLUMES
 TIDAL VOLUME (TV) – volume of air inspired or
expired per breath – approximately 500ml
Mechanics of respiration during exercise
during breathing at rest
 As you begin to exercise, the demand for
 FREQUENCY (f) – The number of breaths
oxygen by the working muscles increases
taken in one minute – approximately 12-15
and respiration similarly needs to increase in
breaths during breathing at rest.
both rate and depth of breathing.
 MINUTE VENTILATION (VE) – The volume of air
 Respiratory muscles initiate breathing. It is inspired or expired in one minute. VE can be
therefore no surprise that to increase the calculated by multiplying the tidal volume
with the frequency of breaths in one minute.
rate/depth of breathing during exercise,
additional muscles to those of the
The link between TV, f and VE is shown by the
diaphragm and external intercostals used at
following equation:
rest are required.
VE = TV x f
= 500ml x 15
Mechanics of breathing during exercise = 7500ml/min
20
= 7.5L/min
Inspiration (active) Expiration (passive)
1 Diaphragm contracts 1 Diaphragm relaxes
External intercostals External interrcostals
contract Relax Task 14
Sternocleidomastoid Internal intercostals
contracts contract (active) 1. Recall and write down the corresponding
Scalenes contract Rectus abdominus/
Pectoralis minor Obliques contract equation for the heart alongside the respiratory
contracts (active)
2 Diaphragm fattens with more 2 Diaphragm pushed up harder equation above.
force with more force
Increase lifting of ribs and 2. if an athlete has a resting TV of 500ml and
sternum Ribs/Sternum pulled in and down
3 Increase thoracic cavity volume 3 Greater decrease in thoracic respiratory frequency of 12 per minute, what would
cavity volume
4 Lower air pressure in lungs 4 Higher air pressure in lungs their VE be?
5 More air rushes into lungs 5 More air pushed out of the lungs
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Check out this website and watch the

Mechanism of Breathing
Page

@ www.AlilaMedicalMedia.com
 course title: Maintenance of the body: cardiovascular and respiratory system

LUNG VOLUME CHANGES DURING EXERCISE Both oxygen and carbon dioxide are capable of
Respiratory increases in line with exercise intensity in combining with an iron-rich protein in the blood
order to supply the increased oxygen demands of called hemoglobin. Hemoglobin carries oxygen to
our working muscles. be exchanged at the working muscle and carbon
TV and f increase at lower intensities of workload to dioxide to be exchanged at the lung.
increase VE but during maximal work it is an
additional increase in the rate of breathing that
increases VE further. It is not efficient to increase TV
towards maximal values due to the time/effort it
takes – try running while taking a maximal inspiration
and expiration and see why this is not feasible.

Lung volume changes during exercise

Lung volume Definition Resting volume Change due to
exercise
Tidal volume X Volume of air 500ml per breath Increase: up to
inhaled/ exhaled around 3-4 liters
per breath during
rest
Frequency = VE Number of breaths 12-15 Increase: 40-60
in one minute Increase: values
up to 120L/min in As the blood moves through the capillaries in
smaller individuals the alveoli, oxygen diffuses into it and carbon
and up to dioxide diffuses out of it.
180+L/min in larger
aerobic trained
Volume of air athletes
Minute ventilation inspired/expired in 6-7.5L/min Capillaries surround the alveoli in the lungs. Both the
one minute
capillaries and alveoli walls are very thin – just one
Summary of changes. Both the rate (f) and depth (TV) of breathing increase,
which in turn increase VE from resting values of 6 L/min up to maximal values of cell thick. They are made of semi-permeable
160-180 L/min in trained aerobic athletes.
membranes which allow oxygen and carbon
dioxide to pass through them.
GASEOUS EXCHANGE
Gas exchange occurs at the alveoli in the lungs and
Task 15
takes place by diffusion. The alveoli are surrounded
by capillaries so oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse
Breathing and Exercise
between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the
Normal breathing rates range from 12-25
capillaries.
times per minute. In this task you will compare your
DIFFUSION is the movement of gases from an area of
breathing rate at rest to your breathing rate after
high pressure to an area of low pressure. The
exercise.
difference between the high and low pressure is
Procedure:
called the DIFFUSION GRADIENT – the bigger the
1. Sit quietly and breathe for one minute. While you
gradient, the greater the diffusion and gaseous
are doing this your partner will count the number of
exchange that take place.
breaths (in and out is 1) you take.
There is a high concentration of oxygen in the alveoli
Record this number in the data table.
and low concentration of oxygen in the blood, so
2. Run in place for 30 seconds. Then sit down and
oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood.
again have your partner count the number of
There is a high concentration of carbon dioxide in
breaths you take for 1 minute.
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the blood and low concentration in the alveoli, so

