Beyond

Classrooms
POLICY AND PRACTICE
 Beyond
Classrooms
POLICY AND PRACTICE
Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice
A Working Paper Series

Project Lead:
Sadaf Hussain, Senior Consultant
Centre for Civil Society (CCS)

Digital Publication Details:

Publication Date: 11 November 2024

Publisher:
Centre for Civil Society
A-69, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016
Email: [email protected] | Website: www.ccs.in

Project Team:
Coordinators:
Dr. Heena Choudhary, Senior Associate, Research & Training Programs
Snehal Thakre, Associate, Research & Training Programs
Designer:
Ravi Kumar Yadav, Design Consultant

Acknowledgment:
This Researching Reality Training Programme 2024 was partially and generously supported by
the Friedrich Naumann Foundation for Freedom-South Asia.
CONTENTS
Introduction7
Key Insights and Findings 10
From Access to Equity: A Comparative Analysis of the RTE Act
and NEP 2020 11
Money Matters: A Study of Financial Investments and Educational
Equity in Delhi Government Schools 25
Lost in the System: Document Discrepancies and Other Barriers to
RTE Admissions in Delhi 59
Delhi’s Education System: Examining Shifting Enrolment and
Dropout Patterns 73
Educational Dilemmas: Public School Teachers’ Choices Between
Public and Private Schools for Their Children in Urban Chennai 87
Balancing Excellence: Curriculum and Infrastructure in Delhi’s
Specialised Schools 103
Exploring the Impact of School Autonomy on Educational
Performance125
Conclusion: Navigating the Path Forward in Education Reform 140
Acknowledgements142
About the Scholars 143
About the Mentors/Guides 146
About the Team 148
About the Researching Reality Training Programme  149
About Centre for Civil Society & Friedrich Naumann Foundation 150
6 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice
INTRODUCTION

Education is often regarded as the foundation The NEP 2020 represents a bold attempt to
of national development, and its role in shaping address this challenge. While the policy maintains
human capital, promoting equality, and fostering the emphasis on universal access to education, it
societal progress cannot be overstated. Across the also recognises that education quality must be at
globe, countries continually strive to enhance their the heart of reform efforts. One of the key shifts in
education systems, and India is no exception. Since the NEP is its focus on foundational literacy and
the introduction of widespread educational reforms numeracy, acknowledging that many children,
in the early 2000s, the Indian education system despite attending school, are not acquiring basic
has seen numerous changes, most notably through reading and arithmetic skills. This focus on early
policies such as the Right to Education (RTE) Act of learning is critical, as studies have shown that
2009 and the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020. children who do not master basic skills in their
These efforts aim to address critical challenges such early years are more likely to struggle throughout
as access, equity, quality, and the overall relevance their educational journey and are at greater risk of
of education in a rapidly evolving world. dropping out.

“Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice”; a Beyond foundational skills, the NEP 2020 also
comprehensive compendium, undertakes a bold champions a more holistic, learner-centered
and multifaceted examination of the pressing issues approach to education. By moving away from rote
shaping India’s education landscape. Drawing memorisation and textbook-driven instruction, the
on empirical research conducted by scholars policy aims to foster critical thinking, creativity,
at the Centre for Civil Society, it delves into the and problem-solving skills. This approach is
intricate interplay between policy implementation, seen as essential in preparing students not just
governance frameworks, and educational practices, for exams, but for life in an increasingly complex
and how they culminate in student outcomes. and interconnected world. Vocational education,
The insights presented here are indispensable for experiential learning, and multidisciplinary
understanding both the triumphs and shortcomings approaches are also emphasised, ensuring that
of India’s educational reforms, particularly in urban students are equipped with a broad range of skills
hubs like Delhi. At the core of this work lies a pivotal that will enable them to navigate future challenges.
question: how can education systems transcend
merely providing access to schools and instead focus Governance and Accountability in
on enhancing the quality of learning, ensuring equity,
Education
and empowering students to thrive in life.

A significant obstacle that persists in hindering

The Journey from Access to Quality educational advancement in India is the challenge
of governance. The efficacy of an education system
One of the most significant shifts in India’s education is contingent not solely on the policies instituted, but
policy over the past two decades has been the also on the institutional structures and processes
move from focusing solely on access to addressing that facilitate the effective implementation of these
quality. The RTE Act, implemented in 2009, was policies. India’s education system, particularly
instrumental in guaranteeing free and compulsory within the public school domain, has long grappled
education for children aged 6 to 14. This policy with issues of suboptimal governance, marked
resulted in a dramatic increase in enrolment rates, by weak accountability frameworks, bureaucratic
as millions of children, particularly those from inefficiencies, and the mismanagement of resources.
economically weaker sections and marginalised
communities, gained access to schooling. However, Teacher absenteeism is one of the most striking
while the RTE Act succeeded in opening the doors of examples of governance failures. Studies have
education to all, it soon became evident that access shown that in many public schools, a significant
alone was not enough. The challenge now is to percentage of teachers are absent on any given
ensure that children who attend school actually learn day, and even when present, the time devoted
and acquire the skills needed to thrive in society.

Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice 7

 to actual teaching is often limited. This issue is Equity and Inclusion in Education
compounded by the fact that many teachers are
burdened with administrative tasks, leaving them Despite significant progress in expanding access to
with less time to focus on instruction. Additionally, education, deep inequalities persist within the Indian
the lack of performance-based incentives means education system. These disparities are particularly
that there is little motivation for teachers to improve pronounced when it comes to students from
their teaching practices or go beyond the minimum economically disadvantaged backgrounds, girls, and
requirements. children from marginalised communities such as
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and minority
Improving governance in education requires a groups. For these students, the barriers to education
shift toward more effective management and go beyond financial constraints; they include social
accountability structures. One promising approach and cultural factors, as well as systemic issues such
is the decentralisation of decision-making, giving as discrimination and inadequate support structures.
schools more autonomy to manage their resources,
hire teachers, and tailor instruction to the needs of The RTE Act’s provision for reserving 25% of seats
their students. School Management Committees in private schools for students from disadvantaged
(SMCs), which involve parents, teachers, and local groups was a key step toward promoting inclusivity.
officials in the running of schools, are an example of However, the implementation of this provision has
how greater community involvement can enhance been fraught with challenges, including bureaucratic
accountability and improve educational outcomes. delays, document discrepancies, and resistance from
However, decentralisation must be accompanied some private schools. Moreover, even when students
by appropriate oversight to ensure that resources from disadvantaged backgrounds are admitted
are used equitably and effectively, particularly in to private schools, they often struggle to fit into
underserved areas. environments that are vastly different from their own
social and cultural contexts.

8 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

In government schools, the issue of dropout rates introduced in Delhi, represent one such initiative
continues to be a major concern, particularly among aimed at providing a more customised and skills-
girls and students from marginalised communities. oriented education experience for students with
Factors such as child marriage, household specific talents and interests.
responsibilities, and social norms that devalue girls’
education contribute to higher dropout rates for girls. However, curriculum reform must go hand-in-
Additionally, the lack of gender-sensitive facilities hand with teacher training. Teachers play a crucial
and support for students with disabilities further role in translating curricular goals into classroom
exacerbates inequalities. practices, and without proper training and support,
even the most well-designed curricula may fail
Addressing these inequities requires a multi-pronged to achieve their intended outcomes. Ongoing
approach. On the one hand, there is a need for professional development, mentoring, and peer
targeted interventions that address the specific learning opportunities for teachers are essential to
barriers faced by marginalised students. On the ensure that they are equipped to deliver high-quality
other hand, broader systemic reforms are needed instruction.
to create an education system that is truly inclusive
and supportive of all students, regardless of their Conclusion
background. This includes reforming curricula to
make them more culturally responsive, providing The journey towards creating an equitable and
adequate infrastructure such as gender-sensitive high-quality education system in India remains an
toilets, and offering support services such as ongoing endeavor. While significant advancements
counselling and mentorship for students at risk of have been made, numerous challenges persist.
dropping out. The publication “Beyond Classrooms: Policy
and Practice” offers a critical analysis of these
The Role of Curriculum and Pedagogy challenges, emphasizing the need for a more
comprehensive and integrated approach to
At the heart of any education system is the educational reform. This approach extends beyond
curriculum, and in India, the issue of curriculum merely ensuring students’ enrollment in schools and
reform has been a topic of intense debate. The instead focuses on providing them with meaningful,
traditional Indian education system has long been relevant, and transformative learning experiences.
criticised for its over-reliance on rote memorisation
and exam-focused teaching methods. While this As India continues to emerge as a global power,
approach may produce high scorers in standardised the role of education in shaping its future trajectory
tests, it does little to foster critical thinking, creativity, cannot be overstated. The insights presented
or the ability to apply knowledge in real-world in this compendium underscore the paramount
contexts. importance of sustained investment in the quality,
governance, and inclusivity of the education system.
In recent years, there has been a growing recognition Only by addressing these interrelated issues can
of the need to reform curricula to make them more India’s education system fully realize its potential to
relevant to the needs of the 21st century. This empower all its citizens, ensuring that no child is left
includes not only integrating new subjects such as behind.
coding, artificial intelligence, and environmental
studies, but also adopting pedagogical approaches Sadaf Hussain
that promote active learning and student Project Lead
engagement. Schools of Specialised Excellence,

Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice 9

 KEY INSIGHTS AND FINDINGS

1. From Access to Equity: A Comparative Analysis 5. Educational Dilemmas: Public School Teachers’
of the RTE Act and NEP 2020 Choices Between Public and Private Schools for
Their Children
The RTE Act succeeded in expanding school
enrollment, but its primary emphasis on inputs like A significant proportion of public school teachers
infrastructure resulted in lagging learning outcomes. in Chennai elect to enrol their children in private
In contrast, the NEP 2020 has shifted the focus educational institutions, citing the perceived superior
toward fostering foundational literacy and numeracy, quality and infrastructure, which suggests a lack of
aiming to cultivate a more holistic and equitable faith in the public school system.
education system.
6. Balancing Excellence: Curriculum and
2. Money Matters: A Study of Financial Infrastructure in Delhi’s Schools of Specialised
Investments and Educational Equity in Delhi Excellence
Government Schools Whilst the curriculum in Delhi’s Schools of
Despite increased government expenditure on Specialised Excellence is perceived as a progression
education in Delhi, particularly in infrastructure, towards educational innovation, deficient
the education system continues to face persistent infrastructure and constrained extracurricular
challenges, including teacher shortages, high offerings impede the holistic student experience.
dropout rates, and underutilised budgets. These
findings suggest the need for more efficient and 7. Exploring the Impact of School Autonomy on
effective management of educational resources. Educational Performance
Providing schools with increased autonomy may
3. Lost in the System: Document Discrepancies enhance student achievement and teacher morale,
and Other Barriers to RTE Admissions in Delhi but insufficient monitoring could exacerbate the
Procedural gaps, such as document discrepancies, resource divide between urban and rural educational
hinder the admission process under the RTE Act for institutions.
students from economically weaker sections. These
barriers disproportionately affect access to private
schools​.

4. Delhi’s Education System: Examining Shifting

Enrolment and Dropout Patterns
While public school enrolments have increased
in the aftermath of the pandemic, dropout rates
remain persistently high, particularly among girls
and students from marginalised communities.
The continued preference for private schooling
underscores the persistent inequities within the
public education system.

10 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

 CHAPTER

1
From Access to Equity: A
Comparative Analysis of the
RTE Act and NEP 2020

Durgesh Jha | Ojaswi Anand | Sanyam Mahajan

 Ch
1

ABSTRACT 1. INTRODUCTION
This paper presents a critical comparative analysis Education serves as a key driver of national
of the Right to Education Act, 2009, and the development by cultivating human capital and
National Education Policy, 2020, examining their fostering social inclusion. It stimulates economic
respective approaches to educational access, activity and enhances living standards through
quality, and equity. While the RTE Act significantly cognitive, psychomotor, and emotional growth.
increased school enrolment by guaranteeing free Consequently, providing affordable and accessible
and compulsory education for children aged 6 to education for all is essential for both individual and
14, it primarily focused on input factors such as national progress.
infrastructure and teacher qualifications, neglecting
the crucial aspect of learning outcomes. In contrast, Since India’s independence, significant strides have
the NEP 2020 aims to address these shortcomings been made in universalising education, as evidenced
by introducing goals for foundational literacy and by the ASER Report 2023, which indicates 98.4%
numeracy, adopting a multidisciplinary approach, enrolment for children aged 6-14 and 86.8% for
and incorporating vocational education at the ages 14-18. However, learning outcomes remain
secondary level. Furthermore, the NEP’s emphasis a concern, with over 57% of grade 5 students
on equity extends beyond economic disadvantages unable to comprehend a grade 2-level paragraph
to include marginalized communities. This analysis (ASER, 2024). The Right to Education Act played
highlights how the NEP’s holistic, learner-centred a pivotal role by guaranteeing free education for
approach strives to enhance the overall quality ages 6-14, and the National Education Policy
of education, while the RTE’s efforts were largely 2020 aims to expand this to ages 3 through grade
successful in improving access to schooling. 12. Nevertheless, the NEP has faced criticism for
prioritising access to schooling over the quality of
Keywords: Right to Education (RTE) Act, National education.
Education Policy (NEP) 2020, Educational Access,
Learning Outcomes, Equity in Education, School Early educational experiences are paramount, as
Education, Children, Vocational Training primary schooling lays the foundation for lifelong
learning. Robust early education in literacy,
numeracy, and social skills enhances future
academic success (Sherboeva, 2024). India has
KEY FINDINGS made notable progress, with the average years of
schooling for individuals aged 25 or older increasing
1. The RTE has been criticized for emphasizing from 2.88 in 1990 to 6.5 in 2022, a trend observed
input factors rather than improving learning across nearly all population subgroups.
outcomes.
2. While RTE led to high enrolment rates,
foundational literacy and numeracy remained
insufficient.
3. The NEP holds promise in addressing the gaps
left by the RTE, focusing on educational equity
and ensuring meaningful learning experiences
for all students.

12 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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Figure 1: Increase in years of schooling

A complex legislative framework governs India’s

educational landscape, with education falling under
1.1 THE INDIAN EDUCATION
the Concurrent List, allowing both the central and POLICY LANDSCAPE
state governments to share responsibility. Although
implementation may vary across states, two key The broader policy outlook in India considers
policies have shaped the education sector: the Right education to be a critical socio-economic welfare
to Education Act and the National Education Policy measure, viewing it as a public good central to
2020. Both policies aim to enhance educational governance and policy discussions. Education is
outcomes and universalize access, but they influence perceived as a strategic imperative linked to national
institutions in distinct ways by shaping incentives, development and individual progress (Mehendale
objectives, and learning outcomes. and Mukhopadhyay, 2021). The Right to Education
Act 2009 and the National Education Policy 2020
This paper undertakes a critical comparative are pivotal components of this policy narrative.
analysis of the NEP 2020 and the RTE Act 2009,
focussing on the RTE’s intended objectives, its The establishment of the right to “free and
effectiveness over the past decade, and the compulsory education” as a fundamental right
challenges faced by educational institutions and in 2009 represented a significant shift in India’s
stakeholders. Furthermore, it explores how the education policy. However, this right was not a
NEP 2020 addresses these challenges, proposing sudden policy invention, but rather the culmination
strategies to augment access, quality, and equity in of a long-standing vision rooted in welfare and
education. By examining these policies through the governance discourse. It traces back to Article 45 of
lenses of aspirations, economic burden, and private the Constitution, which, under the Directive Principles
sector involvement, the study aspires to provide of State Policy, obligated the government to provide
a comprehensive understanding of their societal free education to all children up to age 14 within the
impacts and suggest improvements for future policy first decade of the Constitution’s implementation,
design, contributing to the ongoing discourse on the despite not being legally enforceable (Sadgopal,
future of education in India. 2010).

Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice 13

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Sadgopal highlights that the Constituent Assembly, Action under the 1986 policy introduced a common
like modern lawmakers, faced challenges. While entrance exam for admission to professional and
the Sub-Committee on Fundamental Rights initially technical programmes nationwide. The most recent
included education as a justiciable Fundamental development, the National Education Policy 2020
Right, the Advisory Committee later identified approved on 29 July 2020, places emphasis on
issues with this, citing concerns over insufficient quality, innovation, and global competitiveness in
government resources and the prioritization of other education.
rights considered more urgent at the time.
The Right to Education Act: A Closer Look
The Right to Education Act, passed in 2009, made
the government’s duty to provide elementary The Right to Education (RTE) Act of 2009
education legally binding, making it a Fundamental represented a robust commitment to educational
Right. The Act guaranteed “free and compulsory equity, with the aim of ensuring accessibility and
education” for children aged 6-14 by adding Article fairness within India’s education system. The Act
21-A to the Constitution (Bhattacharjee, 2019). established education as a fundamental right,
This landmark legislation represented a significant mandating “free and compulsory” education for
commitment to educational equity. Importantly, the children aged 6 to 14, and guaranteeing equal
RTE Act also redefined the approach to education, opportunities for all. By prioritizing equality, the RTE
focusing on input-based improvements and Act strives to eliminate disparities in educational
infrastructure changes, in addition to enhancing access, particularly benefiting marginalized
equitable access to education (Mehendale, 2014). communities that confront multiple barriers to
educational attainment (Mehendale, 2020).
Over the years, India’s education policy outlook has
evolved, reflecting changing priorities and objectives. The Act establishes a specific “framework of
Early policies focused on increasing enrolment, specificity” that mandates the government to
particularly among marginalised groups. The provide education, holding authorities accountable
emphasis later shifted to improving infrastructure, for educational outcomes (Mehendale, 2020). It
teacher training, and curriculum development. Only stipulates clear norms regarding pupil-teacher ratios,
in recent times has the focus on educational quality teacher qualifications, and a no-retention policy.
and outcomes, rather than just access, gained Recognising the need for long-term development,
prominence. However, the need to review and re- the Act advocates for a gradual enhancement of
evaluate the Indian educational system was first educational infrastructure and resources, including
recognised towards the end of the Third Five-Year infrastructure standards, inclusivity, and community
Plan. involvement. These provisions underpin the
government’s responsibility in delivering quality
The 1964 Education Commission proposed reforms education (Bhattacharjee, 2019).
to support India’s economic and cultural growth,
while fostering national integration and a socialist The RTE Act has been criticised for prioritising input-
societal framework. These recommendations led based improvements, such as infrastructure and
to the 1968 National Policy on Education, which teacher qualifications, at times neglecting learning
aimed to ensure educational quality by aligning outcomes. However, academic Nalini Juneja (2013)
teacher salaries and service conditions with their argues that the quality of education extends beyond
qualifications and competence. Additionally, measurable outcomes, reflecting a broader vision of
the policy introduced the 10 + 2 + 3 educational society and the role of education in preparing young
structures. people for the envisaged future. Ultimately, the RTE
Act represents an important milestone in India’s
The 1986 National Policy on Education aimed to ongoing efforts to achieve universal and equitable
address disparities and promote equal educational education.
opportunities, particularly for women, Scheduled
Tribes (ST), and Scheduled Castes (SC). It sought While the Right to Education Act has significantly
to universalise elementary education and proposed improved access to education, it has faced criticism
establishing Navodaya Vidyalayas to provide regarding both its policy design and impact. A
quality education, especially in rural areas. The notable issue is that increased enrolment has not
policy also emphasised vocational education, translated into a corresponding improvement in
teacher training, decentralised management, and learning outcomes, particularly in foundational
community participation. The 1992 Programme of literacy and numeracy. As of 2022–23, only 45%

