Chapter 3

3. Data Communication and Computer Networking

3.1. Communication
The term communication can be defined as the process of transferring messages between entities.
Based on what these two entities are, there are three basic types of communication:
􀂃Human-to-Human
􀂃Computer-to-computer
􀂃Human-to-Computer

In all the three cases, three basic elements can be identified.

􀂃The source (the sender)
􀂃The medium (the channel)
􀂃The destination

Sender Encoding Transmission Decoding Destination

A message should first be encoded in such a way that it can be transmitted through a channel
(medium), it is then transmitted, and finally, it is decoded into a form that can be understood by the
destination at the other end. This holds true for voice communication, or data communication.
Data communication involves transporting data from one point to another. This is an instance of
computer-to-computer communication, i.e., both the source and the destination are computer
devices, and the transmission media may be telephone lines, satellite links, microwave links, etc.
3.2 Data transmission
Data transmission refers to the movement of data in form of bits between two or more digital devices.
Data is transmitted over networks using signals, which are transformed, or encoded, by computers into
the voice, video, graphics, and/or the print we see on our computer screens. The signals used by
computers to transmit data are either digital or analog .

 Analog signals are continuous signals that vary in strength. Sound is an example of an analog
signal. Sound is actually a wave and is quite similar, or analogous, to electromagnetic waves,
hence the name analog. Telephones have transmitters that encode sound waves into
electromagnetic waves, which then travel over wires toward their destination. The receiving
telephone decodes the electromagnetic waves back into sound waves. Our brains then decode
the sound waves into the words we hear. Computer modems use the same principle. Analog
signals can be represented digitally. For instance, a high electromagnetic voltage could be
interpreted as 1 and low voltage as 0.
  Digital signals are discrete rather than continuous. Either there is a signal or there isn't a
signal. Telegraphs transmit data with discrete signals. You either hear a tap or you do not
hear a tap. Discrete signals can be represented by on and off pulses. The duration of a
discrete signal can be varied, as with dots and dashes in Morse code. Discrete signals can also
be represented digitally. The presence of a signal could be coded as a 1 and the absence of a
signal coded as a 0. The digits 0 and 1 are used because computer circuitry is based on binary
digital data. Codes are used to group a set number of bits together and have a group of bits
represent a letter, number, or other character. The computer’s brain, the central processing
unit (CPU), transforms these codes of 0s and 1s into the voice, video and data we see. One
coding scheme, ASCII (stands for American Standard Code for Information
Interchange.), codes an “a” as the binary number 0110-0001.

Digital data is based on two states, on or off. The binary numbering system uses only two digits,
0 and 1, so it makes sense to use the binary numbering system. One digit, 0 represents off, the
other digit represents on. A single 0 or 1 is called a bit. One byte is equal to eight bits (also called
an octet when discussing TCP/IP). In ASCII code, one octet is the equivalent of one alphabetic or
numeric character. In order to appreciate how computers communicate over networks, it is
necessary to be aware of how they encode information.

Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Transmissions

Data transmission may be:

Connection-oriented

Connectionless

The main difference between the two is that with a connection-oriented

transmission, the destination device acknowledges receipt. Whereas, with
connectionless, there is no acknowledgement.

In connection-oriented transmissions, the sending (source) device establishes a

connection with the receiving (destination) device. The connection is continued
until all data packets have been transmitted and the source device receives
notification that the data was received by the destination device and has been
checked for errors.
A telephone conversation is an example of a connection-oriented transmission.
When a call is made, data is transmitted across phone lines, the receiving party
picks up the phone, and a conversation takes place.

The individual making the call knows that it arrived at the correct destination
and that it was understood.

In a connectionless transmission, the source device transmits data but the

connection is not maintained. The source device does not wait for notification
that the destination device actually received the information accurately. This
method is faster than connection-oriented, however less reliable since there is
no notification of whether the data is received or not.

