UNIVERSITY OF ILOILO

COLLEGE OF ALLIED HEALTH SCIENCES

Nursing Department
Rizal Street, Iloilo City
Tel.No. (033)338-1071 Loc.146, 09368126148
PAMMT
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY (117°F) and only the pain receptors are
(LECTURE) stimulated in temperatures beyond
MODULE #11 [SENSES] ▪ Cold Receptors: respond to decreasing
temperature
Sensation – process initiated by stimulating ▪ Warm Receptors: respond to increasing
sensory receptors. temperature
3. Touch Receptors – more complex and most
Perception – conscious awareness of stimuli are enclosed by capsules
received by sensory neurons. ▪ Merkel Disks – small, superficial nerve
endings; detects light touch and superficial
Senses – the means by which the brain receives pressure
information about the environment and the body. ▪ Hair Follicle Receptors – detect light touch but
These are classified based on the location of not discriminative
sensory receptors as well as the types of stimuli ▪ Meissner Corpuscles – deep to epidermis; for
involved. fine & discriminative touch and very specific
in localizing tactile sensations
Sensory Receptors – nerve endings or ▪ Ruffini Corpuscles – deeper tactile receptors;
specialized cells capable of responding to stimuli detect continuous pressure in skin
by developing action potentials. ▪ Pacinian Corpuscles – deepest receptors
associated with tendons & joints; detect deep
Types of Sensory Receptors: pressure, vibration, position (proprioception)

1. Mechanoreceptors – respond to mechanical Pain – group of unpleasant perceptual and

stimuli, such as bending & stretching emotional experience; has two types of pain
sensation:
2. Chemoreceptors – respond to chemicals
1. Localized, sharp, pricking, or cutting pain
3. Photoreceptors – respond to light resulting from rapidly conducted action potentials
(ex: superficial pain)
4. Thermoreceptors – respond to temperature
changes. 2. Diffuse, burning, or aching pain resulting from
action potentials that propagated more slowly
5. Nociceptors – respond to stimuli that result in (ex: visceral pain)
sensation of pain.
Pain perception can be disrupted or controlled by:
General Senses: Structurally, the different types ▪ Local Anesthesia – injection of chemical
of sensory receptors in general senses are: anesthetics near sensory receptor or nerve in local
areas
1. Free Nerve Endings – simplest and most of the body which suppresses the action
common type which are most common type of potentials from pain receptors
sensory receptors ▪ General Anesthesia – a treatment where
2. Temperature Receptors – can only respond chemical anesthetics that affect the reticular
to temperature between 12°C (54°F) and 47°C activating system are administered resulting to
loss of consciousness
 UNIVERSITY OF ILOILO
COLLEGE OF ALLIED HEALTH SCIENCES
Nursing Department
Rizal Street, Iloilo City
Tel.No. (033)338-1071 Loc.146, 09368126148
PAMMT
Adaptation – feedback loops; inhibit transmission of
▪ Gate Control Theory – an inherent control action potentials due to prolonged exposure to a given
system which may explain the physiological odorant
basis for several techniques that have been used
to reduce the intensity of pain; key element is the Taste
concept of a gate that allows pain signals to reach
the brain when it is open, and blocks the signals Taste Buds – oval, sensory structures located on
when it is closed. papillae of tongue, hard palate, & epiglottis that detect
taste stimuli; each consists of two types of cells:
Referred Pain – originates in region that is not
source of pain stimulus; sensory neurons from ✔ Specialized Epithelial Cells: form the exterior
superficial area & neurons from source of pain supporting capsule
converge onto same ascending neurons of spinal
cord. ✔ Taste Cells: total of 40 cells forming the interior part;
each contains hairlike processes called taste hairs that
Special Senses: smell & taste respond to extend through taste pores (tiny openings in the
chemical stimulation, vision to light stimulation, surrounding stratified epithelium)
and hearing & balance to mechanical stimulation.
✔ All taste buds are able to detect all basic taste
Olfaction – sense of smell sensations (sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami);
however, each can be most sensitive to one class of taste
✔ This occurs in response to airborne molecules, stimuli.
called odorants, which enter the nasal cavity.
✔ Olfactory Neurons: bipolar neurons within the ✔ Many taste sensations are strongly influenced by
olfactory epithelium which lines the superior part olfactory sensations.
of nasal cavity.
✔ There are at least 400 functional olfactory Neuronal Pathways for Taste:
receptors in humans & can detect an estimated
10,000 different smells.
✔ The only major sensation that is relayed
directly to the cerebral cortex without first
passing through the thalamus.
✔ Olfactory Cortex: involved in both conscious
perception of smell & visceral & emotional
reactions linked to odors.
Neuronal Pathways for Olfaction:

Vision: visual system includes the eyes, accessory

structures, and sensory neurons.
 UNIVERSITY OF ILOILO
COLLEGE OF ALLIED HEALTH SCIENCES
Nursing Department
Rizal Street, Iloilo City
Tel.No. (033)338-1071 Loc.146, 09368126148
PAMMT
Accessory Structures of the Eye: these protect, black)
lubricate, and move the eye
✔ the black absorbs light to prevent reflection inside the
▪ Eyebrows – prevent perspiration from running down eye
the forehead & into the eyes; shade from direct sunlight
▪ Ciliary Body – contains ciliary muscles which
▪ Eyelids & Eyelashes – protect from foreign objects attached to perimeter of the lens by suspensory
o Blink Reflex: rapid opening & closing of eyelids; ligaments
normally occurs about 20x per minute
✔ Lens – a flexible, biconvex, transparent disc
▪ Conjunctiva – thin, transparent mucous membrane ▪ Iris – colored part of eye; a contractile structure that
covering the inner surface of eyelids & anterior surrounds & regulates the diameter of pupil (an opening
of eye; secretions help lubricate the surface where the light pass through); control the amount of
light entering the eye
▪ Lacrimal Apparatus – consists of lacrimal gland that
produces tears which contain enzyme that ✔ Circular smooth muscles of iris constrict the pupil by
lubricates, cleanses & helps combat eye infection; parasympathetic stimulation
excess tears are collected in medial angle of the
eyes by lacrimal canaliculi (small ducts open into a ✔ Radial smooth muscles of iris dilate the pupil by
lacrimal sac of nasolacrimal duct) sympathetic stimulation

▪ Extrinsic Eye Muscles – six skeletal muscles 3. Nervous Tunic – innermost; consists of retina which
responsible for eyeball movement namely: superior covers the posterior 5/6 of eye and is composed of two
rectus, inferior rectus, medial rectus, lateral rectus, layers:
superior oblique, and inferior oblique
▪ Pigmented Retina – outer; keeps light from reflecting
Eyeball – a hollow, fluid-filled sphere within the orbit; back in eye
the wall is composed of three tissue layers / tunics: ▪ Sensory Retina – inner; contains photoreceptors (rods
& cones) and interneurons
1. Fibrous Tunic – outermost layer ✔ Rods – sensitive to light & can function in dim light;
contain a photosensitive pigment called rhodopsin,
▪ Sclera – firm, white, outer layer that helps maintain which consists of opsin (colorless protein) loosely bound
eye shape, protects internal structures, and provides to retinal (yellow pigment; requires vitamin A to be
attachment sites for extrinsic eye muscles manufactured)

▪ Cornea – transparent; permits entry of light & also o Light causes retinal to change shape, opsin to change
bends or refracts it shape, leading eventually to cellular changes that result
in vision.
2. Vascular Tunic – middle layer; contains most of
blood vessels