14 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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of youth aged 14–18 demonstrate basic arithmetic youth population in the coming decade, NEP
proficiency, with a quarter lacking these foundational 2020 aims to provide high-quality, inclusive, and
skills (Rukmini, 2024). The Annual Status of equitable education. The policy emphasises the
Education Report highlights that factors such as development of critical thinking, creativity, and
increased fees after grade 8, inadequate curriculum interdisciplinary learning to prepare students for
and pedagogy, and parental pressures, which technological advancements and global challenges
disproportionately affect girls’ education, often lead such as climate change and pandemics. It advocates
to a decline in enrolment at higher levels (Ghosh & for an experiential, comprehensive, and learner-
Bandyopadhyay, 2018). centred approach, bridging the gap between
current educational outcomes and future societal
Since the RTE Act forbids holding students back demands. Furthermore, NEP 2020 integrates India’s
(Iyer & Counihan, 2018)., it has also led to a general educational heritage with modern pedagogical
decline in learning levels). The Act’s focus on input- practices, aiming to foster ethical and emotional
based improvements has also been criticized. development alongside enhancing employability.
Research by Iyer found that most RTE infrastructure Ultimately, the policy seeks to establish a world-
indicators were not statistically significant for class education system that supports India’s growth
student outcomes, with the exception of mid-day as a leading global economy.
meals and the presence of a library, which had a
positive impact on test scores. Furthermore, the A key feature of NEP 2020 is its emphasis on
RTE’s goal of improving equity by reserving seats promoting multidisciplinary and flexible learning.
for students from economically weaker sections in
private schools has only been partially successful. NEP 2020 adopts a comprehensive and inclusive
Bhattacharjee notes that since 2013, the fill rates approach by engaging a diverse range of
for these reserved seats have been low, ranging stakeholders, including students, teachers, parents,
between 20% and 26%, due to implementation marginalised communities, the private sector,
challenges. policymakers, and regulatory bodies. The policy
builds upon the foundations laid by previous
The implementation of the various RTE Act educational frameworks and recommendations,
provisions has shown significant discrepancies such as those from the Education Commission, the
across states. Despite the Act’s national passage Justice J.S. Verma Commission, the National Policy on
in 2009, the country experienced a slow and Education 1986/92, the Right to Education Act 2009,
inconsistent rollout. As Sachdeva et al. (2015) point and the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act 2016.
out, all states had only draughted RTE rules by At its core, NEP 2020 aims to cultivate individuals
early 2012, with many struggling to comply with with critical reasoning abilities, empathy, resilience,
its provisions until at least 2015. The adherence and moral courage while fostering a scientific
to the Act’s quality standards continues to reflect temperament, creativity, and ethical values.
this inconsistency in initial implementation, further
highlighting regional disparities. Key objectives include:

The National Education Policy 2020: A 1. Recognising each student’s unique capabilities
and promoting holistic development.
Closer Look
2. Achieving foundational literacy and numeracy
“Education is fundamental for achieving full human by Grade 3, with a goal for universal FLN by
potential, developing an equitable and just society, 2026-27.
and promoting national development. Providing 3. Offering flexible learning paths and
universal access to quality education is the key removing subject and stream barriers for a
to India’s continued ascent and leadership on the multidisciplinary education.
global stage in terms of economic growth, social
justice and equality, scientific advancement, national 4. Emphasising conceptual understanding, critical
integration, and cultural preservation.”- NEP 2020 thinking, and regular formative assessment.
5. Integrating technology to improve access
The National Education Policy 2020 was introduced and remove language barriers, promoting
to holistically transform India’s education system, multilingualism and respecting local diversity,
recognising the need to harness the country’s and ensuring equity and inclusion for all
potential amidst evolving global and national students.
contexts. With India projected to have the largest

Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice 15

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6. Aligning curriculum across all education Our framework of assessment is described in the
levels and prioritising teacher recruitment, following table:
development, and working conditions.
7. Establishing a balanced regulatory framework
Table 1: Framework for assessment
promoting transparency, innovation, and
autonomy. Attitudes towards formal
Academic
education and expenses on
8. Building research infrastructure and raising Aspirations and
supplementary education
investments in public and private education their Impacts on
sectors. Individuals Institutionalisation of private
tutoring and coaching
centres
2. METHODOLOGY Foundational literacy and
Learning
numeracy skills (FLN)
For our research, we primarily rely on secondary Outcomes and
sources, including a wide range of literature such Educational Emphasis on employment-
as research papers, policy briefs, white papers, and Quality oriented vocational training
reports, as well as the original policy documents and skill-based education
and texts published by the government. This paper Compliance with norms
aims to conduct a cross-policy and policy-narrative
Regulation of
for infrastructure and
analysis of the Right to Education (RTE) Act 2009
Private Schools
operations
and the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020. The
Regulation of Private
primary objective is to undertake a comparative
Schools
policy analysis of these two key frameworks.
To achieve this, we employ the Policy Narrative
Framework Analysis (POLiFRAME),, which integrates 3. FINDINGS
causal layered analysis to connect policymakers’
narratives with their underlying theories of change.
This approach allows us to identify deficiencies,
1. Similarities and Divergence in RTE
problems, scenarios, and visions within the policy 2009 and NEP 2020
narratives (Miedziński, 2018). In doing so, this paper
seeks to establish the continuities and contradictions The Right to Education Act 2009 and the National
in the policy designs of both frameworks through Education Policy 2020 represent transformative
the lens of policy narrative framework analysis steps in the evolution of the Indian education
(POLiFRAME). system. While both frameworks address aspects
of educational access and quality, there are several
To assess and compare the two policies, and similarities and differences between the two.
draw policy recommendations, we rely on certain
evaluation metrics. The framework for this a. Comprehensiveness: Compared to the
comparative analysis is partially derived from the National Education Policy 2020, the Right
indicators used by Faubert (2009) to assess school to Education Act is substantially less
and educational outcomes. By adapting this to comprehensive. While the Right to Education
the Indian context and emphasising the needs Act focuses on a specific set of objectives
and perspectives of diverse stakeholders, we have and concerns, as outlined previously, the
identified three key areas of interest, each with two National Education Policy 2020 aims to
proxy indicators or variables. provide a more holistic and wide-ranging
policy direction for the Indian education
system.

16 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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b. Distinct Nature: The RTE and NEP 2020 childhood care and foundational literacy and
diverge in their fundamental nature. numeracy are crucial for underrepresented
The RTE is a legislative enactment that and disadvantaged groups.
entrenches education as a fundamental e. Approach to assessments and detentions:
constitutional right under Article 21- According to the Right to Education Act,
A. In contrast, the NEP 2020 is a policy section 16, no child shall be detained in any
document outlining comprehensive reforms class until the completion of elementary
aimed at transforming the educational education. The Act also emphasises that
ecosystem through a holistic, inclusive, children should be assessed through
accessible, and multidisciplinary approach. a continuous and comprehensive
While non-compliance with the NEP 2020 evaluation system to ensure they are
recommendations would not result in legal learning effectively. In contrast, the
consequences, the RTE’s statutory footing National Education Policy advocates for
means it is legally binding. assessments that promote learning and
c. Focus: While the RTE focused on ensuring development through analysis, critical
universal access to education for children thinking, and conceptual clarity. The NEP
between the ages of 6 and 14 years, the has also proposed establishing the National
National Education Policy 2020 has a much Assessment Centre, PARAKH, as a standard-
broader mandate and target group. The NEP setting body under the Ministry of Education.
considers questions related to the education This body will set norms, standards, and
of children from 3 to 18 years of age, with guidelines for student assessment and
its provision for Early Childhood Care and evaluation across all recognized school
Education. Furthermore, the NEP restructures boards in India. Furthermore, the National
the school curriculum from a 10+2 system to Curriculum Framework for School Education,
a 5+3+3+4 system, with preschool to Grade based on the NEP 2020, states that at the
2 as the ‘Foundational Stage’, Grade 3 to 5 foundational stage, most assessments will
as the ‘Preparatory Stage’, Grade 6 to 8 as involve observations made by teachers
the ‘Middle Stage’, and Grade 9 to 12 as the rather than explicit testing of student
‘Secondary Stage’. This expansion of the abilities. The framework also proposes
educational purview under the NEP aims to using worksheets to provide teachers
address the age groups that were previously with information about children’s learning
left out. progress and no exams until Class 2.
d. Inclusive education: The RTE Act Additionally, the NEP introduces two board
recognises children from disadvantaged exams and divides subjects into eight
and economically weaker groups. curricular areas for Class 10 students, while
Disadvantaged groups refer to those who also ending the separation of science, arts
are socially, educationally and culturally or humanities, and commerce streams for
marginalised, such as scheduled castes higher secondary students.
and tribes. Economically weaker sections f. Quality education: The RTE Act focuses
are children whose parents have an heavily on inputs, such as system, school,
income below a minimum limit set by the and teacher requirements, rather than
government. Likewise, the NEP aims to addressing the issue of educational quality.
address gender and social disparities in In contrast, the NEP takes a more student-
education by focusing on Socio-Economically centric approach, recognising and nurturing
Disadvantaged Groups. SEDGs encompass each student’s unique capabilities. The
diverse identities including gender, NEP emphasises the development of both
sociocultural background, geography, cognitive and non-cognitive skills, including
disabilities, and socioeconomic status. critical thinking, problem-solving, creativity,
While the RTE Act reserves 25% of seats for and multidisciplinary learning. Furthermore,
economically weaker and disadvantaged the NEP’s approach to assessment aims to
groups to support them, the NEP 2020 promote learning and development, moving
encourages programmes and initiatives away from a content-heavy curriculum
to empower these groups. The NEP also towards a more holistic, learner-centred
believes its recommendations on early education system.

Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice 17

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g. Teacher’s training and qualification: RTE 2. Comparative Analysis of the Metrics

Act mandates that teachers possess the
and Indicators in the RTE Act and NEP
necessary qualifications and training as
prescribed by the appropriate authority, 2020
ensuring a competent teaching workforce.
I. Increasing Academic Aspirations and Its
It also emphasises the need for continuous
Impacts
professional development, highlighting the
importance of ongoing training to enhance a. Burdens on Individuals
teachers’ skills and effectiveness in the
classroom. Additionally, it establishes a Educational aspirations are a multifaceted and
requirement for maintaining a specific dynamic construct influenced by various factors,
teacher-student ratio, which is crucial for including individual life experiences, social identities,
facilitating effective teaching and learning, self-beliefs, and policy interventions. Establishing a
thereby fostering an environment conducive direct causal link between aspirations and a single
to the holistic development of children. factor is methodologically challenging. However,
However, the Act lacks detailed provisions given the global emphasis on expanding educational
for teachers. In contrast, the National access, it is imperative to explore the impact of this
Education Policy 2020 places teachers at access on educational attainment and aspirational
the heart of educational reforms. The NEP outcomes.
recommends instituting a large number
of merit-based scholarships across the The Right to Education Act and the National
country for 4-year integrated Bachelor of Education Policy 2020 both prioritise increasing
Education programmes. It also focuses educational access, which appears to have
on strengthening Teacher Eligibility Tests influenced aspirations for higher education. The RTE
(TET) to improve the quality of test material Act’s provision of free education for children aged
in terms of both content and pedagogy. 6 to 14 has contributed to a substantial rise in the
Furthermore, the NEP underscores the Gross Enrolment Ratio for secondary education,
importance of ensuring decent and pleasant increasing from 47.01% in 2007-2008 to 86.8% in
service conditions for teachers, including 2022-2023. This spillover effect suggests a positive
adequate and safe school infrastructure. association between enhanced educational access
and heightened aspirations for further educational
The NEP 2020 emphasises the integration of advancement.
technology in education, such as online learning
and digital resources, especially in the context of the At the same time, this rapid expansion of access
Digital India campaign. The COVID-19 pandemic has led to increased pressure and expectations
and emerging technological developments have on individuals, particularly from marginalised
made this integration increasingly relevant and communities, to pursue higher education.
significant. In contrast, the RTE Act does not address
the integration of technology. Additionally, the NEP Building on the successes of the Right to Education
highlights the importance of vocational education, Act and the Samagra Siksha Abhiyan, the National
an aspect not covered by the RTE Act. Education Policy 2020 aims to extend educational
access to all children aged 3 to 18, targeting a
The RTE Act primarily focuses on ensuring access 100% Gross Enrolment Ratio from preschool to the
to elementary education, aligning with the United secondary level by 2030. While this nationwide
Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG expansion is beneficial, the individual impact is more
4) to guarantee quality education and lifelong nuanced. Increased access to education is likely to
learning opportunities for all, as well as inclusive enhance children’s foundational learning, critical
and equitable education. Similarly, the NEP 2020 thinking, and decision-making skills, which may
is based on SDG 4, but it expands the scope to consequently raise parental aspirations for their
enhance employability in the job market. The NEP children’s educational outcomes.
recommends the integration of vocational education
programmes into mainstream education as one such Nonetheless, there are concerns regarding the
approach. quality of education in public schools, particularly
among underprivileged households. As documented
by Sharma, many families supplement state-run
schooling with private tutoring or enrol their children

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in private schools, frequently taking on loans to for higher education and multiple board exams
cover these expenses. On average, households may inadvertently sustain the demand for coaching
devote 35% of their income to education, driven by classes, as regular classroom teaching may not
the perception that private tutoring is vital, even for adequately prepare students for these high-stakes
young learners, yet many remain dissatisfied. This assessments.
dissatisfaction is concerning, as parental, especially
maternal, aspirations are strongly associated with II. Learning Outcomes and Quality
academic performance (Serneeels & Dercon, 2020). Developing human capital is a critical priority for
every nation, as a more productive workforce
b. The institutionalisation of the Coaching Industry enables greater scope for development. For
Culture
individuals, better learning outcomes and education
The implementation of the Right to Education Act quality lead to improved living standards and
has led to increased educational access for students greater employability. Thus, policies must ensure
from disadvantaged socioeconomic backgrounds. that learning outcomes and quality remain central
This expansion of educational opportunities has in in policy design. Here, we assess the impact of the
turn fuelled rising academic aspirations among these Right to Education Act and the National Education
students and their families. Consequently, there has Policy 2020 on two key areas: learning outcomes
been a marked increase in household expenditure in terms of Foundational Literacy and Numeracy,
on supplementary education and private tuition. and in terms of vocational training and skill-based
Research by Chatterjee et al. (2020) suggests that education.
in the post-RTE era, private tuition has become an
integral, almost indispensable, component of the a. Learning outcomes in terms of FLN
education system. The scholars found a significant
causal relationship between the RTE’s expansion of Foundational literacy and numeracy (FLN) skills are
school access and the growth of the private tutoring essential for individual development, as they lay
industry. Specifically, in “educationally competitive the groundwork for future learning in areas such as
districts,” the RTE’s broadening of school access reading, basic mathematics, and social interaction.
resulted in a monthly increase of 53 new tutoring However, a significant concern is that 25% of
centres per billion people. secondary school students are unable to read a text
at a Grade 2 level in their regional language, and
The rise in academic aspirations, particularly only 43.3% can divide a three-digit number by a
among students seeking better economic prospects, one-digit number. Additionally, only 57% of students
highlights how the Right to Education Act and the can read English sentences. The RTE Act did not
National Education Policy 2020 address private adequately address FLN, but growing awareness
tuition and coaching. While the RTE Act does not has led to its inclusion as a priority in the NEP 2020.
explicitly address private tuition, Section 28 prohibits
government school teachers from engaging in it, The NEP 2020 emphasises the urgent need
preventing conflicts of interest and ensuring their to achieve universal foundational literacy and
focus on classroom teaching. The Act indirectly numeracy skills, with foundational education being
acknowledges the need for supplementary the highest priority. It has introduced the 5+3+3+4
education through School Development Plans, which schooling structure, ensuring that the first five years
aim to enhance teaching quality and reduce reliance focus on the development of these essential skills.
on external tutoring. To this end, the government has launched several
initiatives, including the National FLN Mission, which
Furthermore, the RTE’s “No-Detention” policy, which aims to achieve foundational literacy and numeracy
prevents students from being held back until Class 8, proficiency for all children by Grade 3 by 2026-27,
may unintentionally increase the demand for private and the NIPUN Bharat program, designed to ensure
tuition, as students lacking foundational knowledge foundational literacy and numeracy proficiency
may require extra guidance that regular school through the Samagra Shiksha scheme.
lessons cannot provide.
While these initiatives are crucial, we need policy
NEP 2020 aims to move away from rote learning changes to drive prompt and lasting progress in
towards developing creativity and critical thinking. It improving foundational literacy and numeracy. The
emphasizes formative assessments over summative focus should be on aligning goals, providing strong
assessments, which can promote a coaching culture. academic support, and implementing rigorous
However, the NEP’s introduction of entrance exams monitoring. These steps are vital to ensuring we

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achieve the desired outcomes (Central Square aid to the states rather than directly to the schools.
Foundation, 2021).
Aside from the RTE Act’s general policy directions,
b. Emphasis on employability in terms of vocational such as prohibiting capitation fees, fiscal
training and skill-based education regulation primarily rests with the respective state
governments. States further regulate through laws
The All-India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) and regulations, including measures to prevent the
has noted that historically, lower socio-economic commercialization of education, establishing Fee
classes have stigmatized vocational education in Regulation Committees, and setting guidelines for
India. Despite increased educational access, the the use of earnings.
RTE Act created a gap in fostering critical thinking
because traditional pedagogies often emphasize Similarly, the NEP also prohibits capitation fees
rote learning over practical skills, hindering the and commercialization of education; neither
effectiveness of vocational training (Kumar, 2020; policy elaborates extensively on fiscal regulation
Singha, 2022). mechanisms.

The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 addresses 3. Key Lessons for Policymakers
this by aiming to “re-imagine vocational education,”
recommending its integration into mainstream This paper has assessed the impact of the Right to
education across all institutions over the next Education Act and the National Education Policy
decade. By 2025, NEP seeks to expose at least 2020 on two critical areas: learning outcomes and
50% of learners in school and higher education to the regulation of private schools.
vocational training (NEP 2020, Ch. 16). Less than
6% of youth currently engage in vocational training, a. A coherent national education policy is
often viewing it as a fallback option (ASER, 2022). essential to streamline India’s fragmented
This undervaluation persists. education landscape. Such a policy should
consolidate existing regulations, provide
Vocational education was not covered under clear implementation guidelines, and
the RTE, which focused on primary education, establish a comprehensive monitoring and
and has been governed by outdated policies, evaluation framework. By integrating the
most recently the National Policy on Education, Right to Education Act, National Education
1986. The NEP 2020 aims to modernise this by Policy 2020, and other relevant policies,
introducing pre-vocational courses from Grade VI a cohesive approach can be developed to
and making secondary education more flexible guide educational initiatives nationwide.
and interdisciplinary, offering new pathways to While this may be challenging given that
vocational education. education is a state subject and regions
have diverse socio-economic contexts, there
III. Regulations and Over-regulation of Private is a need for greater harmonisation across
Schools different government policies, schemes, and
a. Fiscal management of schools directives at various levels. Exploring feasible
ways to achieve this within the constraints of
the existing legal and constitutional system
This section focusses on private unaided schools, as
would be a worthwhile endeavour.
the rules and regulations for different school types
(government, private aided, private unaided) vary b. While we harmonise diverse policies to
due to their different financial models. Providing establish a cohesive and focused policy
financial autonomy to schools, which are seen narrative, it is imperative to enable localised
as public goods, is a delicate balance for the implementation within certain designated
government. parameters. Empowering local education
authorities to address specific contextual
Education is on the concurrent list, with the Union needs and challenges, implementing
providing policy direction and the States handling transparent accountability frameworks,
execution and legislation. In this context, the States and promoting public involvement can
regulate the finances of private, unaided schools. substantially enhance the governance of the
This is evident in the RTE Act’s funding process, education system. By granting increased
where the central government provides grants-in- autonomy to local administrative bodies,
policymakers can facilitate more responsive

20 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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and effective policies tailored to the unique

requirements of the local milieu.
CONCLUSION
c. Future policies aimed at improving learning The analysis of the Right to Education Act and the
outcomes must strike a balance between National Education Policy 2020 highlights both the
focusing on input-side improvements and progress and ongoing challenges within India’s
directly improving learning outcomes. While educational landscape. The RTE has successfully
infrastructural changes and input-based enhanced access to education, acknowledged
enhancements are important, they alone marginalised groups, and established a robust
are not sufficient to raise achievement framework. However, the RTE has been criticised
levels, as evidenced by the RTE Act’s for prioritising input factors rather than directly
limited impact on learning outcomes. improving learning outcomes. While the high
However, this does not mean policies enrolment rates reflect the RTE’s positive impact, a
should exclusively target learning outcomes, persistent lack of foundational literacy and numeracy
teacher performance, lesson quality, and remains a concern.
student performance. Focusing solely
on one aspect may not always yield the In contrast, the NEP 2020 represents a
intended results. Even when prioritising transformative shift in educational policy. It
outcomes, infrastructural inputs like libraries emphasises the importance of quality and holistic
and food provision systems can play an education, making a concerted effort to address the
auxiliary but important role in creating gaps that the RTE could not fully resolve.
a conducive and constructive learning
environment. Investing in foundational The NEP introduces an integrated, multidisciplinary,
infrastructure, such as classrooms, libraries, and holistic approach through its provisions.
laboratories, and sanitation facilities, It proposes a 5+3+3+4 school system and the
particularly in underserved areas, is essential integration of vocational education into secondary
for establishing an effective learning schools, reflecting a commitment to aligning
environment. educational practices with developmental needs.
d. Encouraging a more comprehensive and
student-focused educational approach While the Right to Education Act has yielded
requires diminishing dependency on external tangible advancements, India’s education system
coaching and reinforcing institutional continues to fall short of the ideal. Fundamental
support systems. To this end, it is crucial restructuring of the system, enhanced quality of
to establish adequate support structures education, development of skilled professionals,
within formal educational settings to assist and a greater emphasis on fostering critical
struggling students and those necessitating thinking abilities remain pressing requirements. The
aid for a variety of examinations. National Education Policy 2020 holds the promise
of transformative change in this regard. However,
the ultimate efficacy of the NEP will hinge upon its
effective implementation and ongoing evaluation.
Crucially, the successful enactment of the NEP has
the potential to ensure educational equity, which
would in turn translate into more meaningful and
enriching learning experiences for all students.

Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice 21

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24 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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CHAPTER

2
Money Matters: A Study of
Financial Investments and
Educational Equity in Delhi
Government Schools

Aman Chauhan | Lazana Deshar

Shashwat Kotiyal | Swati Phogat

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ABSTRACT COVID-19, as families chose public education

due to financial constraints. However, dropout
rates, especially in secondary schools, remain
This study investigates the financial expenditure
high, undermining earlier progress.
on school education in Delhi government schools,
focusing on budget allocations and their impact on
• Teacher Shortages and Overcrowding: Despite
educational outcomes from the fiscal year 2013-
increased investments, many schools still face
14 to 2022-23. Drawing on data from various
shortages of regular teachers and lack enough
sources, such as state budget documents, the
classrooms. This has forced schools to operate
Economic Survey of the Government of NCT, the
in shifts, leading to overcrowded classrooms and
Praja Foundation Report, and the RBI State Finance
less effective learning.
Report, the analysis explores critical financial
dimensions, including per-student expenditure,
• Unspent Education Budgets: The study reveals
overall enrollment, and the classification of
that a significant portion of the education
functional areas within school education. The key
budget, up to 26% in some years, remains
findings suggest that while significant investments
unspent. This underutilisation has worsened
have been made in infrastructure, classroom
existing challenges, such as improving
environments, and teacher training, primarily to
infrastructure and hiring more teachers, limiting
enhance the perception of government-run schools,
the full impact of government investments.and
longstanding structural challenges persist. Gaps in
ensuring meaningful learning experiences for all
outcomes, such as retention rates, dropout rates,
students.
classroom shortages, and student performance,
underscore the need for deeper reforms to address
the complex issues within the education system. This
study provides a comprehensive overview of the 1. INTRODUCTION
financial management of school education in Delhi
and its implications for policy reform and academic The educational landscape in Delhi exhibits
achievement marked disparities in accessibility and quality,
disproportionately affecting marginalised
Keywords: Delhi government schools, state communities (Bose & Sharma, 2023). Government-
education finance, education budget, educational run schools serving low-income and disadvantaged
outcomes, functional areas in education populations frequently contend with resource
scarcities, manifesting in inadequate infrastructure
and substandard educational provision (Praja,
KEY FINDINGS 2017). The demand for high-quality, accessible
education surpasses the current supply and
investment, leading to the proliferation of numerous
• Improvements in School Infrastructure: The
low-cost private schools across various localities
analysis of budget allocations shows that
(Endow, 2018). The reduction in government funding
investments in Delhi government schools
for public schools, further exacerbated by the
have led to better classrooms, teacher training
pandemic, has intensified these challenges within an
programs, and access to digital resources.
already vulnerable system. These complex dynamics
However, some schools still have fewer
underscore the pressing need for substantial
resources compared to others.
improvements to ensure equitable access to quality
education.
• Increase in Spending per Student but
Uneven Impact: The study finds a consistent
Delhi’s schools witnessed significant growth in
rise in spending per student, reflecting the
student enrollment, particularly after the COVID-19
government’s commitment to improving
pandemic (Bose & Sharma, 2023). The efforts have
education quality. But the effects of this
been made to improve the infrastructure, implement
increased spending vary across schools. The
curriculum reforms, and enhance learning pedagogy.
COVID-19 pandemic also led to budget cuts that
This notable transformation has contributed to the
affected some key initiatives.
increased student enrolment, altering the perception
of Delhi’s public education system to some extent.
• Growing Enrolment but Persistent Dropout
According to the State of Public Education in Delhi
Rates: Government schools in Delhi have
(Praja, 2017), enrolment in Municipal Corporation
seen more students enrolled, especially after
of Delhi (MCD) schools increased by 19%, while

26 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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schools under the Directorate of Education (DoE) outcomes. This review provides a comprehensive
experienced an 18% rise between the academic analysis of the financial policies implemented by
years 2018-19 and 2021-22. the Delhi government, evaluating both their efficacy
and the challenges encountered throughout this
Furthermore, the education sector in Delhi has transformative process.
witnessed a substantial increase in budgetary
allocations. These financial investments have Existing research emphasises the pivotal role
been strategically directed towards addressing of financial resources in shaping educational
longstanding challenges, including inadequate performance. The Input-Output model posits a
infrastructure, insufficient teacher training, and the direct relationship between financial investments
inequitable distribution of educational resources. and enhanced student outcomes, as well as
The aim is to tackle these structural issues and drive improved educational quality (Jones & Brown,
meaningful improvements in the overall quality and 2019). Furthermore, the Equity Theory underscores
accessibility of education within the city (Jha and the significance of equitable resource allocation,
Goyal, 2019). ensuring that all students, regardless of their
socioeconomic background or geographic location,
Aim and objectives of the study receive equal learning opportunities (Johnson,
2021). This approach aims to mitigate disparities in
This study looks at how the Delhi government educational resources and narrow the achievement
spends money on school education and how that gap among different student groups (Lee, 2023).
affects student learning. It identifies what is working For instance, a study by Johnson (2021) found that
well and what challenges the government has faced targeted funding in low-income urban areas led to
in the reform process, focusing on how financial improvements in student achievement and retention
investments influence education outcomes and (Davis & Evans, 2022).
performance. The goal is to provide insights into how
financial investments can improve education in Delhi. The “Delhi Education Revolution” exemplifies
a large-scale educational reform initiative,
This study aims to: supported by substantial financial investments in
key areas such as school infrastructure, teacher
a. To investigate and analyse the disparities training, curriculum development, and community
in educational funding across government involvement. According to The Bastion (2023), these
schools in Delhi. reforms are founded on four core principles and have
resulted in qualitative enhancements in education
b. To evaluate the impact of financial
and student performance. Comparative studies of
investments on learning outcomes in Delhi’s
educational reforms indicate that strategic financial
education system.
interventions, when combined with sustainable
c. To conduct a comparative analysis of budget governance structures, are essential for achieving
estimates and allocations across different intended educational outcomes (Kumar & Andersson,
states, including a breakdown of sub- 2021). For example, an analysis of reforms in
headings. Singapore and Finland highlighted the importance
of sustained, efficient funding and targeted
investments in both professional development and
2. LITERATURE REVIEW infrastructure as drivers of educational success.

The financial aspects of education in Delhi have Emerald’s research (2023) emphasises the
been the subject of extensive scholarly attention, importance of financial sustainability in educational
given their pivotal role in catalysing significant social reforms. While the initial capital investment
transformations within the educational landscape. may be considerable, the long-term returns,
The Delhi education system has witnessed a marked both in educational and social terms, justify
increase in budgetary allocations, strategically these expenditures. The study advocates for the
directed towards addressing longstanding development of sustainable funding strategies to
challenges such as inadequate infrastructure, ensure continued financial support for educational
insufficient teacher training, and inequitable resource improvements beyond the initial reform phase.
distribution. These financial investments have Global experiences with educational reforms
been carefully designed to mitigate these systemic demonstrate the effectiveness of targeted
issues and drive improvements in educational investments in school infrastructure, teacher

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preparation, and public-private partnerships in and ‘Capital.’ Prior to the 2016-17 fiscal year,
enhancing learning outcomes. there was an additional distinction between ‘Plan’
and ‘Non-Plan’ expenditures, but this has since
The development of school infrastructure has been been discontinued. Our analysis considers both
pivotal in improving the quality of education. A study ‘Revenue’ and ‘Capital’ expenditures, including the
conducted in Mumbai, India, found that schools previous ‘Plan’ and ‘Non-Plan’ classifications, to
with modernised classrooms and updated teaching gain a comprehensive understanding of financial
aids experienced increased student attendance allocations within the education sector.
and better academic performance (Patel & Desai,
2022). Such enhancements create an environment To thoroughly examine school education
conducive to active learning and more effective expenditure, we analyse the budget heads ‘2202’
teaching methods. and ‘4202’, which are designated for education
spending. This approach ensures the inclusion of
The role of professional development for educators all expenditures under these codes, regardless of
has been crucial in raising teaching standards and the department involved. Specifically, we examine
improving student outcomes. Research by Kim sub-major heads for ‘Elementary Education’ and
and Lee (2021) highlights the success of South ‘Secondary Education,’ as well as the general
Korea’s comprehensive professional development allocations under ‘2202-80’ that contribute to school
programmes, which promote modern teaching education.
strategies and ongoing educator training. These
programmes have significantly contributed to Recognising that not all education-related
improving the quality of instruction and student expenditures fall under these heads, the analysis
engagement. also includes spending for disadvantaged
communities under budget heads ‘2225’ and
Public-private partnerships have emerged as a ‘4225,’ focusing on the education minor head
valuable mechanism for enhancing educational (277). This inclusion captures all relevant education
programs. According to Johnson & Smith (2023), expenditures, even when channeled through other
collaborations between schools and private departments.
organisations have provided additional resources
and expertise. In the United States, partnerships Data Sources
with technology companies have introduced
new classroom technologies, improved student The primary data for government expenditures and
IT proficiency, and increased the availability of allocations are derived from state budget documents
instructional materials (Johnson & Smith, 2023). published by the respective Finance Departments,
covering the period from 2013-14 to FY 2022-23.
In conclusion, the financial reforms in Delhi’s Additional data sources, such as the Economic
education system, alongside global examples, Survey of Delhi, the Praja Foundation Report, and
highlight the importance of sustained investments the RBI State Finance Report, are used to provide
in infrastructure, teacher training, and public- context and validate the findings.
private partnerships. However, challenges related
to equitable resource distribution and financial
Limitations
sustainability remain critical to ensuring long-term
success in educational outcomes.
The methodology covers most government spending
on school education, but some expenditures were
unavoidably excluded. Expenditures under broad
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY categories like ‘Adult Education’ and ‘Art and
Culture’ were left out, as it was difficult to separate
This study employs a secondary research approach school-related spending from other educational
to analyse state budget reports, focusing on components. Similarly, where it was hard to
classifying and categorising education-related distinguish school-specific expenditures under
expenditures. Government budgets traditionally budget heads ‘2225’ and ‘4225,’ those amounts
divide expenditures into two main groups: ‘Revenue’ were not included in the analysis.

28 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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4. RESULTS
4.1 Public finance of school education

Public expenditure on school education in Delhi takes place across three levels: central, state, and
local. The central government’s primary contribution comes through Centrally Sponsored Schemes,
which are routed via the state budget. The state government bears the majority of education spending,
with a portion being provided as Grants-in-Aid to local bodies. In the case of MCDs, Grants-in-Aid
(GIAs) account for over 80-90% of their education budget, rendering the state budget analysis a
comprehensive representation of public education spending in Delhi.

Table 2: Expenditure on education as a percentage of GSDP of Delhi (₹ in Crores)

Expenditure on GSDP of Delhi at

Total % share of Exp % Exp on Edu
Years Education (in current prices (in
Budget in Total Budget to GSDP
Crore Rs) Crore Rs)

2013-14 4370 34051 12.83 391125 1.11

2014-15 4755 30,940 15.36 494803 0.96

2015-16 5692 35196 16.17 550804 1.03

2016-17 6002 37263 16.12 616085 0.97

2017-18 7288 40927 17.8 677900 1.07

2018-19 8266 46245 17.87 738389 1.11

2019-20 10,017 51186 19.56 792911 1.26

2020-21 9006 52468 17.16 744277 1.12

2021-22 10,236 61172 16.73 881336 1.16

2022-23 11,934 64110 18.61 1014688 1.17

2023-24(B) 13,985 78800 17.74 1107746 1.26

In 2022-23, the Government of Delhi allocated approximately 1.17% of its Gross State Domestic
Product towards school education expenditure. Despite a re-prioritization of education funding since
2014-15, the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted this trend, with spending dropping from 1.26% of GSDP in
2019-20 to 1.12% in 2020-21. The full extent of the pandemic’s impact on education remains unclear.
Furthermore, while the Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi (GNCTD) dedicates over 17%
of its total expenditure to education, this proportionally higher figure is partially attributable to the
government’s relatively limited expenditure responsibilities compared to other states.

Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice 29

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Figure 2: Government Spending on Education: Quantum and Growth

Expenditure on School Education: 2013-2022 in Cr (Rs)

Actuals Budget

₹15,000.00

₹10,000.00

₹5,000.00

₹0.00
4

3
-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-2

-2

-2

-2
13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22
20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20
YEAR

Over the past decade, Delhi’s expenditure on school Table 3: Year-wise Per Child Expenditure, Annual
education has consistently risen, with the highest Growth rate in Per-Child Expenditure and Total
level of spending recorded in fiscal year 2022-23, Enrolment
excluding a decline in 2020-21. During this period,
the average annual expenditure amounted to Per-Child Annual
Total
Year Expenditure Growth
₹7,743 crore, reflecting an average growth rate of (In Rs) rate (%)
Enrolment
12.24% and a strengthened emphasis on education.
Furthermore, the gap between budgeted and 2013-14 27435 Base Year 15,92,813
actual spending has narrowed, indicating enhanced 2014-15 31265 13.96% 15,20,829
financial management. Key indicators to examine the
relationship between finance and education, such 2015-16 38146 22.01% 14,92,123
as per-student expenditure, student enrolment, and 2016-17 39761 4.23% 15,09,514
a detailed budget analysis, will be explored in the
2017-18 49894 25.48% 14,60,675
subsequent sections.
2018-19 56226 12.69% 14,70,470
4.1.1 Per-Student Expenditure on School 2019-20 67,215 19.54% 14,90,271
Education
2020-21 56435 (-16.04%) 15,98,359
Assessing the sufficiency of a state’s education
2021-22 59,069 4.67% 17,32,886
expenditure in relation to its student enrolment is
essential. Table 2 outlines the financial resources 2022-23 66,896 13.25% 17,85,000
allocated per student in Delhi Government schools. (estiamted
The per-student expenditure analysis utilises
enrolment data from the U-DISE. Source: (Enrollment: UDISE + 2021, Economic Survey 2023-
24)

30 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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4.1.2 Financial Analysis of Per-Child Expenditure on per-student expenditure and does not account
Table 2 reveals a steady increase in per-student for factors such as inflation, population growth, or
education expenditure from 2013-14 to 2022-23, policy changes, which could influence the broader
underscoring a growing emphasis on education education landscape.
and improved resource allocation per student. The
average per-student spending during this period 4.2 Expenditure and Enrollment in School
is approximately ₹49,234. The highest percentage Education
increase was observed between 2017-18 and
2019-20, while a 16.04% decline occurred in 2020- The expenditure on school education in Delhi is
21, likely due to the pandemic’s economic impact. spread across the Education and Social Welfare
Despite these fluctuations, the overall trend indicates Departments. Within the Education Department, the
a 9.04% average annual growth rate in per-student expenditure from specific budget heads of DoE was
spending. However, this analysis focuses solely examined and compared with enrolment data.

Table 4: Expenditure on School Education in Delhi: 2013-14 to 2022-23 (in Rs Crores)

Welfare of SC/ST/
(General & Sports

Total Expenditure
& Youth Service)
2202 80 + 2204
Education (R)

Enrollment in

in Secondary
(In Crore Rs)
Education ®

Expenditure
Elementary

Elementary

Enrollment
Secondary

Other Exp

Schools

Schools
Capital

OBC
Year

2013-14 382 3433 43 289 222 4370 802482 790331

(8%) (78%) (0.98%) (6.60%) (5.08%) (50.3%) (49.7%)

2014-15 423 3657 29 420 226 4755 774612 746217

(8%) (76%) (0.60%) (8.83%) (4.75%) (50.9%) (49.1%)

761859 730273
2015-16 5692
(51%) (49%)

2016-17 334 4865 235 430 87 6002 760137 749377

(5%) (80%) (3.91%) (7.16%) (1.44%) (50.3%) (49.7%)

2017-18 861 5849 224 137 217 7288 746375 714300

(11%) (80%) (3.07%) (1.87%) (2.97%) (51%) (49%)

2018-19 1123 6670 99 204 171 8268 748467 722003

(13%) (80%) (1.19%) (2.46%) (2.06%) (50.8%) (49.2%)

2019-20 2211 7295 38 263 210 10,017 761303 728968

(22%) (72.8%) (0.37%) (2.62%) (2.09%) (51%) (49%)

2020-21 1182 6930 3.7 865 26 9006 784135 814224

(13%) (76%) (0.04%) (9.60%) (0.28%) (49%) (51%)

2021-22 1682 8083 132 231 108 10,236 858970 873916

(16.4%) (78%) (1.28%) (2.25%) (1.05%) (49.5%) (50.5%)

2022-23 2526 9065 59 196 95 11,941 - -

(Source: State Budget, Delhi., UDISE 2021)

Note:* Includes budgetary codes 2202 01, 2202 02, 2202 80, 2225 01 277, 2225 01 789)

Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice 31

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Table 3 demonstrates a slight variation in the enrollment numbers of elementary and secondary students in Delhi
government schools over time. From 2013 to 2020, the number of students enrolled in elementary schools was higher in
secondary schools in absolute terms. However, students from classes 1st to 8th attend elementary schools, while those
from classes 9th to 12th attend secondary schools. So, proportionally, the number of secondary education students is
higher than that of elementary education students.

4.2.1 Focus towards Secondary Education in terms of Expenditure.

Figure 3: Distribution of Expenditure and Enrollment in Government Schools: Elementary vs

Secondary Education(2013-14 to 2021-22)

9% 7% 5% 6% 4%
14% 14% 15% 11%

49% 51% 50%

50% 49% 49% 49%
50% 49%
78% 75%
73% 76%
80% 80%
78%
76% 80%
51% 51% 51% 50%
49%
50%
51% 50% 51%
22% 16% 21%
11% 13% 13%
8% 8% 5%
Enrollment

Enrollment

Enrollment

Enrollment

Enrollment

Enrollment

Enrollment

Enrollment

Enrollment

Enrollment
Expenditure

Expenditure

Expenditure

Expenditure

Expenditure

Expenditure

Expenditure

Expenditure

Expenditure

Expenditure
2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2019-20 2020-21 2021-22 2022-23

Elementary Secondary Other

Source: Budget Document , UDISE 2021

In absolute terms, from 2020-21 (see Figure 2), there 4.2.2 The Elementary Education: A Renewed
has been higher enrolment in secondary education Outlook
than elementary education in Delhi. MCD schools Delhi’s education budget has demonstrated a
operate up to Class 5, leading many students to renewed emphasis on elementary education. Prior to
shift to Delhi Government schools afterward. As 2016-17, spending was largely limited to supporting
a principal from Government Co-ed Sarvodaya local bodies, teacher training, and related initiatives.
Vidyalaya, Rohini, explained, parents often start However, from 2017-18 to 2022-23, the expenditure
their children in low-fee private schools for a strong portfolio has become more diversified, with
foundation but later switch to government schools investments in government primary schools growing
due to rising fees in private institutions (Times of at an average annual growth rate (AAGR) 11.78%.
India, 2021). This increased allocation may be influenced by
political considerations, as the Municipal Corporation
Over 77% of the budget goes toward secondary of Delhi schools were previously under the control
education, maintaining a consistent expenditure of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) until the Aam
on elementary and secondary education. Per-child Aadmi Party (AAP) gained the majority in recent
spending is significantly higher for secondary elections.
education compared to elementary education.
This investment is reflected in the consistently Historically, MCD schools accounted for over 60% of
higher pass percentage at the Senior Secondary elementary education expenditure, primarily funded
level in Delhi Government schools, outperforming through Grants-in-Aid from the Delhi Government,
the national average over the past eight years covering 80-90% of their education costs.
(Economic Survey 2023). Additionally, the Centrally Sponsored Schemes,

32 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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including the Mid-Day Meal and Samagra Shiksha programs, have seen increased spending, with the state
and central governments sharing costs in a 60:40 ratio. The Samagra Shiksha program has replaced earlier
initiatives like Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan and Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha, expanding its scope to include
grants for infrastructure, general aid, and salaries. In 2022-23, the Centrally Sponsored Schemes made
up over 25% of the total expenditure, with spending trends generally rising, except during the COVID-19
pandemic.
Expenditure on Elementary Education From 2013-14 to 2022-23
(in
Figure crore Rs) on the Elementary Education from (2013-14) to (2022-23)
4: Expenditure

Govt Primary School (101)

2013-14 334

2014-15 352 Assitance to local bodies

for primary
2015-16
Teachers Training (107)
2016-17 355
7 8
10 16
2017-18 165 360
National Programme of
8 7 Mid-day Meal in
2018-19 183 342 12 44
6 7
2019-20 195 1444 12 42 Samgra Shiksha (CSS)
(113)/SSA(111)
1 34 2 32
2020-21 222 1280
Special Component plan for
2021-22 263 1123 116 59 schedule caste
1
2 2
202-23 287 1554 30 30 Other Expenditure

₹00.00 ₹1,000.00 ₹2,000.00 ₹3,000.00

Teacher training expenditure averaged ₹10 crore annually over the past five years. Overall, Delhi’s growing
and diversified spending on elementary education emphasizes infrastructure, governance, and inclusive
education, aligning with broader reforms like the New Education Policy (NEP) 2020.