It is more common to find connectionless transmissions on LANs. To understand

a connectionless transmission, think of a radio broadcast: A radio disc jockey
tells his/her friends to be sure to listen to her/his program at 9:00 p.m. At that
time the disk jockey broadcasts a message to them.

Did they receive the message? Although it is quite likely, the disk jockey cannot
be sure that they turned the radio on, listened, or understood the message.

This transfer of data takes place via some form of transmission media (for example,
Twisted-Pair cables, coaxial cable, fiber optics etc.)

3.3 Modes of Data Transmission

When data are transmitted from one point to another, three modes of transmission can be identified:
􀂃Simplex
􀂃Half Duplex
􀂃Full Duplex

Simplex
In this mode, transmission can take place only in one direction. The device at either end is either a
send-only or receive-only device.
The flow of data is unidirectional.
Simplex

Sender Receiver

Half-Duplex
In this mode, data can be transmitted in both directions, but in only one direction at a time. This is
good for transmissions in which case the receiver has to acknowledge that it has received the
message back to the sender. Thus, a half-duplex line can alternately send and receive data. Two wires
are usually required. Voice communication (E.g. telephone) is normally an instance of half-duplex
mode of transmission.
Half-Duplex

Sender Receiver
(Receiver) (Sender)
 Full-duplex
Full-duplex transmission mode allows simultaneous transmission in both directions. When high-
speed transmission is required, full-duplex transmission is the ideal choice. This transmission mode
requires four wires.
Full-Duplex
Sender/Receiver Receiver/ Sender

3.3. Speed of Data Transmission

The capacity of a medium is the function of the frequency of that medium. Bits per second (Baud) is
the standard measure used to express the speed of transmission in a given medium.
The various media of communication can be described in terms of their bandwidth, which is the
difference between the highest and the lowest frequencies that can be transmitted down a single line.
The greater the bandwidth, which is the difference of frequency transmitted down a single line, the
higher the capacity of the medium expressed in bits per second.
In other words, bandwidth determines the amount of information that can be transmitted by a
network connection.
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
 Two main categories of transmission media :

–Guided ― wires, cables

–Unguided ― wireless transmission, e.g. radio, microwave, infrared,
sound, sonar
We will concentrate on guided media here:

1. Twisted-Pair cables:
a. Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) cables
b. Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) cables
2. Coaxial cables
3. Fiber-optic cables

1) Twisted Pair Cable

Two wires are twisted together to form the wire type known as twisted pair (TP). Cables can be
constructed of multiple pairs of cables contained by a common jacket.

Fig. 1) Twisted pair cable

There are two types of twisted pair cables, those are:-
􀂾SHIELDED TWISTED PAIRS (STP) and
􀂾UNSHIELDED PAIRS (UTP)
UTP is the cheapest among network cables. UTP looks much like the wire used to wire voice telephones.
In newer telephone installations, it may indeed be possible to use wiring installed for the voice telephone
system as cable in a network.

Fig. 2) STP and UTP cables

Here are some advantages of twisted pair wiring:
Telephone cable standards are mature and well established. Materials are plentiful, and a wide variety of
cable installers are familiar with the installation requirements.
It may be possible to use in-place telephone wiring if it is of sufficiently high quality.
UTP represents the lowest cost cabling. The cost for STP is higher and is comparable to the cost of
coaxial cable.

Some disadvantages of twisted pair are as follows:

STP can be expensive and difficult to work with.
Compared to fiber optic cable, all TP cable is more sensitive to EMI. UTP especially may be unsuitable
for use in high-EMI environments.
TP cables are regarded as being less suitable for high-speed transmissions than coax or fiber optic.
Technology advances, however, are pushing upward the data rates possible with TP. Cable segment
lengths are also more limited with TP.
COAXIAL CABLE (Coax)

Fig. 3) Coaxial cable

Some advantages of coaxial cable are as follows:

Highly insensitive to EMI
Supports high bandwidths
Heavier types of coax are sturdy and can withstand harsh environments
Represents a mature technology that is well understood and consistently applied among vendors
Coax also has some disadvantages including the following:
Although fairly insensitive to EMI, coax remains vulnerable to EMI in harsh conditions such as factories.
Coax can be bulky.
Coax is among the most expensive types of wire cables.
Fiber Optic
Fiber optic cables utilize light waves to transmit data through a thin glass or plastic fiber.
Fiber optic cables have many desirable characteristics. Because the fibers are small in diameter, a cable of
a given size can contain more fibers than copper wire pairs. Because fiber optic cables use light pulses
instead of electrical signals, they offer very high bandwidth. Bandwidths of 100 megabits (million bits per
second) are commonplace, and bandwidths in the gigabit (billion bit) per second range are available.
Because the signal in a fiber optic cable consists of light pulses, the signal cannot be affected by
electromagnetic interference. Nor can the cables radiate radio frequency noise. Optical fibers are,
therefore, suitable for use in the noisiest and most sensitive environments. Because these cables radiate no
electromagnetic energy, it is impossible to intercept the data signal with electronic eavesdropping
equipment. Fiber optic transmissions are extremely secure.

Fig. 1) Fiber optic cable

Installation of fiber optic cable requires greater skill than is necessary to install most copper cables.
Here are some advantages of fiber optic cable:
Very high bandwidth.
Immunity to EMI; fiber optic cables can be used in environments that make wire cables unusable.
No radio frequency emissions; signals on fiber optic cables cannot interfere with nearby
electronic devices and cannot be detected by conventional electronic eavesdropping techniques.
Summary of Cable Characteristics
Cable Type Cable Cost Installation Cost EMI Sensitivity Data Bandwidth
UTP STP Coax Fiber Optic Lowest Medium Lowest Moderate Highest Low Lowest Moderate
Medium Highest Moderate Low None High Very high
Highest

MICROWAVE SYSEMS
Microwave Communications, use of a high-frequency electromagnetic wave to transmit information.
Microwave transmission can be described as microwave radio or microwave telegraphy. It involves
receiving and resending microwave signals between relay stations.

High-frequency microwave transmissions are beamed from point to point using tall antennas. The
antennas must be within sight of each other, since the microwave signals travel in straight, narrow paths.
At microwave frequencies, the electromagnetic waves cannot bend or pass obstacles like hill. The
transmitter and receiver are mounted on very high towers to have line-of-sight.
To overcome problem of line-of-sight and power amplification of weak signals, it uses repeaters at
interval of about 25 to 30 kms in between the transmitting and receiving stations.
The data signals are received, amplified and retransmitted by each of these stations.
It has data transmission rate of about 16 Gigabits per second and can support 250,000 voice channels.

COMMUNICATION SATELLITES
Communications Satellite, any earth-orbiting spacecraft that provides communication over long distances
by reflecting or relaying radio-frequency signals.
Modern communications satellites receive, amplify, and retransmit information back to earth, providing
television, telefax, telephone, radio, and digital data links around the world.
A microwave relay station placed in outer space usually launched by rockets or space shuttles and
positioned 36,000 kms above the equator in a geosynchronous orbit.
It handles data, voice and video.
Its signal is transmitted at 6GHz or 14 GHz to the satellite in space.
The transponder mounted on the satellite amplifies the weak ]signal and transmits it back to the earth at a
frequency of 4 GHz or 11 GHz.
The use of 4GHz band frequencies for transmission and retransmission signals in a satellite comm.
System is called the C-band transmission.
The use of 11 GHz to 14GHz bands of frequencies is called Ku-band transmission.
Advantages:
Transmit and receive data between two randomly chosen points in a very large area.
Data transmission costs are independent of the distance between two points within the covered area.
Enormous data communication capability
Good error detection mechanism
Disadvantages
High initials costs.
About 270 msc propagation delay between sender and receiver
Special security measures required to prevent unauthorized tampering of information during broadcast.
Atmospheric disturbances like thunder and lightning affect the Ku-band, hence C-band transmission is
recommended during bad weather.
Fundamentals of Computer Networking
What is networking?
A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices that communicate to share data,
hardware, software, and other resources.