✔ Cones – require much more light & provide color

Choroid – consists of vascular network & many vision; has 3 types, each sensitive to a color: blue, green,
melanin-containing pigment cells (appears or red
 UNIVERSITY OF ILOILO
COLLEGE OF ALLIED HEALTH SCIENCES
Nursing Department
Rizal Street, Iloilo City
Tel.No. (033)338-1071 Loc.146, 09368126148
PAMMT
Functions of the Eye:
✔ Interneurons – regulate & relay changes in
photoreceptor activity along visual pathway ▪ Light Refraction – bending of light that involves the
cornea, aqueous humor, lens, & vitreous humor.
o Bipolar Cells: synapse with rods & cones
o If the surface of the lens is concave, light diverges. If it
o Horizontal Cells: together with bipolar cells, modify is convex, light converges.
the output of rods & cone cells.
o Focal Point – crossing point as the light rays
o Ganglion Cells: the first two cells synapse with these converge; occurs in the anterior of retina; the
cells whose axons converge at posterior of the eye to image focused on retina is inverted compared to actual
form the optic nerve (II) image

Major Features of Retina: ▪ Focusing Images on the Retina: Cornea is

responsible for most of the convergence, whereas the
1. Macula – small spot near the center of posterior lens can adjust focus by changing shape called
Retina accommodation, which also enables eye to focus
on images closer than 20 feet
▪ Fovea Centralis: small pit at the center where light is
most focused when looking directly at object; only o Shape & distance of cornea from retina is fixed. Fine
contains cone cells; region with the greatest ability to adjustments in focus is accomplished
discriminate fine images. by lens accommodation in two ways:

2. Optic Disc – white spot just medial to macula; termed 1. Flattened lens: occur when the ciliary muscles are
as blind spot of the eye since it contains relaxed, the tension in suspensory ligaments are high &
no photoreceptors & does not respond to light; through maintain elastic pressure that allows the lens for
which blood vessels enter the eye & spread distant vision.
over retina’s surface; area where axons from retina meet,
pass through the tunics, & exit as optic nerve 2. Spherical lens: occur when the ciliary muscles
contract, pulling the ciliary body toward the lens which
Three Chambers of the Eye: reduces the tension in suspensory ligaments that allows
the lens to have more convex surface & greater
▪ Anterior Chamber & Posterior Chamber – located refraction of light for near vision.
between cornea & lens, separated by iris;
filled with aqueous humor: a watery fluid produced by o 20/20 is standardized for normal vision: the numerator
ciliary body that helps maintain eye reflects the distance of person from Snellen chart which
pressure, refracts light, provides nutrients to inner is usually 20 feet and the denominator is the distance at
surface of eye, & keeps eye inflated which a normal person with 20/20 vision can read the
line from chart.
▪ Vitreous Chamber – located posterior to the lens;
filled with vitreous humor: a transparent, Neuronal Pathways for Vision:
jellylike substance that helps maintain eye pressure,
holds lens & retina in place, and refracts light
 UNIVERSITY OF ILOILO
COLLEGE OF ALLIED HEALTH SCIENCES
Nursing Department
Rizal Street, Iloilo City
Tel.No. (033)338-1071 Loc.146, 09368126148
PAMMT
▪ Mastoid Air Cells – in mastoid process of temporal
bone

▪ Auditory Tube / Eustachian Tube – opens into the

pharynx; enables air pressure to be equalized between
the outside air & middle ear cavity