4.3. Functional Areas within School Education

The data indicates increased investment in Delhi’s education system. This investment targeted key areas
such as infrastructure upgrades, universal access to education, dropout reintegration, vocational courses,
and digital learning, in line with the New Education Policy (NEP) 2020. As Delhi aims to meet global
standards, budget allocations reflect the government’s priorities, with initiatives focused on improving
educational access, innovation, and skill development.

Figure 5: Expenditure on the Core Areas ( Functional Areas) from the Year (2013-14)to(2022-23)

Expenditure from (2013-14) to (2022-23) (in Crore Rs)

Others Administration

3.6% 3.6% 0.7%

RTE Reimbursment
Teacher Salaries
3.6%
15.3%
57.8%
Quality Improvement
2.2%
Incentatives 5.0% 57.8%
5.0%

Infrastructure
15.5%
15.5%

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Table 5: Detailed figures of the Functional Areas

Teacher Quality RTE

Year Admin Infrastructure Incentives Others
Salaries Improvement Reimbursement

2013-14 33 2454 842 269 58 15 30

2014-15 34 2676 949 255 64 26 102

2015-16 45 3399 1460 278 78 37 123

2016-17 49 3343 1980 271 125 38 107

2017-18 59 4042 862 428 98 58 321

2018-19 52 4655 578 416 239 79 417

2019-20 54 5107 1446 512 191 168 512

2020-21 51 5033 721 212 87 218 298

2021-22 47 5430 1409 426 388 307 245

2022-23 58 6146 1071 608 267 211 466

Total 482 42285 11318 3675 1595 11157 2621

The breakdown of education sector spending from previous year’s spending, exacerbating existing
2013-14 to 2022-23, as shown in Table 4, highlights resource shortages.
the government’s priorities. The largest share,
57.8%, is allocated to teacher salaries, emphasising A key component of the SMSA, Special Training
the importance placed on maintaining a stable Centres for out-of-school children, plays a crucial
and well-compensated workforce. Infrastructure role, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic.
spending, at 15.5%, demonstrates a strong focus on However, many areas lack these training centres
developing educational facilities. Additionally, 15.3% due to insufficient school infrastructure, and funding
of the budget is dedicated to Right to Education has been reduced instead of increased. The budget
(RTE) reimbursements, ensuring equitable access per child remains low at ₹6,000, and the overall
to education. Incentives such as scholarships and allocation for the Special Training Centres and
subsidies receive 5.0%, while quality improvement skill training initiatives is inadequate to address
initiatives account for only 2.2%, suggesting the growing needs. Additionally, unutilized funds
potential for further investment in raising in secondary education add to the inefficiencies,
educational standards. Miscellaneous expenditures with schools struggling to manage funds due
make up 3.6%, and administrative costs are kept to administrative burdens and unpredictable
relatively low at 0.7%. Overall, the spending pattern disbursements.
prioritises salaries and infrastructure, with a more
modest focus on access and quality improvements. Furthermore, the lack of comprehensive school
mapping in Delhi reflects a critical gap in the
implementation of the Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan,
limiting effective educational planning. The Mid-
5. FINDINGS: A CLOSER Day Meal programme, another crucial initiative,
EXAMINATION OF THE also faces budget cuts and irregular distribution,
exacerbated by the pandemic. A significant
EDUCATION BUDGET reduction in grants for local body schools has led to
layoffs of contract teachers, delayed salaries, and
The Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan (SMSA),, India’s
lower per-student expenditure compared to central
primary initiative for universal education, faces
government-run schools.
ongoing budgetary constraints. In states like Delhi,
the approved budget for this programme has
Funding for scholarship programs targeting
consistently fallen short of government proposals,
marginalised students has been drastically
reflecting broader issues of inadequate school
reduced, with the budget allocation in 2020-21
funding. For instance, funding for the Samagra
plummeting to just 10% of the previous year’s level,
Shiksha Abhiyan in 2020-21 was just 58% of the

34 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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consequently leading to a decline in the number 5.1 Infrastructure

of beneficiaries. The policy shift from providing
broad-based scholarships to prioritising private Table 5 provides an overview of the status of core
coaching support for high-achieving students raises facilities in schools from 2016-17 to 2022-23,
concerns regarding the government’s strategic indicating a consistent enhancement of educational
priorities. Furthermore, the centralised National infrastructure. The availability of playgrounds
Scholarship Portal (NSP) system has become increased from 87.37% in 2016-17 to 96.3% in
increasingly challenging for students to access due 2022-23. Essential amenities such as boundary
to bureaucratic obstacles and irregular disbursement walls, gender-segregated toilet facilities, and
of funds. drinking water sources have maintained near-
universal accessibility. Electricity access likewise
Difficulties also extend to the implementation of improved, reaching 100% from 2017-18, up from
other entitlements under the RTE Act, including 99.9% in the preceding year. Notably, the provision
delayed payments for school uniforms and the of computer facilities has seen substantial growth,
complexities associated with the Direct Benefit rising from 87.18% in 2016-17 to 98.74% in 2022-
Transfer (DBT) initiative, exacerbated by the lack 23. Nevertheless, the infrastructure landscape
of adequate Aadhaar coverage. Approximately remains uneven, with disparities observed across
25% of students in Delhi government schools lack different school categories and geographical
Aadhaar cards, contributing to exclusions in the locations.
delivery of these benefits. Despite improvements in
school infrastructure, more fundamental structural
challenges continue to persist.

Table 6: Percentage of schools having access to basic infrastructure facilities from 2016-17 to 2022-23

% of Schools having
2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2019-20 2020-21 2021-22 2022-23
Access to

Playgrounds 87.37 88.06 85.89 88.28 93.27 96.47 96.3

Boundary wall 99.9 99.88 100 100 100 100 100

Girls Toilets 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Boys Toilets 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Drinking Water Facility 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Electricity Connection 99.9 100 100 100 100 100 100

Computer Facility 87.18 88.82 89.26 97.56 100 100 98.74

Source: UDISE 2021-22

The number of DoE schools in Delhi increased from 992 in 2013-14 to 1,047 in 2021-22. According to the
Economic Survey, around 20,000 additional classrooms became functional in 2021–22, with 27 new school
buildings completed citywide. Sanctions were issued for 20 more school buildings by the PWD and 8 by
DTTDC. Of the 728 school buildings, CCTVs have been installed in 619, with work underway in 19 more,
and the remaining 90 will start once sites are available. Additionally, the construction of 982 classrooms is
ongoing, set for completion in 2023-24, along with continued development of geography and science labs,
strengthening the three-tier library system, and ongoing repairs and maintenance.

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5.2 ENROLLMENT IN SCHOOLS

Over the past eight years, enrollment in Delhi’s state government schools has fluctuated. From 2014-15 to
2017-18, there was a steady decline, possibly due to students moving to private schools or issues within
the public education system. However, from 2018-19 onwards, enrolment began rising, with a notable 9%
increase in 2021-22. This growth may be attributed to improvements in school facilities, educational reforms,
and the financial impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, which led many families to choose public schools.

Table 7: Enrollments of students in various schools from 2014-15 to 2021-22

Total Enrollments in Delhi Government Schools from 2014-15 to 2021-22

Type of School 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2019-20 2020-21 2021-22

MCD 9,14,585 8,95,437 8,52,008 7,91,040 7,61,410 7,67,352 7,94,776 9,05,405

% Change in
Enrolments Year on 2% -2% -5% -7% -4% 1% 4% 14%
Year

State Government 15,38,068 15,09,264 15,27,543 14,81,014 14,98,085 15,19,651 16,19,726 17,62,480

% Change in
Enrolments Year on -3% -2% 1% -3% 1% 1% 7% 9%
year

Central Government
1,01,235 1,06,618 1,10,546 1,11,174 1,15,596 1,19,347 1,24,591 1,25,839
(K.V.)

% Change in
Enrolments Year on 3% 5% 4% 1% 4% 3% 4% 1%
Year

Other School 18,54,441 19,15,656 19,49,712 20,05,078 20,41,680 20,67,293 19,37,540 17,78,383

% Change in
Enrolments Year on 16% 3% 2% 3% 2% 1% -6% -8%
year

Other schools include: Central Govt, Government Aided, Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, Other Govt. managed schools,
Private Unaided (Recognized), Social welfare Department, Tribal Welfare Department

Enrollment trends across different school types in Delhi reflect broader social and educational changes. After
years of stagnation, state government schools have seen a rebound, likely due to quality improvements,
increased accessibility, and the economic impact of the pandemic. Central government schools remain
consistently popular, while fluctuating enrolments in the Municipal Corporation of Delhi and other schools
suggest changing public confidence in various education systems. These trends indicate a shifting educational
landscape in Delhi, where state-run government schools are increasingly becoming the preferred choice for
many families.

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5.3 PASS PERCENTAGE

Table 8: Pass percentage of cbse results in delhi and india: 2016 to 2023

PASS PERCENTAGE OF CBSE RESULTS IN DELHI AND INDIA: 2016 to 2023

Area Class Level 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

Secondary 89.25 92.44 68.9 71.58 82.6 97.5 97 91.1

Delhi Sr.
88.91 88.27 90.64 94.24 97.9 99.9 98 94.1
Secondary

Secondary 96.21 93.06 86.7 91.1 91.4 99.04 94.4 93.1

All India
Sr.
83.05 82.02 83.01 83.4 88.7 99.37 92.71 87.3
Secondary

Directorate of education, GNCTD

Delhi’s secondary-level examination results generally lagged behind the national average, particularly
in 2018 when the pass rate was significantly lower (68.9%) compared to the national average of 86.7%.
However, by 2021, Delhi’s pass rate had surpassed the national average (97.5% vs. 99.04%), reflecting a
significant improvement. At the senior secondary level, Delhi’s pass rates have been more closely aligned
with, and at times have even exceeded, the national average. In 2021, Delhi’s senior secondary pass
percentage was exceptionally high (99.9%), almost reaching the national average of 99.37%. While a
post-pandemic decline was observed in 2023, with Delhi slightly trailing the national average (94.1% vs.
93.1%), the overall performance remained robust.

The data suggests that Delhi’s education system has undergone a period of substantial transformation,
particularly at the secondary level. It transitioned from a period of struggle in 2018 to achieving some of
the highest pass rates by 2021. This may reflect the impact of targeted educational reforms, improved
teaching methods, or a greater emphasis on student support systems. The slight declines seen in 2023
could indicate a return to more stringent assessment standards post-pandemic, but the overall trajectory
remains positive. The relatively stable and strong performance at the senior secondary level suggests
that the foundations laid in the earlier years have effectively supported students as they progress to
higher education.

Table 9: Comparison between State Government and Private Schools: X Results

Government schools
Private Schools
Year Overall Pass in(%)
State Government Central Government Pass In (%)
Pass in(%) Pass in (%)

Mar-16 89.25% 99.52% 95.43% 91.76%

Mar-17 92.44% 99.83% 92.85% -

Mar-18 68.90% 97.03% 89.45% 78.62%

Mar-19 71.58% 99.79% 93.18% 80.97%

Mar-20 82.61% 99.23% 90.19% 85.86%

Mar-21 97.52% 100% - 98.19%

Mar-22 81.27% 96.61% 96.86% 86.55%

Data for private schools is not being maintained separately for March 2021, and
detailed information has not been uploaded on the website

Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice 37

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Table 10: Comparison between State Government and Private Schools: Xll Results

Government schools
Private Schools
Year Overall Pass in(%)
State Government Central Government Pass In (%)
Pass in(%) Pass in (%)

Mar-15 88.11% 95.94% 89.75% 86.13%

Mar-16 88.91% 95.71% 86.67% 87.01%

Mar-17 88.27% 95.96% 84.02% 88.37%

Mar-18 90.64% 98.06% 89.38% 89%

Mar-19 94.24% 99.43% 82.59% 91.87%

Mar-20 97.92% 98.62% 82.59% 94.39%

Mar-21 99.95% 100% 82.59% 99.84%

Mar-22 96.29% 97.04% 82.59% 96.29%

While comparing X and XII results (tables 8 While private schools consistently outperformed
and 9) over the years from 2015 to 2022, they state government schools in the earlier years of the
reveal distinct trends in the performance of state period, especially in X results, the latter’s significant
government and private schools. State government improvements, particularly during the pandemic,
schools demonstrated fluctuating pass rates, allowed them to occasionally surpass or closely
particularly in the X results, where their performance match private schools’ performance. This suggests
saw significant dips in 2018 and 2019 followed by a that while private schools offer steady and reliable
strong recovery during the pandemic years, reaching outcomes, state government schools, despite their
a peak in 2021. This variability suggests that state earlier struggles, have shown considerable potential
government schools faced challenges, especially for improvement when provided with the right
the poor learning outcome of students in the 9th support and circumstances.
standard, but also benefitted from interventions
or relaxed evaluation criteria during the COVID-19 Overall, the comparison reveals that state
period. In contrast, their XII results reflect a more government schools, though initially lagging,
consistent upward trajectory, especially post-2018, have demonstrated a capacity for substantial
culminating in a remarkable 99.95% pass rate in improvement, narrowing the gap with private
2021 before a slight decline in 2022. schools. However, sustaining this progress in the
long term remains crucial for ensuring consistent
educational quality across all school types.

38 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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5.4 Learning outcome & management performance

Table 11: Performance by School Management (VIII standard)
Percentage of children
Percentage correct answer At basic and below basic At proficient and advance
level level
Subject

Central

Central

Central
Private

Private

Private
Aided

Aided

Aided
State

State

State
Language

State 49 52 69 60 77 69 36 53 23 31 64 47

National 48 48 60 59 75 75 54 56 25 25 46 44
Mathematics

State 30 30 44 38 90 88 58 71 10 12 42 29

National 36 31 38 39 72 84 70 68 28 16 30 32

State 35 36 50 44 86 81 48 63 14 19 52 37

Source: NAS Report 2021

Science

National 38 35 43 44 75 83 65 63 25 17 35 37

State 34 36 46 39 94 92 67 9 6 8 33 18
Science
Social

National 39 36 41 40 87 87 78 79 21 13 22 21

Table 12: Performance by School Management ( X standard)

Percentage of children
Percentage correct answer At basic and below basic At proficient and advance
level level
Subject
Central

Central

Central
Private

Private

Private
Aided

Aided

Aided
State

State

State
Language

State 30 30 41 35 84 82 54 69 16 18 46 31

National 32 29 34 36 78 87 74 66 22 13 46 34
Mathematics

State 34 36 48 43 94 91 65 78 6 9 35 22

National 34 32 37 41 93 98 87 81 7 2 13 19

State 37 39 55 47 89 83 45 64 11 17 55 36
Science

National 35 34 40 44 89 93 79 71 11 7 21 29

State 48 53 71 59 25 19 6 15 75 81 94 85
Science

Source: NAS Report 2021

Social

National 39 37 50 54 47 49 31 24 53 51 69 76

State 47 46 51 46 82 83 72 81 18 17 28 19
MIL

National 39 40 43 45 92 92 87 81 8 8 13 19

Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice 39

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The data from the NAS Report 2021 provides a Aided schools performed similarly to state
detailed analysis of student performance across schools, with 36% correct. Central schools,
various subjects in different types of schools: despite achieving 39% correct answers,
demonstrated a higher proficiency rate of
8th Standard (see Table 10): 18%. National performance was better
1. Language overall, with 41% correct answers and 21%
proficiency.
1. State Schools: 49% of students answered
correctly, with 77% at basic or below basic
10th Standard (See Table 11)
levels, and only 23% achieving proficient or
advanced levels. 1. Language
1. State Schools: 30% correct answers, with
2. Comparison: Private schools performed
84% at basic or below basic levels, and only
better with 60% correct answers and 46%
16% proficient.
proficiency, while aided schools were on par
with state schools at 52% correct answers. 2. Comparison: Private schools performed
Central schools outperformed others with significantly better with 41% correct
69% correct answers and 44% proficiency. answers and 46% proficiency. Aided schools
Nationally, the performance was slightly matched state schools with 30% correct.
better, with 60% correct answers and 46% Central schools again led with 35% correct
proficiency. answers and 31% proficiency. Nationally, the
performance was slightly better, with 34%
2. Mathematics correct answers and 34% proficiency.
1. State Schools: Only 30% of students
answered correctly, with a large 90% at basic 2. Mathematics:
or below basic levels and just 10% reaching 1. State Schools: 34% correct answers, with a
proficiency. massive 94% at basic or below basic levels,
and only 6% reaching proficiency.
2. Comparison: Private schools again performed
better with 44% correct answers and 42% 2. Comparison: Private schools performed
proficiency, while aided schools matched better with 48% correct answers and 35%
the state schools with 30% correct. Central proficiency, while aided schools lagged
schools led with 38% correct answers and behind state schools with 32% correct.
32% proficiency. Nationally, the performance Central schools performed similarly to private
was also higher, with 38% correct answers schools with 43% correct answers and 22%
and 32% proficiency. proficiency. Nationally, the performance was
higher, with 37% correct answers and 19%
3. Science proficiency.
1. State Schools: 35% of students had correct
answers, with 86% at the basic or below 3. Science:
basic levels, and 14% proficient. 1. State Schools: 37% correct answers, with
89% at basic or below basic levels, and only
2. Comparison: Private schools did better with
11% proficient.
50% correct answers and 37% proficiency,
while aided schools were slightly better 2. Comparison: Private schools outperformed
than state schools with 36% correct. Central with 50% correct answers and 55%
schools again outperformed with 46% correct proficiency, while aided schools were lower
answers and 37% proficiency. Nationally, than state schools with 35% correct. Central
performance was higher, with 43% correct schools again performed better with 45%
answers and 37% proficiency. correct answers and 29% proficiency.
National performance was slightly higher with
4. Social Science 40% correct answers and 29% proficiency.
1. State Schools: 34% of students answered
correctly, with 94% at basic or below basic 4. Social Science:
levels and only 6% at proficient levels. 1. State Schools: 48% correct answers, with
75% at basic or below basic levels, and 25%
2. Comparison: Private schools led with 46%
proficiency.
correct answers and 33% proficiency.

40 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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2. Comparison: Private schools were pronounced in Mathematics and Science, where

significantly better with 71% correct answers a significant proportion of state school students
and 69% proficiency, while aided schools exhibit only basic or below-basic proficiency, with
performed similarly to state schools with a limited number reaching the proficient level.
53% correct. Central schools outperformed Conversely, private schools consistently outperform
all others with 59% correct answers and 85% their state-run counterparts in all subjects, with
proficiency. Nationally, the performance was a greater share of students achieving proficient
slightly better with 54% correct answers and and advanced achievement levels. Meanwhile,
47% proficiency. government-aided schools generally matched or
modestly underperformed state schools in most
State-run schools lag behind private institutions subjects, positioning them as the least successful
and national benchmarks across both 8th and 10th management type in several instances.
grade subjects. The discrepancy is particularly

5.5 Enrollment in Nios

Table 13: Student enrollments in Patrachar and NIOS schools in the following year in comparison to
numbers of students who failed in class 9 and 11

2019- 2020-
Indicator 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2021-22
20 21

Total NO Of Students
2,59,705 2,88,094 3,11,824 2,89,682 2,81,346 2,92,450 2,51,334 2,53,854
Enrolled in 9th Std
Students in 9th standard
Status of State School

No of Students who
1,17,087 1,24,029 1,72,995 1,17,119 1,24,072 60,635 42,401 NA.
Failed in 9th Std

Students Enrolled in
Patrachar/NlOS in the 3,165 65,451 2,830 21,542 21,857 15,525 473**
Following Years

Total No of Students
Missing Out of the - 1,13,922 58,578 1,70,165 95,577 1,02,215 45,110 41,928**
Education System

Total No of Students
Status of State School Students

2,04,051 1,66,150 1,50,480 1,71,613 1,36,300 1,67,082 1,69,413 2,45,724

Enrolled in 11th Std

No of Students who
in 11th standard

70,640 43,142 36,304 39,819 24,138 5,420 4,008 NA*

Failed in 11th

Students Enrolled
in Patrachar in the 7,032 6,373 5,533 7,077 5,978 1,732 1,587
Following Years

No of Students
Missing Out of the 63,608 36,769 30,771 32,742 18,160 3,688 2,421
school system

According to the Praja Foundation report 2022, 1. Out of the students who failed 9th grade in
although there has been a decline in the number of 2019-20, only 26% enrolled in Patrachar and
students failing in grades 9 and 11, enrolment in the NIOS for the 10th standard exam in 2020-21.
National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) remains What happened to the remaining 74% who
low. This suggests that a significant proportion of failed 9th grade? [The pass rate for students
students are dropping out of the education system who took the Patrachar 10th standard exam
altogether. The situation is particularly dire for grade was 39% in March 2022, while it was 81.27%
9 students. for the 10th standard state board exam in the
same period.]