Benefit of Network
Networks increase efficiency and reduce costs. Computer networks achieve these goals in four primary
ways:
􀂾Sharing Information (Or Data)
􀂾Sharing Hardware (Peripheral Devices)
􀂾Sharing Programs/Software
􀂾Centralizing Administration and Support

TYPE OF NETWORKS
Based on the geographic are they cover computer networks can be classified in two the three . These
are:
1) LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN):
A network that connects computer equipment and other terminals distributed in a localized area eg a
university campus, factory, office, school or a building.

Characteristics include:
􀂃Limited geographical area less than two kilometers.
􀂃Ranges from simple two computers connected to complex hundreds of computers.
􀂃High bandwidth greater than 1mbps.
􀂃Inexpensive cable media(coaxial or twisted pairs).
􀂃Good for resource sharing.

Usually one computer serves as the file server which stores the software that controls the network and the
software that can be shared by the computers attached to the network.
2) METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)
It covers larger geographical areas such as cities or school districts. Multi Campuses University can link
LAN in the various campuses together to form MAN. An example is the MAN network at Addis Ababa
University (AAU) which networked the computers in various faculties located at distance locations at
Addis, Ethiopia. It is a high speed network using fiber optics.
3) WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)
This is when computers in a network are situated in a wider geographical area. A WAN is made up of a
number of interconnected LANs. For instance, a WAN network can be in different countries or
continents.
Communication is established through telephone lines, microwave link, fiber optics or satellite links. For
example, university of Gondar in Ethiopia cab is connected to White house in Washington DC.

Network configuration
1. Peer-to- peer
2. Client-server
Peer-to-Peer Networks
 Peer-to-peer network is also called workgroup
 No hierarchy among computers Þ all are equal
 No administrator responsible for the network

Advantages of peer-to-peer networks:

• Low cost
• Simple to configure
• User has full accessibility of the computer
Disadvantages of peer-to-peer networks:
 • May have duplication in resources
• Difficult to uphold security policy
• Difficult to handle uneven loading
Where peer-to-peer network is appropriate:
• 10 or less users
• No specialized services required
• Security is not an issue
Clients and Servers (client/server)

• Network Clients (Workstation)

• Computers that request network resources or services
• Network Servers
• Computers that manage and provide network resources and services to clients
• Usually have more processing power, memory and hard disk space than
clients
• Run Network Operating System that can manage not only data, but also users,
groups, security, and applications on the network
Servers often have a more stringent requirement on its performance and reliability

Advantages of client/server networks

• Facilitate resource sharing – centrally administrate and control

• Facilitate system backup and improve fault tolerance
• Enhance security – only administrator can have access to Server
• Support more users – difficult to achieve with peer-to-peer networks

Disadvantages of client/server networks

• High cost for Servers
• Need expert to configure the network
• Introduce a single point of failure to the system

Network Topology
The way in which connections are made is called the topology of the network. Network topology
specifically refers to the physical layout of the network, especially the locations of the computers and
how the cable is run between them. It is important to select the right topology for how the network
will be used. Each topology has its own strengths and weaknesses. Four of the most common
topologies are bus, star, ring, and mesh.
The following four types of physical topologies are frequently used in computer networking:
1 .Star Topology
2. Bus Topology
3. Ring Topology
4. Hybrid Topology
A LAN is a high-speed communications system designed to link computers and other data processing
devices together within a small geographic area such as a workgroup, department, or a single floor of a
multistory building. Several LANs can also be interconnected within a building or campus of buildings to
extend connectivity.
1) Start Topology
A Basic Star Topology LAN
In a star topology all stations are wired to a central wiring concentrator called a hub. Similar to a bus
topology, packets sent from one station to another are repeated to all ports on the hub. This allows all
stations to see each packet sent on the network, but only the station a packet is addressed to pays attention
to it.
The diagram illustrates a star topology LAN -- which is a more robust topology than the bus topology. In
a star topology, each station is connected to a central wiring concentrator, or hub, by an individual length
of twisted pair cable. The cable is connected to the station’s NIC at one end and to a port on the hub at the
other. The hubs are placed in wiring closest centrally located in the building.
Advantages of Stars topology
Most modern cabling systems are designed in a star physical topology. The benefits of the star topology
are:
􀂾Each device is isolated on its own cable.
􀂾It is a reliable network and easy to modify
􀂾Easy to add new workstation.
􀂾A node can fail without affecting other nodes
􀂾All data goes through the central point, which can be equipped with diagnostic devices that make it
easy to trouble shoot and manage the network.