3. Inner Ear – consists of interconnecting tunnels and

chambers within the temporal bone:
Visual Fields – images seen by each eye; overlap to
have depth perception (3D or binocular vision) ▪ Bony Labyrinth – filled with fluid called perilymph;
consists of three regions:
Hearing and Balance: located in each ear that is
divided into three areas: o Cochlea – snail-shaped structure which is involved in
hearing; contains threads in its bony core called the
Hearing and Balance: located in each ear that is divided spiral lamina; divided into three channels:
into three areas: (See figure 9.18, page 251)
1. External Ear – extends from outside of head to a. Scala Vestibuli: extends from oval window to apex
tympanic membrane (eardrum) of cochlea
▪ Auricle – fleshy part on outside of head; collects sound
waves & directs towards the canal b. Scala Tympani: extends parallel with scala vestibuli
▪ External Auditory Canal – passageway that opens from from apex back to round window
auricle & transmits sound waves
to eardrum c. Cochlear Duct: inside is a specialized organ called
▪ Ceruminous Glands – line the canal; produce cerumen the spiral organ / organ of Corti which contains
▪ Cerumen / Ear Wax – modified sebum; with hairs, help specialized sensory cells called hair cells, which have
prevent foreign objects from stereocilia
reaching eardrum
▪ Tympanic Membrane / Eardrum – thin membrane that ✔ Hair Cells – no axons but associated with axon
separate the external from middle terminals of sensory neurons located within cochlear
ear causing sound waves to vibrate ganglion / spiral ganglion that join to form cochlear
2. Middle Ear – air-filled chamber medial to tympanic nerve; then joins to vestibular nerve to become
membrane which contains the three ossicles: vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII)
▪ Malleus / Hammer – attached to medial surface of
tympanic membrane ✔ Tectorial Membrane – acellular gelatinous shelf
▪ Incus / Anvil – connects the malleus to stapes which is attached to spiral lamina where the hair tips are
▪ Stapes / Stirrup – the base is seated to oval window embedded within.
Two Covered Openings on Medial Side:
1. Oval Window – separates middle & inner ear o Vestibule – involved primarily in balance; divided
2. Round Window – connect the middle with the inner into two chambers, the utricle& saccule, which both
ear contain:
Two Unblocked Openings in the Middle Ear: a. Macule: specialized patches of epithelium which are
surrounded by endolymph & contain hair cells where its
 UNIVERSITY OF ILOILO
COLLEGE OF ALLIED HEALTH SCIENCES
Nursing Department
Rizal Street, Iloilo City
Tel.No. (033)338-1071 Loc.146, 09368126148
PAMMT
tips are embedded in gelatinous mass called otolithic
membrane

b. Otoliths: weigh the otolithic membrane; composed of

protein & calcium carbonate

o Semicircular Canals – involved in dynamic

equilibrium & can sense movement to
any direction; each ear has three canals with main
features of:

a. Ampulla: base of semicircular canal

b. Crista Ampullaris: inside the ampulla which Balance / Equilibrium – a complex sensation involving
contains hairlike microvilli sensory input not only from the inner ear but also
from the limbs (proprioception) and visual system; has
c. Cupula: curved, gelatinous mass within each crista two components which are:
where the microvilli are embedded; functions as a float
that is displaced by endolymph movement within ▪ Static Equilibrium – associated with vestibule;
semicircular canals involved in evaluating the position of head relative
to gravity.
▪ Membranous Labyrinth – located inside bony
labyrinth; filled with a clear fluid called
Endolymph
▪ Dynamic Equilibrium – with semicircular canals;
o Vestibular Membrane – its wall that lines the scala involved in changes in direction and rate of head
vestibule of cochlea movements

o Basilar Membrane – its wall that lines the scala

tympani of cochlea

Neuronal Pathways for Hearing:

Neuronal Pathways for Hearing: Diseases and Disorders of Vision, Hearing, and
Balance:
 UNIVERSITY OF ILOILO
COLLEGE OF ALLIED HEALTH SCIENCES
Nursing Department
Rizal Street, Iloilo City
Tel.No. (033)338-1071 Loc.146, 09368126148
PAMMT

Effects of Aging on the Senses:

▪ Both general & special sensory functions gradually
decline.
▪ Free nerve endings & hair follicle receptors in skin
remain largely unchanged.
▪ Presbyopia – the most common age-related condition
where lenses’ ability decline & eventually is
lost.
▪ Presbycusis is an age-related sensorineural hearing
loss condition where hair cells in cochlea
decreases.