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2. Out of the students who failed 11th grade in 2020-21, only 40% enrolled in Patrachar for the 12th
standard exam in 2021-22. What happened to the remaining 60% who failed 11th grade? [The pass
rate for the Patrachar 12th standard exams was 70% in March 2022, while it was 96% for the 12th
standard state board exam in the same period.]

The data highlights a concerning trend of students either dropping out or failing to transition to open
schooling systems after setbacks in the traditional academic pathway.

Table 14: Student enrollments in Patrachar and NIOS schools in comparison to fall in enrollments from
Class 9 to Class 10 in State Government schools

Year 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2019-20 2020-21 2021-22

9th Enrollment 2,59,705 2,88,094 3,11,824 2,89,682 2,81,346 2,92,450 2,51,334 2,53,854
Government Schools

10th Enrollment 1,40,570 1,42,618 1,64,065 1,38,829 1,72,563 1,57,274 2,31,815 2,08,933
State

Number of students
who did not go from 1,17,087 1,24,029 1,72,995 1,17,119 1,24,072 60,635 42,401 -
9th to 10th Standard

% 45% 43% 55% 40% 44% 21% 17% -

10th standard 2,04,051 1,66,150 1,50,480 1,71,613 1,36,300 1,67,082 1,69,413 2,45,724

Enrollment 1,656 3,165 65,451 2,830 4,037 3,233 530 473

Patrachar

Number of students
who appeared for 1,516 2,900 62,275 2,663 3,163 3,000 455 443
10th Board exam

Number of students
25 74 1,351 248 1,027 797 213 174
who passed

Pass Percentage 2% 3% 2% 9% 32% 27% 47% 39%

10th standard

Enrollment - - - - 17,505 18,624 14,995 -

Number of students
who appeared for - - - - 17,505 18,624 14,995 -
10th Board exam
NIOS

Number of - - - - -

students who
- - - - 12,096 17,737 14,995 -
passed

Pass Percentage - - - - 69% 95% 100% -

42 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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Table 15: Student enrollments in Patrachar schools in comparison to fall in enrollments from Class 11 to
Class 12 in State Government schools

Year 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2019-20 2020-21 2021-22

11th Enrollment 2,04,051 1,66,150 1,50,480 1,71,613 1,36,300 1,67,082 1,69,413 2,45,724
Government Schools

12th Enrollment 1,41,891 1,33,411 1,23,008 1,14,176 1,31,794 1,12,162 1,61,662 1,65,405
State

Number of students
who did not go from 70,640 43,142 36,304 39,819 24,138 5,420 4,008 -
11th to 12th standard

% 35% 26% 24% 23% 18% 3% 2% -

12th standard 2,04,051 1,66,150 1,50,480 1,71,613 1,36,300 1,67,082 1,69,413 2,45,724

Enrollment 6,652 7,032 6,373 5,533 7,077 5,978 1,732 1,587

Patrachar

Number of students
who appeared for 6,060 6,355 5,248 5,172 6,028 5,666 1,580 1,506
12th Board exam

Number of students
1326 2098 2,026 2361 3,195 3,712 916 1,050
who passed

Pass Percentage 22% 33% 39% 46% 53% 66% 58% 70%

The academic literature has highlighted significant A significant proportion of students who remain
systemic challenges within the Delhi government in the education system are directed towards
school system that call into question the integrity alternative schooling options, such as enrolling in
and fairness of the educational outcomes. the NIOS boards within their government schools
Allegations have emerged of data manipulation, or the CBSE Patrachar Vidyalaya program. Despite
student filtering, and a lack of transparency behind observed improvements in pass percentages, the
the seemingly high performance of these schools academic performance of Patrachar Vidyalaya
in CBSE Class 10 and 12 examinations. According schools continues to be suboptimal, with passing
to reports, the government has been redirecting rates of only 39% for Class 10 and 70% for Class 12.
students who repeatedly fail in Classes 9 and 11 Qualitative evidence gathered through interviews
to alternative schooling options like Patrachar with parents and students who have either
Vidyalaya or open board exams, while reclassifying withdrawn from the system or enrolled in Patrachar
them as “regular” Class 10 students and placing Vidyalaya suggests a lack of adequate counselling
them in specially designated “Vishwas” sections. and support from the government schools, which
This practice effectively removes their passing ratios has contributed to elevated dropout rates. The
from the school’s performance metrics, artificially systemic failure to effectively address these high
inflating the overall success rates. Interviews with dropout rates is evident in the insufficient assistance
various school stakeholders, including principals, and interventions provided to struggling students.
teachers, students, and parents, suggest a
conscious effort to filter out struggling students in While initiatives like Mission Chunauti aim to support
order to boost the school’s passing percentages. underperforming students, the reality is a systematic
Patrachar Vidyalaya receives many of these process of segregation and exclusion starting as
students, particularly from the “Vishwas” group. The early as Class 6. Students who underperform are
proliferation of parallel schooling systems, such as placed in separate classrooms, leading to less
those affiliated with the NIOS, has been identified as attention from teachers and eventual removal
a mechanism to segregate weaker students from the from the system by Class 9. This early filtering
regular pass percentages, thereby obscuring the true exacerbates dropout rates and undermines the
educational outcomes. inclusivity that Mission Chunauti was intended to
promote.

Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice 43

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A related issue is the discouragement of students from taking science subjects in senior secondary classes,
further exacerbating educational inequality. A 2022 RTI inquiry found that only 279 out of 838 higher
secondary schools offer science courses. Many schools, particularly girls’ schools, do not actively encourage
science education due to concerns that poor performance in these subjects would adversely impact overall
pass rates. This gender bias restricts educational opportunities for female students and perpetuates
stereotypes, especially in science-related fields. Inadequate government funding (62.19 Lakh) for education
also contributes to this discouragement.

5.6 Enrollment In Government Schools & Amount Of Student Completing School

Education

Table 16: Total enrollments in State Government Schools from Class 7 to Class 12

Class 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2019-20 2020-21 2021-22

7 2,24,239 2,09,637 2,14,434 2,13,926 2,04,960 2,10,446 2,17,933 2,38,191

8 2,17,008 2,18,431 2,06,602 2,08,427 2,12,280 2,07,531 2,15,466 2,41,324

9 2,59,705 2,88,094 3,11,824 2,89,682 2,81,346 2,92,450 2,51,334 2,53,854

10 1,40,570 1,42,618 1,64,065 1,38,829 1,72,563 1,57,274 2,31,815 2,08,933

11 2,04,051 1,66,150 1,50,480 1,71,613 1,36,300 1,67,082 1,69,413 2,45,724

12 1,41,891 1,33,411 1,23,008 1,14,176 1,31,794 1,12,162 1,61,662 1,65,405

5.7 DROP OUT

Table 17: Total Dropouts in State Government Schools from 2014-15 to 2021-22

Total Estimated
No. of No. of No. of
Year No. of DropOut Dropout % Drop out in
Schools Schools Students
Students Numbers

2014-15 999 15,38,068 371 5,28,394 15,459 3 44,999

2015-16 1,009 15,09,264 396 5,60,264 17,210 3 46,361

2016-17 1,017 15,27,543 749 11,33,813 38,130 3 51,371

Government

2017-18 1,019 14,81,014 916 13,02,426 41,020 3 46,645

State

2018-19 1,022 14,98,085 505 7,49,975 28,741 4 57,411

2019-20 1,026 15,19,651 282 - 10,447 2 37,962

2020-21 1,027 16,19,726 291 - 5,589 1 19,513

2021-22 1,047 17,62,480 - - - - -

For estimation purposes, from academic year 2014-15 to 2018-19, from the data received of dropout and enrolment numbers, the proportion
of dropout students to enrolment numbers calculated has then been used to calculate the estimate of the overall dropout for that year with
the overall enrolment number. However, for 2019-20 and 2020-21, since school-wise enrolment could not be mapped for the schools where
dropout data was received, the average per school dropout (calculated above, mentioned in the inferences) has been taken and multiplied with
the total number of schools in those years to get the estimated dropout rate for all state schools.

44 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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While the Delhi government has celebrated 5.9 WORKING STAFF

improvements in the pass percentages for Classes
Table 18: Department and post wise overall number
10 and 12 in CBSE board examinations, the results
of personnel as on 31st December 2021
for Class 9 remain a significant concern. Students
who fail twice are at high risk of dropping out, Con-
highlighting the need for immediate support. The Name of Post
Sanc- Work- trac- Vacant
pass percentage for Class 9 students in Delhi tioned ing tual %
**
government schools has declined sharply, dropping
from 84.72% in 2019-20 to 65.52% in 2022-23, Education Departmental Staff
below pre-pandemic levels. In 2018-19, around 42%
DOE* HQ
of students failed, and the government reported that 63 40 - 37%
Department
40% of those who failed ultimately dropped out of
school. (Indian Express) Secretariat
Recruitment & 139 50 - 64%
Promotion Unit
5.8 SHORTAGE OF SCHOOLS &
CLASSROOMS Ministerial Staff 3,373 1,410 - 58%

EX-cadre Post 157 106 - 69%

The number of government schools in Delhi is
severely lacking. The city’s schooling structure Gazette officer Cell 945 803 - 15%
comprises 1670 MCD primary schools and 1027
DoE schools, some of which are composite, while the Total 4,677 2,409 0 50%
rest extend from Class 6 onwards (UDISE, 2020-1).
A large proportion of Government Schools (GSs) Teaching Staff
operate in shifts, implying that the actual number
of school sites is lower than the total count. In fact, Principal 1,853 342 - 82%
more than half of all GSs run in shifts, with two-
thirds of government school enrolment in these shift- Vice Principal 3,316 2,365 - 29%
based schools.
Lecturers & Guest
19,178 13,657 3,189 12%
The Delhi government’s school infrastructure Teachers
is plagued by severe classroom shortages.
Total Teaching
Approximately 89% of schools under the DoE and 24,347 16,364 3,189 20%
Staff
70% of MCD schools lack sufficient classroom
space, with the deficit being particularly acute in
Grand Total 29,024 18,773 3,189 25%
Directorate of Education institutions, where 40%
face acute deficits (2019-20). Estimates suggest that
more than doubling the existing public schooling Note: Contractual staff was given for only Lecturer’s &
capacity would be required to address the shortage Guest Teachers
of government school infrastructure in the city.

To address this issue, the proposed solution Another report highlighted critical gaps in Delhi
entails establishing an additional 632 composite government school staffing. It found a shortfall in
government schools and 275 primary government the number of regular teachers, with the remaining
schools, coupled with expanding the classroom responsibilities filled by guest teachers. There was
capacity of existing institutions. Implementing this a significant disparity between the sanctioned and
plan would necessitate a significant expansion filled positions, affecting both teaching and non-
in the overall number of government schools and teaching staff.
the recruitment of a larger teaching workforce.
Estimates suggest that an investment amounting As of 31st December 2021, the Directorate of
to up to 0.71% of Delhi’s Gross State Domestic Education had 29,024 sanctioned personnel posts,
Product (GSDP), representing a 50% increase from but only 21,962 were occupied (working and
current levels, would be required to tackle both the contractual), resulting in a 25% shortfall. The overall
infrastructural and staffing deficits. vacancy rate in the state education department was
50%, while the teaching staff vacancy stood at 20%
during the same period.

Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice 45

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The centralised and hierarchical structure of the their time. In DoE schools, inadequate clerical staff
school system curtails teachers’ creativity and exacerbates these issues, compelling teachers to
independence, leading to widespread frustration. handle administrative tasks, a problem also prevalent
Fieldwork in MCD and DoE schools revealed in MCD schools where IT or clerical positions are
that teachers frequently feel “not free to teach” frequently unfilled.
due to being overwhelmed with administrative
responsibilities. For instance, during the COVID-19 5.10 School Development Plan
pandemic, teachers had to devote significant time
to compiling and reporting data on distributed
and received worksheets. This routine applies According to Section 22 of the Right to Education
across various curricula, leaving little scope for (RTE) Act 2009, every School Management Commit-
lesson preparation or student engagement. The tee (SMC) constituted under Section 21 shall prepare
administrative burden has become a systemic a School Development Plan (SDP), which shall be the
basis for the plans and grants to be formulated by the
issue, with teachers perceiving themselves as
appropriate government or local authority. The SDP
mere paperwork processors rather than focusing
is to be prepared and signed by the principal, who is
on education. Compliance with numerous the chairperson of the SMC, and then submitted to
directives from government bodies further adds the relevant education department before the close
to their workload, often involving tasks perceived of the financial year to enable school-wise planning
as superficial and unnecessary, such as taking and appropriate allocation in the budget based upon
pledges, making posters, and recording activities. requirements from the school.
A study commissioned by the GNCTD found that
66% of teachers identified non-teaching duties Out of the 157 state schools, the proportion of schools
that did not prepare the SDP increased from 32% in
as a major impediment to effective teaching, with
2019-20 to 50% in 2021-22.
93% indicating that paperwork consumes much of

Table 19: Number of schools that prepared School Development Plan(SDP) in 2019-20 and 2021-22

School Development Plan Prepared

Number
Total
of schools 2019-20 2020-21 2021-22
District Number of
(Data
Schools
Received)
Yes No Yes No Yes No

Central 40 13 85% 15% 54% 46% 54% 46%

East 117 25 20% 80% 4% 96% 4% 96%

North West A 110 68 78% 22% 65% 35% 69% 31%

North West B 134 38 66% 34% 47% 53% 47% 53%

West B 82 13 92% 8% 38% 62% 38% 62%

Grand Total 483 157 68% 32% 48% 52% 50% 50%

46 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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5.11 UNDER- UTILIZATION OF BUDGET

Table 20: Number of schools that prepared School Development Plan(SDP) in 2019-20 and 2021-22
Not Not Not Not Not
Particular B.E B.E B.E B.E B.E B.E B.E
Utilised Utilised Utilised Utilised Utilised

2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2019-20 2020-21 2021-22 2022-23

Total
15,27,543 14,81,014 14,98,085 15,19,651 16,19,726 17,62,480 17,62,480
students

State
Education 7,508 20% 7,815 10% 10,963 NA** 12,443 21% 12,146 26% 12,659 12,378
Budget

Per Child
9792 5,019 17,344 19,548
Budget (In 49,153 52,770 73,182 81,881 74,989 71,825 70,232
(20%) (10%) (21%) (26%)
rupees)

Out of the state budget allocation, 26% was not utilized in 2020-21. (Praja Report,2021)

5.12 CHALLENGES OF DIRECT BANK system more inclusive to ensure that all eligible
students receive their entitled benefits.
TRANSFER

The implementation of Direct Benefit Transfer 5.13 COVID: An Anomaly

(DBT) in various government programs has led to
significant issues, particularly in terms of exclusions i. Decline in education spending: In the years
and delays in payments. Many deserving households leading up to the pandemic, spending on
have been unable to access funds due to backend school education in Delhi showed a gradual
failures, resulting in rejected, blocked, or diverted increase, with a 6% rise between 2017-18
payments. Schools also face this issue, as students and 2018-19 and a further 10.3% increase
without bank accounts cannot receive their between 2018-19 and 2019-20. A significant
entitlements, including money for the Mid-Day Meal rise in capital expenditure, which more than
(MDM) scheme. doubled in a year, primarily drove this growth,
reflecting the need to expand the capacity of
Opening a bank account, especially one linked to public schools. However, the pandemic caused a
Aadhaar, has become increasingly challenging for sharp 12% decline in overall education spending
students due to requirements like an initial deposit, in 2020-21, severely affecting both central
which is often unaffordable for low-income families. and state schemes, especially those aimed at
The lockdown exacerbated these issues, making marginalised communities. The focus on crucial
it difficult for students to obtain Aadhaar cards or capital expenditure was lost, and governments
open bank accounts. Even after opening accounts, prioritised salary payments over other essential
backend failures frequently result in non-receipt of spending. Like the union budget, education
payments. in Delhi’s budget was treated as a secondary
priority, with new programs introduced during
Teachers are tasked with helping students open the pandemic failing to address the immediate
bank accounts but are not involved in ensuring crisis.
that funds are credited to the accounts. There is ii. Enrollment: After the COVID-19 pandemic, the
a lack of communication and transparency from number of students in government schools in
the government regarding the flow of funds, and the 2022-23 academic session was 17,89,385,
teachers report that complaints through official while this academic year it decreased to
channels go unresolved. The government’s focus 17,58,986, which is 30,399 less than the
on efficiency and cost-saving through DBT previous session. According to the information
has inadvertently led to the exclusion of many received from the DoE, there has been a decline
beneficiaries and increased uncertainty. There is an in the number of children in government schools
urgent need to streamline and make the payment in all districts and areas except north west A

Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice 47

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and central Delhi. An official of the DoE, seeking students and 97.5% of Class 10 students
anonymity, said, “There were more admissions passing the CBSE exam in Delhi. However, the
in government schools of Delhi during the absence of formal exams raises questions about
pandemic. But as the situation became normal, the integrity and credibility of these results.
some students again moved to private schools.” iv. Extent of Dropout: Concerns have arisen
He said that “failure” of some students in exams regarding the pandemic’s potential to drive
is also a reason behind the decline in their substantial increases in school dropout rates,
numbers. (Economic Times) with reports suggesting many students have
iii. Passing Rate: Following COVID-19, the pass disengaged from the education system, while
rates for both CBSE Classes 10 and 12 saw a sizable proportion remain unable to re-
a significant increase. In 2021, due to the enter. However, the precise scale of these
pandemic, the CBSE Board did not conduct dropout figures remains uncertain. Moreover,
traditional exams and instead announced results the pandemic is believed to have exacerbated
based on an alternative set of assessment existing disparities in educational outcomes.
criteria. As a result, the overall pass percentages v. Cutback in scholarship during the pandemic:
were nearly 100%, with 99.9% of Class 12 Coverage of students

Table 21: Number of schools that prepared School Development Plan(SDP) in 2019-20 and 2021-22

Achievements Achievements
Scholarship Target 2021-22
2019-20 2020-21

Reimbursement of tuition fees to students belonging to

25,414 5,916 20,000
SC/ST/OBC studying in in private schools

Mukhyamantri Vidyarthi Pratibha Yojana for Marginalized

NIL NIL l,oo,ooo
Sections

Pre- Matric Scholarship for SC Students (CSS) 14,643 NIL 14,500

Post-Matric Scholarship for SC Students CSS 19,537 NIL 15,000

Pre-Matric Scholarship to the OBC students (CSS) 11,205 6,666 7,000

Post Matric Scholarship for OBC Students CSS 8,948 6,713 7000

Jai Bhim Mukhya mantri Pratibha Vikas Yojna (SCSP) NIL 941 48000

CM scholarship for meritorious students 29,508 Not disbursed* subject to approval

Welfare of Educationally/EconomicaIIy Backward Approx 2.50 lakh,

2.75 lakh NIL**
Minorities subject to re-opening

Source: http://delhiplanning.nic.in/content/plan-document-2021-22

Note: The plan document lists the reasons as:* Financial restriction due to covid-19 ** Not implemented due
to covid-19

48 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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Table 22: Scholarship Schemes for the Marginalized Communities (Rs Crores)

State Schemes 2017-18 2018-19 2019-20 2020-21 2020-21 2021-22

Scholarship/Merit Scholarship to
SC/ST OBC and Minority students - 74.1 54.4 33.5 1 0.18 1
Class 1 to XII

Financial assistance for the

purchase of stationery and merit
97.7 10.86
scholarships to SC./ST/OBC/
Minorties student

Reimbursement of Tuition Fees

in Public Schools to SC/ST/OBC 38.4 39.9 50.5 48 14.6 33
Students

Scholarships of educationally
12 11.5 18.8 20 20
backward minority (EBM) students

Mukhyamantri Pariksha Fees

Sahayta Yojana for class X and XII 62.12 1
student

Chief Minister's Scholarship for

7.4 8 8
Meritorious Students

Lal Bahadur Shastri Scholarship to

3 2.8
the Meritorious Students

Chief Minister super talented

0.4 0.3 0.4 0 20
children coaching scheme

Ambedkar Pathshala 1 0.2 0.5

Jai Bhim Mukhyamantri Pratibha

14.6 9.1 100 1.5 50
Vikas Yojna (SCSP *)

Mukhyamantri Vidhyarti Pratibha

150 150
Yojana for the marginalised sections

Pre-Matric Scholarship

Pre-Matric scholarship to SC
4.4 4.2 1.6 4.2
Students (CSS)

Pre-Matric Scholarship to OBC

0.6 0.6 1.7 1 1 1
Students (CSS)

Post-Matric Scholarship

Post Matric Scholarship for SC

3.1 7.3 2.3 10 10
Students (CSS)

Post Matric Scholarship for OBC

1 1.8 2.8 2 2 2
Students (CSS)

Post Matric Scholarship Scheme 7 7.9 12.1 10 - 9.7

SUM 139.6 140.8 302.7 355.63 31.9 310.5

Source: Delhi state budgets.