Disadvantages of Star topology

􀂾Star topology has the following disadvantages:
􀂾Because point-to-point wiring is utilized for each node, more cable is required.
􀂾Hub failures results in a short down of the entire network.

2) Bus Topology
In a bus topology, all devices attach to the same transmission medium. The medium has a physical
beginning and end. All buses are implemented using electrical cable, usually coax, and the ends of the
cable must be terminated with a terminating resistor that matches the impedance of the cable. The
terminating resistor prevents data reflections from coming across as data corruption. The bus is
considered a multipoint system because all devices tap into the same backbone cable.
An important characteristic to remember in bus topologies is that all data signals are broadcast throughout
the bus structure. In the following diagram, if node B sends a signal to node C, the signal propagates for
the length of the cable and is seen by nodes A and D as well. It is necessary to have an addressing
mechanism so that each node understands which message it is to receive and which to ignore.

Advantages of Bus topology

Bus topology has the following advantage:
Cabling costs are minimized because of the common trunk.
Disadvantages of Bus topology
Disadvantages of bus topology are as follows:
Difficult to trouble shoot because no central distribution points exist.
Cable breaks can disable the entire segment because they remove the required termination from each of
the two cable fragments.
3) Ring Topology
The ring topology is a physical, closed loop consisting of point-to-point links. In the diagram, you can see
how each node on the ring acts as a repeater. It receives a transmission from the previous node and
amplifies it before passing it on.

Benefits of Ring topology

Ring topology has the following advantage:
Each repeater duplicates the data signals so that very little signal degradation occurs.
Disadvantage of Ring Topology
Ring topology has the following disadvantages:
A break in the ring can disable the entire network. Many ring designs incorporate extra cabling that can
be switched in if a primary cable fails.
Because each node must have the capability of functioning as a repeater, the networking devices tend to
be more expensive.

5) Mesh Topology

 All computers connected together

 Internet is a mesh network
 Advantage
 Data will always be delivered
 Disadvantages
 Lots of cable
 Hard to setup
4) Hybrid Topology
The hybrid topology scheme combines multiple topologies into one large topology. The hybrid network is
common in large wide-area networks. Because each topology has its own strengths and weaknesses,
several different types can be combined for maximum effectiveness.
Advantages of Hybrid topology
Hybrid topology has the following advantages:
One company can combine the benefits of several different types of topologies.
Workgroup efficiency and traffic can be customized.
Disadvantages of Hybrid topology
The disadvantages of hybrid topology include the following:
Devices on one topology cannot be placed into another topology without some hardware changes.
Internet and World-Wide-web (www)
The Internet is a worldwide, publicly accessible network of interconnected computer networks that
transmit data by packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol (IP). It is a "network of networks"
that consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic, business, and government networks, which
together carry various information and services, such as electronic mail, online chat, file transfer, and the
interlinked Web pages and other documents of the World Wide Web.