Record this number in the data table
carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the
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alveoli.
 course title: Maintenance of the body: cardiovascular and respiratory system

Continuation of task 15 dioxide) and pH levels in order for athletes to

continue exercising.
3. Run in place for one minute. Sit down and have
your partner count the number of breaths in one SEVERAL FACTORS
minute. Record the number in your data table.  Control of breathing during physical activity
does not result from a single factor but the
activity rate combined effects of chemical and neural
resting stimuli which stimulate the RCC.
after 30 seconds of exercise
after 1 minute of exercise

Analysis:
1. How did exercise affect your breathing rate?
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________

2. Can you think of a reason for your answer to

question no.1?
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________ The main receptors and the information they send to
3. What other factors besides exercise might the RCC during exercise that you need to know are:
influence your normal breathing rate?
___________________________________________________ 1. Chemoreceptors from within the medulla
___________________________________________________
________________________________ and carotid arteries send information to the
4. Did you notice any other way your breathing inspiratory center on:
change with exercise? Give a possible reason for this a. Increase in PP carbon dioxide – thought to
change. be the primary factor
___________________________________________________ b. Decrease in PP oxygen
___________________________________________________ c. Decrease in pH (increasing acidity).
___________________________________________________
_______________________________________ 2. Proprioreceptors located in the muscles and joints
___________________________________________________ send information to the inspiratory center on motor
movement of the active/ working muscles.
3. Thermoreceptors send information to the
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE NEURAL CONTROL OF inspiratory center on increase in blood temperature.
BREATHING 4. Baroreceptors or stretch rece
receptors located in the
lungs send information to the expiratory center on
Emotions, pain, respiratory irritants are all factors that the extent of lung inflation during inspiration
affect breathing. However, we need to identify
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those
e factors more concerned with the primary
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purpose of respiration – to maintain appropriate

levels of blood and tissue gases (oxygen and carbon
 course title: Maintenance of the body: cardiovascular and respiratory system

Overview of respiratory regulation at rest

The medulla oblongata (1) contains inspiratory and

expiratory centers. When chemoreceptors (2),
active muscles (3) and increasing temperature (4)
stimulating the inspiratory center (5), this stimulates
the inspiratory muscles (6) to contract increasing the
volume of the thoracic cavity and drawing air into
the lungs. Inspiratory muscles passively relax
decreasing volume thoracic cavity and air is
expired.

Exercise
As (1) to (6) but during exercise the inspiratory center
stimulates additional respiratory muscles (7) which
increases the depth of breathing. This stimulates
stretch receptors (8) in the lungs, which stimulate the
expiratory center (9) to stimulate the expiratory
muscle (10) to contract. This causes a forced
expiration which reduces the duration of inspiration.
This decreases the depth and therefore increases
the rate of breathing.

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 course title: Maintenance of the body: cardiovascular and respiratory system

Check out this list of references for more

information to broaden your knowledge!

Anatomy and Physiology by Elaine N. Marieb

Get Fit and Stay Well by Janet L. Hopson et.al.
Physical Education 1st edition by Dave Carnell,
et.al.
www.profesordaveexplains.com

CONGRATULATIONS!!!
YOU REACHED AN EXTENSIVE AMOUNT OF KNOWLEDGE
TO BECOMING A FIT AND WELLNESS EXPERT.
The End of Module Part 3

mary lynn o. espina-verano, ph d/ ed d pe(car)

course title: Maintenance of the body: cardiovascular and respiratory system
university of eastern philippines
email add: [email protected]

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