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Delhi has experienced significant reductions in During the pandemic, the cessation of scholarships
scholarships, both in terms of funding and coverage, for educationally backward minority students further
particularly affecting marginalized students. exacerbated the situation, leaving many students
According to data (referenced as Table 21), there without necessary financial support. Notably, the
was a marked decline in scholarship coverage Mukhyamantri Pariksha Fees Sahayta Yojana,
during 2020-21, with targets for 2021-22 falling which previously covered exam fees for class X
short compared to 2019-20. Key scholarship and XII students, received no funding in 2020-
programs, particularly those aimed at marginalized 21. Additionally, there has been a shift towards
communities, have seen their funding drastically cut. funding coaching schemes for meritorious students,
The overall expenditure on scholarships in 2020-21 reallocating resources from broader scholarship
was less than one-tenth of the budgeted amount programs, which has left many marginalized
and of the previous year's expenditure (as shown students without support.
in Table 2). Several scholarship schemes, while
numerous, have minimal allocations and cater to a The process for applying for scholarships has
limited group, indicating a lack of comprehensive become increasingly complex and opaque, with
support. verification rates for applications being alarmingly
low. Teachers highlighted the difficulty in navigating
The two main state scholarship schemes for SC, ST, these systems, leading to the exclusion of many
OBC, and minority students, which had relatively eligible students, particularly those lacking
higher allocations, have seen continuous reductions necessary documentation. The pandemic has thus
in funding, from ₹74 crores in 2017-18 to less than highlighted and exacerbated the existing gaps and
₹1 crore in 2020-21. These schemes were merged inefficiencies in the scholarship system, with urgent
with other programs, but even the combined need for reforms to restore accountability and ensure
expenditure was significantly lower than previous broader access to educational support.((Bose &
years, and there have been no fresh allocations for Sharma, 2023))
2021-22. Teachers reported that funds for these
schemes have not reached students' accounts for
the past two to three years, leading to their de facto
discontinuation.

Table 23: Student Scholarship via National Scholarship Portal: Delhi

Applied Verified to Applied %

2020-21 Gen SC ST OBC Total Gen SC ST OBC

Male Pre-matric 10,874 333 57 2,321 13,585 36.7 46.8 40.4 33.6

Post Matric/
Top Class/ 3,733 424 88 1,481 5,726 42.2 52.6 31.8 40.6
MCM

Female Pre-matric 11,248 424 63 2,258 13,993 40.1 61.6 23.8 34.2

Post Matric/
Top Class/ 5,447 275 64 1,347 7,133 43.6 47.3 26.6 38.7
MCM

Total 31,312 1456 272 7,409 40,449 39.8 52.9 30.5 36.1

Share of Social Group * 77.4 3.6 0.7 18.3 78 4.8 0.15 16.7

Source: https://nsp.gov.in/dashboard/statepage#
*The first four columns represent the share of the social group in overall applications while the last four
columns represent the share of the social group in application verified

50 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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Students face challenges in applying for pre- eligible students, particularly from marginalized
matric and post-matric scholarships, citing that the communities, are excluded due to the lack of required
application process is complex, time-consuming, certificates, such as caste or income certificates.
and requires extensive documentation. The The process of obtaining these certificates is often
National Scholarship Portal (NSP) is difficult to costly and difficult, further hindering access to
navigate, and different portals must be used for scholarships.
various scholarships, adding to the confusion. Many

Table 24: ICT and allied interventions ( in Rs crores) from 2017-18 to 2021-22

2020-
Schemes 2017-18 2018-19 2019-20 2020-21 2021-22
21(BE)

lCT 18

Digital Classroom 250

Online Assessment 150

Virtual Model School 10

Introduction of Computer Science

28.1 119.4 70.6 170 70.3 170
at +2 stage

Pratibha Fellowship for Digital

16.9
Learning

Source: State Budgets, GNCTD

The pandemic has highlighted the growing digital necessary, with careful design and implementation
divide in education, making Information and being crucial for success. The Kerala model, which
Communication Technology (ICT) a critical focus integrated ICT through teacher-driven, state-
for education policy. The budget for ICT in school coordinated training using free and open-source
education in 2021-22 saw a significant increase, software, is often cited as an effective approach.
nearly five times that of 2019-20, reflecting the
government’s commitment to expanding digital Meanwhile, the private sector has rapidly expanded
infrastructure in schools. Key initiatives included its presence in the digital education space, driven
the digital classroom scheme, online assessment by global Edtech companies. This shift towards
programs, and the virtual Delhi model school, digital and online education, accelerated by
although some programs, like the digital classroom the pandemic, underscores the need for urgent
scheme, saw no expenditure in 2020-21 despite regulation to ensure that education remains a public
being announced earlier. good and that digital content aligns with broader
educational goals. Additionally, establishing public
The introduction of computer science at the +2 stage digital infrastructure, such as community centers
remains the only consistently funded ICT initiative, and libraries, could help bridge the digital divide and
while other efforts like the Pratibha fellowship for support universal access to digital education over
digital learning have seen sporadic allocations. As the long term.
ICT becomes increasingly integral to education,
substantial public sector investments will be

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5.14 PROGRESS OF THE PAST 10 YEARS

Table 25: Comparison of various items between 2013-14 and 2022-23

Items 2013-14 2021-22 2022-23

No. of DoE schools 992 1047 1039

Total Enrollment in government. Schools

16.10 17.62 17.85
(in lakhs)

No. of Government. Aided Schools 211 203 201

Total Enrollment in government.aided Schools

1.64 1.42 1.41
(in lakh)

Total no. of schools in delhi 5453 5619 5488

Total enrollment in delhi schools ( in lakhs) 43.85 45.72 46.29

Expenditure on education as % of GSDP in Delhi 1.58 1.47 1.51

Expenditure on education as percentage of

18.1 21.2 21.1
aggregate expenditure

Per child expenditure ( in Rs.) 27435 59,069 66,896

Pass % in secondary 98.40 97 91.1

Pass % in senior secondary 86.78 98 94.1

Student teacher ratio 32 30 30

Over the past decade, Delhi’s education landscape across all grade levels. Additionally, the reduction in
has seen notable progress, but the journey is far the number of government-aided schools highlight
from complete. There has been a commendable rise issues that could impede further progress.
in total enrollment in government schools, reflecting
an increased trust in public education. Similarly, the These fluctuations across different metrics
substantial hike in per-child expenditure indicates a underscore the complexity of the education system,
stronger financial commitment to enhancing student where multiple factors—ranging from policy
outcomes. The improvement in senior secondary changes to socio-economic shifts—play a role in
pass percentages is another positive trend, shaping outcomes. As such, a deeper, more nuanced
suggesting that efforts to support older students are examination is necessary to truly assess the impact
yielding results. of these changes. Education in Delhi remains a
dynamic and continuous process, requiring sustained
However, these gains are accompanied by areas of effort and innovation. While there has been
concern that require critical attention. The drop in meaningful progress, these indicators remind us
secondary pass percentages points to challenges that there is still a considerable distance to cover in
in maintaining consistent academic performance ensuring quality education for all.

52 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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6. RECOMMENDATION 6.3 School management committee

Despite positive changes as a result of educational The election and reconstitution of School
reforms in Delhi, several crucial issues persisting in Management Committees (SMCs) in Delhi schools
the region are still as follows: are crucial under the Right to Education (RTE) Act
but require urgent attention. SMCs play a vital role in
school governance, particularly in allocating up to ₹5
6.1 Infrastructure
lakh from the School Management Committee Fund
and developing the School Development Plan (SDP)
Ghosh and Bose (2022) highlight the urgent need
to outline the school’s needs and goals.
for significant expansions to address the shortage
of government schools (GSs) in Delhi. Their
Democratic elections ensure representation from
empirical analysis suggests that existing capacities
parents, teachers, and the community, fostering
must double to meet growing demand, including
inclusive governance. Without properly elected
accommodating children currently enrolled in low-fee
SMCs, schools may lack necessary oversight and
private schools (LFPSs) who prefer well-functioning
strategic planning, leading to inadequate resource
GSs, as well as those out of school. The authors
allocation and missed improvement opportunities.
recommend constructing 632 new composite (K-
12) GSs and 275 primary GSs, along with adding
Thus, prioritizing the election and reconstitution of
classrooms through vertical or horizontal extensions
SMCs is essential to uphold the RTE Act’s principles
of existing buildings.
and enable schools to achieve their potential through
community-supported initiatives.
6.2 Enrollment in NIOS schooling
6.4 Reducing Administrative Burden on
To address the alarming pass rates among students
in classes 9 and 11, it is essential to streamline Teachers
the enrollment process for open schooling, aiming
for 100% enrollment of students who have failed. To enhance teaching efficiency, reducing the
Enhanced support and counseling services are administrative workload on teachers is crucial.
critical, as interviews with parents and dropouts Teachers’ time on school management tasks should
indicate that inadequate guidance from government be capped at a minimal time of their school day.
schools contributes significantly to dropouts. Hiring data operators for MCD schools and filling
vacancies in clerical positions within the DoE
Initiatives like Mission Chunauti, intended to support schools would help alleviate the burden of record-
underperforming students, have inadvertently led keeping and data management. Streamlining data
to systematic exclusion by segregating struggling requirements at higher administrative levels is also
students as early as Class 6, thus exacerbating recommended to ensure teachers can focus more on
dropout rates. A shift from segregation to integration classroom instruction.
is necessary to ensure that all students receive
adequate support to continue their education. 6.5 Improving Direct Benefit Transfer
Special attention should focus on improving learning (DBT) Systems
outcomes in Class 9, as many students drop out
after failing twice. Targeted interventions, including The shift to DBT for school uniforms has led to
personalized learning plans and mental health delays and inconsistencies in fund transfers, which
support, are essential for at-risk students. place a financial strain on parents. To address
these issues, the government should ensure timely
Additionally, a comprehensive strategy is needed to and equitable distribution of funds and establish a
address out-of-school children (OSC). This includes grievance redressal mechanism. A digital interface
accurately assessing the OSC population, tracking providing real-time information on students’ benefits
these children with community and NGO assistance, should be developed, and the appointment of finance
and strengthening Special Training Centres (STCs). managers or officers in schools is recommended to
Incentives for retention, such as scholarships, should manage these processes effectively.
be introduced to minimize dropout risks.

Finally, reducing the gap between sanctioned and

working teaching staff is crucial for enhancing
efficiency in the education system.

54 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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6.6 Strengthening Scholarship 7. CONCLUSION

Awareness and Accessibility
This study highlights the financial dimension of
The awareness and accessibility of scholarships educational policies and processes, which extends
need significant improvement. Teachers and parents beyond simply constructing infrastructure or
should receive regular training and orientation on increasing budgets. It is about the willingness to
available scholarships, application processes, and invest resources strategically to drive meaningful
necessary documentation. The government should improvements. The case of Delhi’s school system
also facilitate more accessible access to essential provides a valuable example of how targeted
documents like caste and income certificates financial measures can significantly enhance the
through school-organized camps or by removing educational landscape. Consequently, there is a
these requirements altogether. Additionally, a need for more research to examine the impacts of
comprehensive survey should be conducted financial investments and identify successful case
to assess the impact of changing scholarship studies that could be emulated in other contexts.
conditions on application rates, with actions taken to Sustaining such finance-driven approaches in
address any identified issues. future policies, grounded in principles of financial
sustainability and innovation, can contribute to
6.7 Enhancing Communication and further advancements in education within Delhi
and across the country (Narang & Srivastava, 2020;
Support Systems
Patel, 2021).

To improve the transparency and effectiveness

of DBT and scholarship programs, better
communication and support systems are needed. 8. CHALLENGES AND FUTURE
Schools should provide clear timelines for benefit
allocations and detailed information on schemes
DIRECTIONS
and scholarships. The education department should
Despite positive changes from educational reforms
advise banks on simplifying student processes,
in Delhi, several critical issues remain. A key concern
such as updating passbooks and establishing a
is the proportional distribution of funding for
transparent and time-bound grievance redressal
interventions (Banerjee & Duflo, 2019; Ministry of
system. Additionally, the separation of merit-based
Education, 2021). One crucial issue is the ongoing
and stationery scholarships and the simplification
teacher training process. While efforts have been
of application processes would help ensure that all
made to improve training, the challenge of providing
eligible students receive their due benefits.
professional development for all teachers persists
(Narang & Srivastava, 2020). . Infrastructure
6.8 Efficient budget utilization maintenance is also a chronic problem. Significant
progress has been made in constructing new
Despite being allocated under different headings, the structures and modernising existing ones, but the
optimum utilization of resources is still in question upkeep of these facilities requires sustained financial
as most of it goes underutilized. A comprehensive investment (Gupta & Sharma, 2018).
reform is needed to address this issue, focusing on
effective budget planning and execution. Collective
community involvement can also be ensured to
establish clear, accountable, and transparent
structures for better resource allocation and optimum
resource utilization. Robust monitoring mechanisms
can also be developed and practiced to ensure
effective and transparent budget utilization.

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58 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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CHAPTER

3
Lost in the System:
Document Discrepancies
and Other Barriers to RTE
Admissions in Delhi

Meena Kumari

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ABSTRACT • Errors or minor inconsistencies in documentation

led to admission denials. Issues such as name
mismatches across documents or unclear
This study examines the significance of the Right
eligibility criteria for orphaned and transgender
to Education Act, 2009, and undertakes a critical
children were common.
analysis of the formal admission process to identify
procedural gaps and uncover the challenges faced
by parents. The primary aim of the research is to
offer constructive and actionable recommendations 1. INTRODUCTION
to enhance the effectiveness of the admission
process under the RTE Act. Employing a mixed- Ensuring educational opportunities for children
method approach, the study integrates an analytical is a collective responsibility of society. Education
review of the regulations and circulars issued by serves as a vital tool for advancing equality and
the Government of NCT Delhi pertaining to the social justice. The Right to Education Act of 2009
admission process under Section 12, alongside represents a significant legislative initiative aimed
a qualitative analysis based on interviews with at guaranteeing inclusive education for all, thereby
parents whose children were allocated seats through upholding the principles of equality and social
the Directorate of Education’s computerized lottery justice. The RTE Act is founded upon Article 45 of the
system in Delhi. The scope of the research is limited Indian Constitution, which in turn was derived from
to the admission process for Economically Weaker Article 36 of the Draft Constitution.
Section category students in Delhi, specifically
those admitted to unaided private schools at the It reads as follows:
entry level for the academic session 2024-25.
The study’s findings contribute to the literature by Every citizen is entitled to primary education,
exposing the disparities between the prescribed and and the State shall endeavour to provide, within
actual admission processes, highlighting parental ten years from the commencement of this
experiences and discrepancies in documentation, constitution, free and compulsory education for
which impede the realization of the Act’s intended all children until they reach the age of fourteen.
outcomes. (Draft Constitution of India 1948, Art. 36)

Keywords: Admission Process, Documents, Unaided In 1998, the government established the Tapas
Private Schools, Right to Education (RTE) Act, Majumdar Committee to propose a constitutional
Economically Weaker Sections (EWS), Document amendment mandating free and compulsory
Verification, Private Schools, Grievance Redressal education for all children aged 6-14 years, as well
as to recommend relevant central legislation to
enforce this directive. This effort culminated in the
KEY FINDINGS insertion of Article 21A by the Constitution (Eighty-
Sixth Amendment) Act, 2002, which stipulated
that the State must provide free and compulsory
• A clear gap exists between the formal (de jure)
education to all children between the ages of six
and practical (de facto) admission processes
and fourteen (The Constitution [86th Amendment]
under the RTE Act, particularly during the
Act, 2002). To ensure the effective implementation
document verification stage.
of Article 21A, the Parliament subsequently enacted
the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory
• While parents generally found the online
Education Act, 2009 (hereafter the RTE Act 2009),
registration process straightforward, many
which guarantees free and compulsory education for
struggled with digital literacy, relying on external
children within this age cohort.
support to complete applications.

The Right to Education Act 2009 establishes a

• Some schools arbitrarily denied admissions
framework to ensure universal access to free and
despite seats being allocated through the
compulsory elementary education for all children
computerized lottery system, citing reasons like
aged 6-14 years (RTE Act 2009, Sec 3). The Act
document discrepancies or seat unavailability.
covers a range of school types, including those
directly run by government or local authorities, as
well as aided schools that receive partial or full

60 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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government funding and unaided private schools. to schools by the Director of Education, Government
Government and local authority-operated schools of NCT Delhi, in accordance with the RTE Act 2009.
must provide free and compulsory elementary Despite the computerized lottery results being
education to all enrolled students. Aided schools are communicated to the respective schools, the schools
required to offer free education to a proportion of refused to admit these students.
their students, based on the annual aid and recurring
costs, with a minimum of 25% of the student The Government of Delhi has issued and notified
strength. Furthermore, specified category schools several circulars and rules that unaided private
and unaided private schools are mandated to admit schools must comply with in the admission process
at least 25% of their class size from economically under the RTE Act. Additionally, a Standard
disadvantaged or weaker sections of society in Operating Procedure (SOP) was developed by the
Grade 1. These admission requirements also apply National Commission for Protection of Child Rights
to preschool programmes offered by these schools in 2020-21 to ensure the proper and effective
(RTE Act 2009, Sec 12). implementation of Section 12 (1)(c) (NCPCR, 2021).