Common uses of Internet/Feature of the Internet

􀂙E-mail
The concept of sending electronic text messages between parties in a way analogous to mailing letters or
memos predates the creation of the Internet.
􀂙The World Wide Web
It is collection of web site on the internet that supports hyper text documents. Through keyword-driven
Internet research using search engines, like Google, millions worldwide have easy, instant access to a vast
and diverse amount of online information. Compared to encyclopedias and traditional libraries, the World
Wide Web has enabled a sudden and extreme decentralization of information and data.
􀂙Remote access

The Internet allows computer users to connect to other computers and information stores easily, wherever
they may be across the world. They may do this with or without the use of security, authentication and
encryption technologies, depending on the requirements.
This is encouraging new ways of working from home, collaboration and information sharing in many
industries. An accountant sitting at home can audit the books of a company based in another country, on a
server situated in a third country that is remotely maintained by IT specialists in a fourth.
An office worker away from his desk, perhaps the other side of the world on a business trip or a holiday,
can open a remote desktop session into their normal office PC using a secure Virtual Private Network
(VPN) connection via the Internet. This gives the worker complete access to all of their normal files and
data, including e-mail and other applications, while away from the office. Eg Telnet
 􀂙File sharing

A computer file can be E-mailed to customers, colleagues and friends as an attachment. It can be
uploaded to a Web site or FTP server for easy download by others. It can be put into a "shared location"
or onto a file server for instant use by colleagues.
Streaming media
Many existing radio and television broadcasters provide Internet 'feeds' of their live audio and video
streams (for example, the BBC). They may also allow time-shift viewing or listening such as Preview,
Classic Clips and Listen Again features.
􀂙Voice telephony (VoIP)

VoIP stands for Voice over IP, where IP refers to the Internet Protocol that underlies all Internet
communication. In recent years many VoIP systems have become as easy to use and as convenient as a
normal telephone.
Thus VoIP is maturing into a viable alternative to traditional telephones. Voice quality can still vary from
call to call but is often equal to and can even exceed that of traditional calls.
Search Engine
It is an information retrieval system designed to help find information stored on a computer system, such
as on the World Wide Web, inside a corporate or proprietary network, or in a personal computer. The
search engine allows one to ask for content meeting specific criteria (typically those containing a given
word or phrase) and retrieves a list of items that match those criteria.
Examples: Yahoo, Google Lycos ,Microsoft Network search Infoseek, Internet Search Tools etc.
Surfing: The process of navigating the internet to search for useful information
Gopher: A text based tool that provide hierarchical collection of information of all sort on the internet
Archie: A keyword-based search tool that allows files stored at anonymous sites of the internet to be
searched either by their names or by their contents.
Uniform Resource Locator (URL):- It is the address of web page on the internet.
Web page:-Single page of information or document that encoded with HTML tags.
Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML):-
Web Site: - A collection of related web page
Web Server: - It is systems that store a web site.
Web Browser: - Program the run on the client–side used to view and interact web page on the www.
Examples: internet explorer, Google chromo, opera mini, Mozilla Firefox etc.
Home page: - It is the first page of the particular web site with link to other pages in the web site.
Hyperlink: - A link that used to link another web page.
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP):- A rule used for transferring web document over the internet
and used to communicate web browsers.
Internet Service Provider (ISP):- Provide the user to access the internet by using user name and
password.
How the internet Work?
 Internet is work by using the following
1. File Transfer Protocol/ Internet Protocol (TCP/IP):- a rule to control timing and date format
and govern the packet of flow.
2. Routing Traffic across the internet: - used to travel packets across the internet.
3. Address Schemes: - A computer has unique address on the internet called IP Address that is a
logical and four byte address of the computer. It has four parts which consists of the number
between 0-255.
4. Doman names and sub domains: - In addition to IP address most computers on the internet
hosts/ servers have Domain Name System (DNS) which uses words.
Example: ibm.com (Domain Name), product.ibm.com (Sub Domain Name), .com=
commercial, .edu = education, .gov = government, .org= organization, etc.
 Types of internet connection
1. Dial up access:- use modems and phone call
2. Broadband access:- cover broad range of technology, proved higher data rate access and use
wireless or fiber optic cables
3. Wireless Broadband access:-Wi-Fi, Wireless ISP, Wi- Max
4. Satellite Broadband and
5. Mobile access
Downloads: - The process of copping file from the internet to users
Upload: - The Process of copping file from users to the internet