The RTE Act’s focus on ensuring equitable access to The objective of this research is to critically
quality elementary education has faced numerous examine the admission process as outlined in policy
challenges in its implementation. One of the key documents, identify any loopholes, and explore the
obstacles is the limited understanding among ground realities, including the challenges faced by
stakeholders, such as parents and school authorities, parents during the implementation of the admission
regarding the provisions and requirements of the procedures.
Act.
Research Questions
The objective of universal free and compulsory The research aims to investigate the following
elementary education cannot be fully realised questions:
solely through government-run or publicly-assisted
schools. Consequently, Section 12 (1)(c) of the Right 1. Are there any disparities between the admission
to Education Act mandates that private unaided process as formally stipulated and its practical
schools also provide free and compulsory education implementation?
to children from disadvantaged and economically
2. What obstacles do parents confront during the
weaker sections of society.
admission process?
Statement of Problem
While incorporating a detailed admission process 2. LITERATURE OVERVIEW
directly into the Act may not be practical, as the
admission system often necessitates frequent The Right to Education Act outlines various
adjustments and amending the Act is a lengthy provisions pertaining to admissions, yet it fails
procedure, the admission process must be to specify the precise procedures, necessary
streamlined, accessible, timely, and transparent to documentation, or other formalities. Several studies
achieve the goal of providing free and compulsory have explored the admission process under the Act.
primary education. For example, the National Commission for Protection
of Child Rights (NCPCR, 2017) conducted a study
In 2022, a writ petition was filed, highlighting that that quantitatively examined the admissions of
approximately 50,000 children were still awaiting students from the Economically Weaker Section
admission under the weaker section category as (EWS) and Disadvantaged Group (DG)categories
mandated by the RTE Act 2009 (Justice for All vs. in Delhi, as well as the dropout rates from 2010 to
Hon’ble LG & Others, W.P.(C) 2096/2022 & CM 2016, in order to assess compliance with Section
APPL. 28430/2022). The petition further alleged 12(1)(c) of the RTE Act. However, the current study
that schools were not filling the required quota aims to undertake a focused analysis of both the
seats, which constitute 25% of the total seats. official and actual admission processes for the
Additionally, a batch of petitions was brought before academic session 2024-25 in Delhi, with a particular
the Delhi High Court concerning admissions under emphasis on identifying the challenges encountered
the Economically Weaker Section (EWS) category by both schools and parents.
of the RTE Act 2009 (Shabnam vs. Govt of NCT of
Delhi, 2022/DHC/005622). In these cases, students Likewise, a study undertaken by Development &
had been issued letters confirming their admission Research Services Pvt. Ltd. (2021) examined a

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sample of admissions under Section 12(1)(c) of the In the second stage, a qualitative, interview-
RTE Act across the states of Delhi, Karnataka, and based approach was adopted to explore the lived
Madhya Pradesh from 2015 to 2018. While this experiences of parents navigating the admission
research offered a broad overview of the admission process. Interviews were conducted with parents
practices during that period, it did not provide a whose children were allocated seats by the
detailed comparative analysis of the official versus Directorate of Education (DoE) in Delhi. This stage
actual processes, nor did it specifically investigate aimed to gather rich, first-hand insights into the
the procedural difficulties encountered by parents practical challenges and barriers encountered
and schools regarding the 2024-25 academic year. by families during the admission process,
complementing the document analysis from the
Indus Action’s study (2023) examined the diverse earlier stage. The qualitative approach allowed
processes used by various states to implement the study to capture personal narratives and
Section 12(1)(c) of the RTE Act 2009, providing experiences, highlighting any discrepancies between
valuable insights into the roles of governmental policy intentions and real-world outcomes.
bodies and educational bureaucrats. The study
shed light on best practices and the challenges Sampling and Data Collection
associated with implementing this provision. While
it briefly touched on the admission process in Delhi The study participants comprised families of children
for 2023, it did not delve into the specific difficulties categorised under the Economically Weaker Section
encountered by parents and school authorities. in Delhi, as defined by the Right to Education Act of
2009. A purposive sampling strategy was adopted,
In addition to these studies, several Public Interest targeting parents whose children were directly
Litigations (PILs) have been filed, advocating for the impacted by the admission process. These parents
effective implementation of the fundamental right to were recruited with the assistance of community
free and compulsory education. These PILs have also leaders affiliated with Indus Action and the Centre
highlighted critical flaws in the admission process, for Civil Society, who facilitated the necessary
drawing attention to the need for reform and better contacts and coordination. The data collection
enforcement of RTE provisions. involved a semi-structured interview protocol,
incorporating both closed-ended and open-ended
questions to ensure a comprehensive understanding
3. METHODOLOGY of the parents’ perspectives. This format provided
the researchers with the flexibility to explore
The study employed a mixed-method research specific issues in greater depth while maintaining a
design to comprehensively investigate the research structured approach.
questions, combining both depth and breadth of
analysis. The investigation was structured in two The study involved interviews with 15 parents,
distinct stages to capture the various dimensions of representing a diverse range of experiences within
the admission process under Section 12(1) (C) of the the EWS admission process. The participants were
Right to Education (RTE) Act. divided into two groups: those whose children had
successfully gained admission and those whose
The initial stage involved an in-depth and critical children were not admitted, despite being allocated
examination of the rules and directives issued by the seats through the computerised lottery system. This
Government of the National Capital Territory (NCT) approach facilitated a comparative analysis of the
of Delhi. This entailed a detailed analysis of the experiences of both groups, enabling the researchers
official guidelines governing the admission process to identify factors contributing to successful or
for students from Economically Weaker Sections unsuccessful admissions. Prior to the interviews,
(EWS) under the RTE Act. The objective was to the participants provided informed consent and
uncover any inherent weaknesses or inconsistencies were briefed on the purpose and scope of the study,
in the formal, on-paper process. This stage focused ensuring adherence to ethical research practices.
on identifying the gaps between policy prescriptions
and their practical implications, laying the Limitation
groundwork for a more nuanced understanding of
the theoretical operation of the process. This research is limited in its scope, focusing solely
on EWS category students in Delhi who were

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allocated seats in private unaided schools at the 1. A circular on 17 January 2024 detailing the
entry level (class I) through a computerised lottery tentative vacancies for online admission
system administered by the Directorate of Education of students from the Economically Weaker
for the 2024-25 academic year. As such, the findings Sections (EWS), Disadvantaged Groups (DG),
may not be generalisable to other geographic and children with disabilities at the entry-level
contexts or student populations beyond this specific classes in private unaided schools in Delhi.
cohort. Furthermore, the study’s temporally confined
2. A circular on 24 April 2024 providing
nature, examining a single academic session, may
guidelines for admission under the EWS/DG
constrain its ability to provide insights into long-term
and children with disabilities categories at the
trends in the admission process under Section 12 (1)
entry-level classes in private unaided schools
(c) of the relevant legislation.
in Delhi for the 2024-25 academic session.
3. A circular on 31 May 2024 outlining the
guidelines for admission under the EWS/DG
4. ADMISSIONS UNDER category at the entry level (Nursery/KG/Class-
SECTION 12(1) (C) OF RTE ACT, 1st) in private unaided schools in Delhi for
the 2024-25 academic session, to be selected
2009 IN DELHI through a computerised draw of lots

The Delhi Right of Children to Free and Compulsory

Education Rules, 2011, were promulgated by
1. Eligibility Criteria
the Lieutenant Governor of the National Capital
Section 12(1)(c) provides that the school shall
Territory of Delhi, pursuant to the powers vested
admit children belonging to weaker sections and
under Section 38 of the Right to Education (RTE)
disadvantaged groups.
Act, 2009. These rules outline the procedural
framework required for the effective enactment of
1. Children belonging to economically weaker
the objectives stipulated in the RTE Act, 2009. The
sections
rules are delineated into nine distinct sections, each
of which furnishes detailed guidelines addressing a. Children belonging to families registered
various dimensions of the education system. These under Antodaya Ana Yojana (AAY)
include guidelines for the formation and duties of b. Children belonging to households fall in the
School Management Committees (SMCs), provisions Below Poverty Line (BPL) list prepared by the
for special training programs to address learning state.
disparities, and the delineation of responsibilities c. Children belonging to such parents whose
assigned to the government, local authorities, annual income is lower than the minimum
schools, and teachers. Furthermore, the rules limit prescribed by the government.
establish standards for curriculum development
and define the roles and functions of the Delhi The Delhi government provides that if the annual
Commission for the Protection of Child Rights, income is less than one lakh rupees. Recently, a
ensuring the comprehensive enforcement of the RTE division bench of the Delhi High Court increased
Act’s mandates in the NCT of Delhi. the threshold income for school admission in the
EWS category to 2.5 lakh; however, it was further
Additionally, Rule 10 of these rules addresses challenged in court; therefore, the threshold limit is
the issue of admissions, explicitly prohibiting the still less than one lakh rupees (The Hindu, 6 March
segregation of children admitted under Section 12 2024).
(1)(c) of the RTE Act, 2009, from other children.
2. Children belonging to disadvantaged groups:
Furthermore, Rule 10, sub-rule (4) of the Delhi Right
a. Children belonging to Scheduled Castes (SC)
of Children to Free and Compulsory Education
Rules, 2011, grants the government the authority b. Children belonging to Scheduled Tribes (ST)
to periodically prescribe the admission procedures c. Children belonging to Other Backward
through official notifications. This ensures that the Classes (non-creamy layer) (OBC-NCL)
admission process remains adaptable and aligned d. Children with disability (CWSN-Children
with evolving policy requirements (RTE Rules 2011). With Special Needs)
For the 2024-25 academic year, the Directorate
e. Orphans
of Education in Delhi issued the following public
circulars and notifications:

Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice 63

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f. Transgender local authority, Certificate by Employer, or

g. Children living with or affected by HIV Certificate of Child Welfare Committee if the
child is living in a child care institution.
The Delhi Government reserved 22% of seats for 3. Children applying under the EWS category
children belonging to SC, ST, OBC-NCL, orphans, can provide an AAY Card, BPL Card, or
transgender people, and children living with or Income Certificate as per the limit prescribed
affected by HIV, and 3% of seats are reserved for by the appropriate Government.
children with disabilities (CWSN-Children With
Special Needs). Applicants in possession of a Below Poverty Line
(BPL) card, ration card, or food security card are not
1.1 Age limits required to submit an income certificate.
a. For Nursery: 3-5 years
b. For KG: 4-6 years 1. Children applying under the disadvantaged
categories of Scheduled Caste (SC),
c. For class 1: 5-7 years
Scheduled Tribe (ST), and Other Backward
Classes-Non-Creamy Layer (OBC-NCL) may
According to the New Education Policy (NEP) 2020,
provide category certificates issued by the
the minimum age for admission in Class 1 is 6 years.
Revenue Department of the Government of
However, the Directorate of Education circular in
the National Capital Territory of Delhi. The
Delhi allows children to be admitted to Class 1
prerequisite of a minimum residency period of
up to the age of 7 years. Recently, the Ministry of
three years in Delhi for these categories has
Education, Government of India, has requested all
been waived.
states and Union Territories to follow the uniform
criteria of a minimum age of 6 years. Yet, for the 2. Children affected by HIV may submit their
academic session 2024-25, the DoE circular in Delhi own or their parent’s medical certificate.
continues to deviate from the National Education 3. Transgender children must provide a
Policy. medical certificate from a Civil Surgeon or
Superintendent of a government-recognised
Regarding children with special needs, the age hospital.
criteria are 3-7 years for Nursery, 4-8 years for
Kindergarten, and 5-9 years for Class 1. 4. Orphan children must submit a certificate
from the Child Welfare Committee under
1.2 Documents Required for Admission under Sec. (Care and Protection of Children) the Juvenile
12(1) (c ) Justice Act 2015.
Aadhar Card of Parents: To apply for admission,
1.3 Within what period do documents need to be
it is necessary to provide the Aadhar number of
submitted?
parents. However, the Aadhar card of the child is not
mandatory. Admitted students were expected to submit the
necessary documents for verification to the assigned
1. Proof of date of birth can be provided through school within the timeframe communicated via SMS
a birth certificate, Aadhar card, Hospital/ notification to successful applicants.
Auxiliary/Midwife register record, Anganwadi
record, or an affidavit of parents/guardians
regarding the child’s age.

2. Residential proof can be established

through an Aadhar Card, Voter Identity
Card, Electricity Bill, Telephone Bill, Water
Bill, House Tax Receipt, Ration Card,
Driving Licence, Certificate from Tahsildar/

64 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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2 Admission Process

Admiddion Process under RTE Act (12(1) (c) in Delhi

Computerized
Prepatory Phase Advertisment Draw Of Lot By Grievances
DoE

Seek Information Successful candidates are informed

about Vacancies
from schools by DoE

Approach the school allotted

School shall verify
within the time period with
documents
Representation required documents
regarding increase
or decrease of EWS/
DG seats

School shall update

admission status

Schools shall provide

Schedule of Link of Online reasons for rejection
No. of Seats
Admission Admission Portal

Rules and
Class wise details
Regulation

Instruction of
Schoolwise details
filling up form

Eligibilities Eligibilities
and required and required
documents documents

Deadlines of Deadlines of
application application
process and process and
verification of verification of
documents documents

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2.1 Online Process against private unaided recognised schools under

the DoE, MCD or NDMC, parents can contact the
For the 2024-25 academic year, the Directorate relevant education department in Delhi.
of Education implemented a computerised online
admissions system. 2.6 Non-observance of the Rules and Regulations

The online application form can be accessed through i. By Parents

the Directorate’s website (www.edudel.nic.in). This If parents register a child using multiple mobile
website also provides a list of schools recognised numbers or submit multiple applications, the child’s
under the DSEAR 1973 and those provisionally candidature shall be cancelled. According to the
recognised under the RTE Act 2009 that are rules, a child can only avail of a single admission
participating in the online process. Additionally, it opportunity at the entry level. In some cases, parents
offers instructions for completing the application or guardians have manipulated their residential
form and a link for registration. address to secure admission to their preferred
school. If any parent or guardian provides inaccurate
2.2 Single Registration and Single Application information, the children’s admission will be
cancelled. Furthermore, if it is found that fraudulent
Applicants must register for admission using a single documents were used to obtain admission, the
mobile number. The registration link was available admission shall be revoked.
on the website of the Directorate of Education (DoE).
In the case of Master Singham vs. DoE, GNCTD &
For each child, only a single application should be Sanskriti School, it was alleged that in 2013, the
submitted. Filing multiple applications for the same father of a student obtained a misleading Income
child will result in the cancellation of all applications. Certificate and secured his son’s admission to
Applicants must submit the application within the Sanskriti School under the EWS category. The fraud
provided admission schedule. was discovered in 2018, and the school filed an
FIR against the individual and issued a notice for
2.3 Computerised Lottery and Verification of admission cancellation. The father then filed a writ
Documents petition against the cancellation order in the Delhi
High Court. The court set aside the cancellation
A computerised lottery has been conducted by the order and imposed a compensation of 10 lakh
DoE. Applicants are able to check on the website rupees on the father. While the court emphasised
whether they have secured a seat or not. the student’s academic prospects and future, it
is concerning that the fundamental rights of the
Successful applicants must approach the assigned student and parent who lost this opportunity due to
school within the specified time frame, equipped the fraud were not adequately addressed.
with the required documents listed on the website.
If admission is denied, the school shall provide the ii. By Schools
reasons for the same. Furthermore, schools are
The circular imposes various restrictions on schools,
mandated to update the admission status on the
mandating that they must not deny admission to
department’s website (www.edudel.nic.in).
successful applicants, charge tuition fees, or request
income certificates if the applicant provides an AAY/
2.4 Other Facilities available to such Students-
BPL card. Additionally, schools are prohibited from
Books and Uniforms
denying admission based on the distance range.
However, the circular does not specify any clear
According to Rule 8, children attending schools
penalties for schools that fail to comply with these
under Section 12 (1) (c) are entitled to receive free
regulations. While the option of derecognising a
textbooks, stationery, and uniforms. The explanation
non-compliant school exists, this measure may
of this rule stipulates that the responsibility to
have adverse consequences for the futures of other
provide these free entitlements lies with the
students enrolled at the institution, rendering it a
respective schools.
challenging solution for compelling schools to admit
the eligible applicants.
2.5 Grievance Redressal
Multiple cases, such as Ayesha Sankhla vs Govt
If any parent has concerns, they can approach the
of NCT Delhi, Shabnam vs Govt of Delhi NCT, and
relevant Education Department. For grievances
Tarun Kumar & others vs. The Principal, Happy Hours

66 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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School & others, have documented instances where including an assessment of their satisfaction with
schools denied admission to applicants who had the procedures, any difficulties they faced, and the
fulfilled all the required criteria and submitted the effectiveness of the grievance process. The analysis
necessary documentation. aims to identify both the positive and challenging
aspects of the system for these parents, providing
5. Admission Process in Practice and insights into how well it worked for those who
secured admissions.
Difficulties Faced by Parents
Group 2: Parents Whose Children Were Not
This study aims to investigate the discrepancies
Admitted
between the de jure (on-paper) and de facto (in
practice) admission processes, as well as the
This group examines the experiences of parents
obstacles encountered by parents during the
whose children, notwithstanding their allocation
admission process. After reviewing the official,
of placements through the computerised lottery
documented admission procedures, this section
system, were ultimately denied admission to the
focuses on analysing the practical implementation of
designated schools. The study investigates these
these procedures. It involves a detailed examination
parents’ journeys through the admission process,
of factual data and insights provided by participant
with a particular focus on the specific challenges
parents who applied for admission under the
they encountered. It explores whether they received
Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) category for
sufficient support from the relevant authorities, the
the academic session 2024-25. These parents were
nature of the issues that arose, and the manner in
allocated seats through the computerised lottery
which their grievances were addressed, if at all. This
system administered by the DoE. The study objective
analysis aims to uncover the systemic shortcomings,
is to identify gaps and inconsistencies between the
identifying the points at which the admission
official process and its execution on the ground,
process failed for this cohort of parents.
highlighting any barriers faced by parents during this
process.
6. Findings
The mere enactment of legislation or establishment
of a procedure does not guarantee seamless The research study uncovers numerous significant
implementation. While a significant portion of the findings that elucidate both the strengths and
admission process, from registration to school weaknesses of the admission processes governed
allocation, is conducted online, several challenges by the Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009.
arise in the later stages, raising concerns about the These findings provide critical insights into the
effective enforcement and realisation of the Right to discrepancies between policy and actual practice,
Education Act, 2009. These challenges cast doubt on as well as the challenges experienced by parents in
the practical execution of the policy and its intended navigating the system.
outcomes.
1 Difference Between On-Paper and In-Practice
Admission Processes
In this study, parents were categorised into two
groups based on the outcomes of the admission While there appears to be no overt discrepancy
process under the EWS category for the academic between the prescribed phases of the admission
session 2024-25. This segmentation allows for a process, the eligibility criteria, and the required
comparative analysis of the experiences of those documentation outlined in the regulations, and their
whose children were successfully admitted and implementation in reality, certain stages, particularly
those who encountered difficulties or were not those involving schools, present substantial
admitted, thus providing deeper insights into the challenges. The initial steps, including registration,
operational shortcomings and barriers within the application, and the computerised lottery system,
system. are generally regarded as fair and transparent.
However, issues arise in the later stages, particularly
Group 1: Parents Whose Children Were Admitted concerning document verification and the role of
schools in the admission process.
This group examines the experiences of parents
whose children were successfully admitted 2 General Satisfaction with Online Registration
through the computerised lottery system run by A majority of parents from both groups expressed
the Directorate of Education. The study looks at satisfaction with the online registration and
their journey from registration to final admission,

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lottery system. Most found the process relatively Act, as they were denied their entitlement to free
straightforward to navigate, and the online and compulsory schooling.
procedures aligned with the formal, on-paper
guidelines. This indicates that the digital 5 Document Verification at Schools
infrastructure for initial registration is functioning Parents from both groups reported varying
effectively in providing access to applicants, as experiences with the document verification process.
intended. Some parents in Group 1, whose children were
successfully admitted, described the verification
3 Issues with Access and Technology process as smooth and without any major issues.
While parents generally expressed satisfaction with However, other parents encountered significant
the online registration and application procedures, difficulties, with school authorities pointing out
some encountered difficulties in accessing the minor discrepancies in documents. These trivial
online systems due to a lack of digital proficiency, issues often caused delays, forcing parents to make
despite having access to smartphones. Many multiple visits to the school, resulting in missed
applicants required external assistance, such as workdays and financial strain.
from cybercafés, friends, or acquaintances, to
complete the necessary registration and application Errors in Documents
processes. This highlights a discrepancy in digital
inclusivity, where simply having access to technology A recurring issue for Group 2 parents, whose
does not necessarily equate to the capability to children were denied admission, was errors in
use it effectively, which may disadvantage certain documentation. Several parents reported that
segments of the applicant population. mistakes in their documents led to the refusal of
admission by the school authorities. Two notable
4 Arbitrary Denial of Admission by Schools cases are presented below:
The study uncovered a critical issue where certain
schools arbitrarily denied admission to students who Case 1
had been allocated placements through the DoE’s One parent applied under the EWS category
computerised lottery system. Multiple parents in the using a ration card, where the mother’s maiden
disadvantaged group reported that their children name was listed. However, in other documents,
were refused admission, with some schools even the maiden name included a surname, leading
rejecting to verify the necessary documents. In the school authorities to deny admission due
numerous cases, schools simply informed parents to this discrepancy. The school provided a very
that no seats were available, despite the official short window for correcting the ration card,
allotments. and the parent was unaware of how to rectify
the issue. Additionally, the school offered no
Case 1: guidance or support on how to resolve the
Two parents described how their children were problem.
allocated seats at Dev Convent School through the
lottery process, but the school refused admission, Case 2
citing a lack of available places. This issue points to Another parent had already enrolled their child
a significant breakdown in communication between in the pre-primary section of the same school
schools and the DoE. Schools are required to provide and applied for admission to Class I under
accurate information on seat vacancies during the Section 12 (1) (c) of the RTE Act, 2009. A friend
preparatory stage of the admission process. Any assisted in completing the registration, but they
changes in seat availability should be promptly mistakenly added ‘Singh’ as the child’s surname.
communicated to the Directorate, allowing parents Although a seat was allotted, the school denied
to explore alternative options if necessary. Had the admission due to this error in the child’s name
school communicated effectively in these instances, on the application form. This issue, involving
parents could have pursued other placements. As a minor errors in documentation, was reported by
result of this failure, some parents were compelled multiple parents.
to enrol their children in the same school by paying
tuition fees, thereby circumventing the provisions 6 Lack of Clear Communication and Support
of Section 12 (1)(c). Others had to make alternative The study identified a significant lack of clear
arrangements for their children’s education. communication and support from school authorities,
Such cases represent a violation of the children’s particularly for parents from the disadvantaged
fundamental rights as guaranteed under the RTE group (group 2). According to official guidelines,