4. Computer Security
4.1 What is security?
Security is the protection of information from theft or corruption.
4.2 Types of Security
1. Network security
2. System and Software security and
3. Physical security
Vulnerability: - It is a point where a system is susceptible to the attack
Threat: - Is a potential violation of information security
Types of computer attack
i. Network attacks(DNS attack, packet sniffing )
ii. Web attack(phishing, SQL injection)
iii. Operating System, application and software attacks(Viruses, Trojans, worms) and
Achieve security: - A computer security is achieve by the following
 Cryptography (encryption/encode and decryption/decode)
 Secure network
 Anti-viruses and
 firewalls
Computer Virus
A computer virus is a computer program that can copy itself and infect a computer without permission or
knowledge of the user. A virus can only spread from one computer to another when its host is taken to the
uninfected computer, for instance by a user sending it over a network or carrying it on a removable
medium such as a floppy disk, CD, or USB drive. Additionally, viruses can spread to other computers by
infecting files on a network file system or a file system that is accessed by another computer.
Viruses are sometimes confused with computer worms and Trojan horses. A worm, however, can spread
itself to other computers without needing to be transferred as part of a host. A Trojan horse is a file that
appears harmless until executed. In contrast to viruses, Trojan horses do not insert their code into other
computer files. Many personal computers are now connected to the Internet and to local-area networks,
facilitating their spread.
There are many viruses operating in the general Internet today, and new ones are created and discovered
every day.
Why people create computer viruses?
Unlike biological viruses (see Virus), computer viruses do not simply evolve by themselves. Computer
viruses do not come into existence spontaneously, nor are they likely to be created by bugs in regular
programs. They are deliberately created by programmers, or by people who use virus creation software.
Computer viruses can only do what the programmers have programmed them to do.
Virus writers can have various reasons for creating and spreading malware. Viruses have been written as
research projects, pranks, vandalism, to attack the products of specific companies, to distribute political
messages, and financial gain from identity theft, spyware, and cryptoviral extortion. Some virus writers
consider their creations to be works of art, and see virus writing as a creative hobby.
Virus removal
One possibility on Windows XP is a tool known as System Restore, which restores the registry and
critical system files to a previous checkpoint. There are so many anti-virus software in the computer
market that we can use to remove virus from an infected file. Dr. Solomon, MacAfee, Norton etc
Operating system reinstallation
As a last ditch effort, if a virus is on your system and anti-viral software can't clean it, then
reinstalling the operating system may be required. To do this properly, the hard drive is completely
erased (partition deleted and formatted) and the operating system is installed from media known not
to be infected. Important files should first be backed up, if possible, and separately scanned for
infection before erasing the original hard drive and reinstalling the operating system.

Types of viruses

1. Trojans horse:- The types of viruses that usually gets from frequent internet browsing and
damage the system when it run.
2. Recycler: - A virus that hide all the computer folders and converts into short cut folders.
3. Worms: - A program that copy itself. Once active then replicating themselves using E-mail,
Remote login or remote executing software and perform a certain action using computer
network and security hole.
4. Zombie: - a program the secretly takes over another internet attach computer to lunch.
5. Logical bombs:- Embedded code that explodes under special circumstance
Malicious Program: - a types of viruses that always get from infected USB flash disk.
1. Dependent malwares :- needs host program(viruses, Trojan horse, logical bombs)
2. Independent malwares :- Don’t need host programs (worms, zombie)

The solution of the computer that infected by virus is install ant-virus in thecomputer.

Example of anti-virus:- Avast (an application software that blocks virus), MacAfee, Avira, Kasper
key, AVG…