68 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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schools are mandated to establish Help Desks to Income Certificate

assist parents throughout the admission process A significant issue pertains to the income
and provide necessary information. However, many threshold for EWS admissions in Delhi. The
parents, especially those in the disadvantaged group current circular sets the annual income limit at
(group 2), reported that these support mechanisms one lakh rupees. However, a recent ruling by
were either absent or ineffective. There was a the High Court of Delhi increased this threshold
dearth of consistent communication, guidance, and to five lakh rupees (Thapliyal, Nupur. Live Law,
support, compelling parents to navigate the process March 5, 2024). This discrepancy has created
independently, often resulting in confusion and confusion among applicants, as it is unclear
stress. whether the applicable threshold is one lakh
or five lakh rupees. While the circular provides
7 Charges for Books and Uniforms a one lakh limit, it fails to clarify that this limit
The research revealed that all parents whose is in place due to an ongoing appeal against
children were admitted under Section 12 (1)(c) the High Court’s decision. To avoid confusion
were required to pay for books and uniforms. Some and ensure transparency, the circular should
parents had to purchase uniforms directly from explicitly reference the legal context and clarify
the market. Despite these charges, the schools did the current income criteria for EWS admissions.
not provide any assurance that the costs would be
reimbursed, as stipulated by the RTE provisions. Documents for Orphaned Children
The circular also lacks sufficient detail regarding
8 Grievance Redressal the documentation required for orphaned
children seeking admission under the RTE Act.
The study revealed a significant lack of awareness
While it refers to the Juvenile Justice (Care and
and avenues for grievance redressal among parents.
Protection of Children) Act, 2015, the definition
Although many parents encountered problems
of an orphan is complex and requires legal
during the admission process, they did not file
interpretation. The Juvenile Justice Act includes
formal complaints or report their grievances to the
provisions for children in need of care and
relevant authorities. This was largely attributable to
protection, as well as children in conflict with the
a deficiency in knowledge regarding the appropriate
law, making the definition of ‘orphan’ unclear
procedures and channels for lodging complaints,
in practical terms for admission purposes.
underscoring a critical shortcoming in the system’s
The circular should provide a simplified and
capacity to address the concerns of the affected
clear definition of orphan children and specify
stakeholders.
the exact documents required for admission.
Furthermore, the circular does not address the
9 Lack of Empathy from School Authorities
situation of orphan children living with extended
The study found that many parents expressed families rather than in children’s homes, creating
feeling undervalued and unwelcome during the additional ambiguity for such applicants.
admission process. Several participants reported
encountering dismissive attitudes from school Documents for Transgender Children
authorities, which compounded their sense Despite the existence of a Standard Operating
of frustration. The perceived lack of empathy Procedure (SoP) mandating a medical certificate
and support contributed to an overall negative from a civil surgeon or superintendent of a
experience for numerous parents, further highlighting government-notified hospital, the circular
the systemic deficiencies in the implementation of fails to mention any specific documentation
the RTE Act’s admission provisions. required for transgender children. Authorities
involved in the admission process intend to
10 Gaps in Documents Enumerated for Admission
use SoPs, but the circular itself lacks a clear
The study identifies several shortcomings in the provision to inform parents and guardians about
list of documents required for admission under the the required documentation for transgender
Economically Weaker Section category, as specified children. Transgender applicants, who may
in the official circulars. These gaps have generated not be aware of the specific requirements
confusion and practical obstacles for applicants, unless directly communicated in the circular,
especially in instances where the documentation is bear an unnecessary burden due to this
ambiguous or lacks sufficient detail. lack of information. To ensure inclusivity and
accessibility, the circular should explicitly
mention the required documents for transgender
children as part of the admission process.

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7. Suggestions and Conclusion f. Addressing Arbitrary Denial of Admission

by Schools: The arbitrary denial of
The study findings highlight significant discrepancies admission, particularly for children allotted
between the intended (de jure) Right to Education seats through the lottery, represents a
(RTE) Act admission process and the actual fundamental rights violation under the
(de facto) experiences of parents. While the RTE Act. An alternative solution could be
computerized lottery system is perceived as fair and introducing education vouchers or coupons,
transparent, challenges emerge in the later stages, which parents can use exclusively for school
particularly regarding schools’ document verification fees, to prevent arbitrary denials and ensure
and admission handling. As aptly noted, “It’s like timely reimbursement for schools, while
the proverbial, unwilling horse: You can somehow promoting fairness, parental dignity, and
take him to the pond, but cannot make him drink” healthy school competition.
(Indian Express, 17 August 2024). The structured
process fails in certain areas due to inconsistent Bringing together children from diverse backgrounds
implementation, communication barriers, and can improve learning experiences, as modern
schools’ arbitrary actions. To address the identified teaching methods have shown. However, the full
gaps, the following recommendations are proposed: benefits of the Right to Education Act in creating
such enriched classrooms have not been achieved,
a. Opportunity to Rectify Mistakes During and the progress of the RTE has been less positive
Registration and Application: Parents than expected.
should be provided an opportunity to correct
errors in their registration and application While laws and regulations alone cannot resolve
forms, preventing minor mistakes from every issue that arises, carefully designed policy
resulting in admission denial and enabling changes and thoughtful implementation can lead
smoother processing. to meaningful and lasting improvements in the
education system. The overarching aim should
b. Submission of Undertakings for Name
be to continuously refine the admission process,
Discrepancies: In cases of minor name
making it as inclusive, transparent, and fair as
discrepancies across documents, parents
possible, in order to truly fulfil the purpose and
should be allowed to submit an undertaking
vision of the RTE Act. By addressing the identified
or affidavit clarifying the error, rather than
gaps, barriers, and areas for improvement,
facing outright rejection.
policymakers and education authorities can work
c. Clear Instructions Regarding Document towards ensuring equal access to quality education
Consistency: At the registration stage, for all children, regardless of their socioeconomic
parents should receive explicit instructions background or personal circumstances. This will not
to ensure all details in their documents and only uphold the fundamental rights and principles
application forms match exactly, to avoid enshrined in the RTE Act, but also create enriched,
confusion or delays during verification. diverse classrooms that can foster greater mutual
d. Reasonable Time for Error Rectification: understanding, learning experiences, and positive
Schools should provide a reasonable period outcomes for all students.
for parents to correct any documentation
discrepancies, alleviating undue pressure on
families and reducing arbitrary admission
denials.
e. Direct Subsidy for Books and Uniforms:
Instead of relying on schools to provide
books and uniforms, a direct subsidy should
be given to parents, empowering families,
ensuring transparency, and preventing
unreasonable school charges.

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REFERENCES 13. Ramamurthy Committee. “Final Report of Committee

for Review of National Policy on Education December
26, 1990”. https://www.educationforallinindia.
1. Government of NCT Delhi. “Tentative Vacancies for com/1990%20Acharya%20Ramamurti%20Report.
Online Admission of EWS/DG and Children With pdf.
Disabilities Category Students at Entry Level Classes
(Nur, KG and First) of the Private Unaided Recognized 14. Shabnam vs. Govt of NCT of Delhi 2022/
Schools of Delhi for the Ensuing Academic Session DHC/005622. 24 July 2024. https://dhccaseinfo.
2024-25.” Jan17,2024. https://www.edudel.nic.in/ nic.in/jupload/dhc/CDS/judgement/17-12-2022/
upload/upload_2023_24/336_341_dt_17012024a.pdf. CDS16122022CW10922021_091410.pdf

2. Constitutional Culture Team. Draft Constitution of India 15. Tapas Majumdar Committee. “Tapas Majumdar
1948 Archives -Constitution of India. Feb 21, 1948. Committee Report 1998”. January 16, 2024. https://
https://www.constitutionofindia.net/committee-report/ cprindia.org/edu_repository/tapas-majumdar-
draft-constitution-of-india-1948/ (accessed on July 21, committee/.
2024). 16. Thapliyal, Nupur. Live Law, March 5, 2024. https://
3. Government of NCT Delhi. “Delhi Gazette” April 23, www.livelaw.in/high-court/delhi-high-court/delhi-
2013. 282_286_dt_01072013.pdf (edudel.nic.in) high-court-modifies-single-judge-order-increases-
income-threshold-ews-admissions-1-lakh-25-
4. Education Department, Government of NCT Delhi. lakh-251359.
“Online Application Form for Admission under EWS/
DG category for session 2024-25”. 25 July 2024. 17. The Hindu, “Income Threshold for EWS Admission
https://www.edudel.nic.in/. to be 2.5 lakh, says Delhi High Court”. March 6,
2024. https://www.thehindu.com/incoming/income-
5. Indus Action. “Bright spots Report 2023”. 26 July threshold-for-ews-admissions-to-be-25-lakh-says-
2024 https://www.indusaction.org/wp-content/ delhi-high-court/article67918118.ece.
uploads/2023/12/BSR-Report_2023.pdf.
18. The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory
6. Justice For All Vs. Hon’ble LG of Delhi And Education Act, 2009. August 26, 2009. https://www.
oth. P(C) 2096/2022 & CM APPL. 28430/2022. indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/13682/1/
24 July 2024. https://www.livelaw.in/pdf_ rte_act_2009.pdf.
upload/1669096807033406032022-447000.pdf.
19. Unnikrishnan, J.P. & others vs State of Andhra Pradesh
7. Law Commission of India. “Free and Compulsory 1993 AIR 2178
Education for Children 165th Report 1998”. 23 July
2024. https://lawcommissionofindia.nic.in/report.
8. Mehta, Arun C. “The Constitution (Eighty-Third
Amendment) Bill (India) 1997.” 23 July 2024. https://
www.educationforallinindia.com/page144.html.
9. Master Singham vs DoE, GNCTD & Sanskrirti
School, Delhi HC 2021. https://www.livelaw.in/pdf_
upload/59605122023 cw40062021142516-508012.
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10. Mohini Jain vs State of Karnataka (1992) SC
1858. https://indiankanoon.org/doc/40715/Nobuo
Shimahara, et al. “Education, Definition, Development,
History, Types, & Facts.” Encyclopedia Britannica, July
21, 2024. https://www.britannica.com/topic/education/
The-postindependence-period-in-India.
11. National Portal of India. “The Constitution (Eighty-
sixth Amendment) Act, 2002”. 23 July, 2024. https://
www.india.gov.in/my-government/constitution-
india/amendments/constitution-india-eighty-sixth-
amendment-act-2002#:~:text=.
12. National Commission for Protection of Child
Rights (NCPCR), Quality Council of India (QCI),
and Directorate of Education, Government of
NCT Delhi, Department of Education. “A Study on
Implementation of Section 12(1) (C) of RTE Act, 2009
in Delhi Pertaining to Admission of Children From
Disadvantaged Sections in Private Schools 2017,”
26 July 2024. https://ncpcr.gov.in/uploads/16565037
9062bc3dee60c54_a-study-on-implementation-of-
section-121-c-of-rte-act-2009-in-delhi-pertaining-to-
admission-of-children-from-disadvantaged-sections-
in-private-schools.pdf.

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CHAPTER

4
Delhi’s Education System:
Examining Shifting Enrolment
and Dropout Patterns

Anshika Priyamvada | Naorem Nitish |

Roselin Indani Losan

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ABSTRACT respects, have also inadvertently stigmatised

lower-performing students, contributing to
dropout rates. The persistent digital divide
This study employs an exploratory research
remains a significant barrier to equitable
approach to investigate the shifting patterns of
education.
school enrolment and dropout rates in Delhi over
the past decade. Utilizing a mixed-methods design,
the research integrates quantitative analysis of
Unified District Information System for Education 1. INTRODUCTION
datasets from 2014 to 2021 with qualitative insights
obtained through interviews with administrators Examining educational outcomes necessitates a
within Delhi’s education system. The findings reveal focused investigation of enrolment and dropout
a significant improvement in enrolment ratios and a trends, as these serve as fundamental indicators of
reduction in dropout rates in recent years. However, an education system’s health and efficacy. Enrolment
the increasing preference for private schooling, rates provide insight into the extent to which a
driven by perceptions of superior educational population accesses educational opportunities,
quality, underscores the growing inequality in while dropout rates reveal the system’s capacity
access to education. This study is particularly timely, to retain students and sustain their educational
addressing the pressing need for a more nuanced journeys. High enrolment and low dropout rates are
understanding of the school education system in emblematic of a robust educational system, whereas
Delhi. significant deviations from these metrics signal
underlying challenges with profound individual and
Keywords: School Enrolment, Dropout Rates, Public societal implications (Koenig and Hauser, 2011).
vs. Private Schools, COVID-19 Impact, Education
Policy, Delhi Education System In the Indian context, public schools frequently
face substantial difficulties in maintaining both
high enrolment and retention rates. There exists
KEY FINDINGS a prevalent perception among parents that public
schools are inferior to private institutions, particularly
in terms of educational quality and the learning
• Enrolment and Dropout Dynamics: Enrolment
environment provided (Lahoti and Mukhopadhyay,
in Delhi’s public schools has increased in recent
2019). This perception prompts many parents to
years, particularly after the COVID-19 pandemic,
either avoid enrolling their children in public schools
as financial pressures have compelled families
altogether or to withdraw them prematurely, further
to transition from private to government schools.
exacerbating dropout rates. While the government’s
However, dropout rates, though decreased,
policies, such as the Right to Education Act 2009,
continue to be substantial.
aim to make education accessible to all, ensuring
long-term retention and educational engagement
• Preference for Private Schooling: Despite
remains an enduring problem.
governmental efforts, many parents still favour
private schools due to perceptions of superior
The present study focuses on the Delhi education
infrastructure and teaching quality, further
system, which, like many other Indian urban centres,
exacerbating educational inequalities.
grapples with the complexities of enrolment and
dropout dynamics.
• “Natural” versus “Artificial” Dropouts: The
study distinguishes between students who
High dropout rates in India’s public education
discontinue their education for inherent reasons
system not only disrupt individual academic
and those who do so due to external factors.
trajectories but also pose broader challenges for
national development (Fägerlind and Saha, 2016).
• Gender and Marginalisation: Girls and children
Prematurely exiting the formal learning system often
from marginalised communities experience
leaves students ill-equipped with the necessary skills
higher dropout rates owing to social norms, lack
for gainful employment (Custodio and O’Loughlin,
of gender-sensitive facilities, and inadequate
2017), perpetuating cycles of poverty and economic
support for students with disabilities.
inequality as these individuals face limited job
prospects and reduced social mobility. Furthermore,
• Post-COVID Initiatives: Programmes like
high dropout rates constrain the nation’s economic
Mission Buniyaad, while beneficial in some
progress by limiting the potential of its workforce.

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The implications of dropout extend beyond economic enrolment, Delhi has positioned itself as a model
factors, as students who leave school early for other Indian states. The state’s ability to reverse
frequently miss out on crucial social, emotional, and unfavourable trends in dropout and enrolment offers
cognitive development opportunities. Education valuable insights into the potential for educational
plays a pivotal role in shaping individuals’ capacity reform across the country, demonstrating how
to engage as informed citizens and contribute focused policies and sustained efforts can yield
meaningfully to societal advancement (Swargiary, tangible improvements in the public education
2024). Consequently, when students discontinue system.
their studies, the nation loses not only potential
economic contributors but also active participants in 1.1 Government Initiatives
building stronger, more inclusive communities.
At India level
To address these challenges of school dropout and
The Right to Education (RTE) Act of 2009 ensures
low enrolment, policymakers and educators need
free and compulsory education for children up to
to work together. Effective interventions should
the 8th grade, mandating that schools reserve 25%
focus not just on ensuring access to schools, but on
of seats for economically weaker sections (EWS)
improving the quality of education, creating more
and disadvantaged groups. This fosters inclusivity
inclusive and supportive learning environments, and
and equal access to education. Additionally, the
tackling the socio-economic barriers that prevent
Mid-Day Meal Scheme provides free lunches in
children from continuing their education. Policies that
government schools to improve children’s nutrition,
promote skill development and vocational training
school attendance, and reduce dropout rates,
can also help bridge the gap between education and
especially among marginalized students. Another
employment, giving students practical pathways to
initiative, the Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan, extends
improve their livelihoods and contribute to national
education from pre-primary to class XII with focused
development.
interventions for girls, children with special needs,
and marginalized communities. Together, these
In contrast to national trends, the state of Delhi
initiatives reflect the government’s commitment to a
has seen notable success in addressing persistent
more inclusive and equitable educational system.
challenges of enrolment, dropout, and student
retention in its public school system. Over the past
At Delhi Level
decade, Delhi has made significant improvements
in these key educational performance indicators. The government launched various initiatives to
Between 2014-2015 and 2020-2021, the estimated enhance educational outcomes and address dropout
dropout rate in state government schools in Delhi fell rates. In 2016, they introduced Mission Chunauti,
dramatically, from 44,999 to 19,513. This substantial which categorised students in grades 6-9 into three
decrease highlights the effectiveness of policy groups based on their learning levels: Pratibha,
interventions and reforms aimed at keeping students Nishtha, and Neo-Nishtha. This enabled teachers
in school. to personalise instruction, providing remedial
support where needed and advanced tasks for
At the same time, the annual percentage change stronger students. However, this categorisation
in enrolment rates remained relatively stable, faced criticism from parents, as it led to feelings of
fluctuating between -3% and 1%. However, in insecurity among children due to the segregation
2020-2021 and 2021-2022, there was a significant based on learning abilities.
rise in enrolment, with increases of 7% and 9%
respectively. This simultaneous reduction in dropout In 2018, the Delhi government launched
rates and growth in enrolment underscores the Mission Buniyaad programme, which focused
success of initiatives implemented by the Delhi State on strengthening foundational literacy and
Government to enhance the accessibility and appeal numeracy skills among students in grades 3-8.
of public schooling. This initiative aimed to ensure students developed
core reading, writing, and arithmetic proficiencies,
These achievements suggest that Delhi has thereby mitigating academic underachievement. It
developed effective strategies for improving represented a shift from a narrow focus on syllabus
educational outcomes, even in the face of a completion to prioritising meaningful learning
widespread preference for private schooling across outcomes, supported by assessment reforms that
India. By addressing the root causes of dropout and emphasised understanding over rote memorisation.
creating an environment that encourages continuous Specialised Teaching-Learning Materials (TLM),

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such as Pragati, were introduced to cater to diverse research gaps and investigating the determinants
learning needs and promote effective conceptual of student retention and attendance are critical
mastery. Furthermore, the government emphasised steps towards a more accurate evaluation of the
the cultivation of positive mindsets through effectiveness of current government policies and
transformative pedagogical approaches, adopting a initiatives aimed at reducing dropout rates.
more holistic perspective on education.
1.3 Research Questions
The Happiness Curriculum in Delhi schools seeks
to promote the emotional well-being and social- This study attempts to answer the following
emotional competencies of students through research questions:
mindfulness and meditation-based activities. It
focuses on developing self-awareness, empathy, a. How have student enrolment and dropout
and critical thinking skills to help students better rates in Delhi government schools changed
manage their emotions and cultivate healthy over the past decade?
interpersonal relationships. Complementary to this,
b. What key factors have influenced enrolment
the Entrepreneurship Mindset Curriculum (EMC)
and dropout rates in Delhi government
aims to equip students with essential life skills such
schools since COVID-19?
as creativity, problem-solving, and adaptability,
preparing them to navigate real-world and career- c. How have government policies and
related challenges with an entrepreneurial mindset. initiatives impacted enrolment and dropout
Both initiatives strive to develop well-rounded rates in Delhi government schools post-
individuals capable of navigating personal and COVID-19?
professional complexities.

Non-governmental organisations and community- 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

driven initiatives play a significant role in boosting
student enrolment in Delhi. Organisations like A substantial number of out-of-school children in
Pratham and Teach for India concentrate on Delhi and the issue of school dropouts remains a
improving foundational literacy and providing pressing concern. Notably, dropout figures for Delhi
mentorship, while the Salaam Baalak Trust works were absent from the minutes of Project Approval
to facilitate educational access for underprivileged Board meetings under the Ministry of Education,
children. Additionally, the Each One, Teach One suggesting a lack of available information. It has
campaign, led by local groups, encourages been emphasised that data on previously out-
community members to enrol children in nearby of-school children who have been integrated into
schools, which helps increase both enrolment and the education system should be uploaded onto
retention rates. These community-based efforts the PRABANDH portal, as this would enhance
complement government initiatives, fostering monitoring and reporting mechanisms in Delhi.
a collaborative, community-driven approach to
supporting education. For a comprehensive assessment of any education
system, dropout and enrolment rates are crucial
1.2 Gaps and Justification indicators. Various studies have highlighted
that these dynamics are influenced by a range
Although the government has implemented various of socioeconomic and cultural factors. It is a
programmes to retain students and address dropout combination of both push factors, such as an
rates, there appears to be a notable dearth of inability to relate education to daily realities, and
research examining enrolment and dropout patterns pull factors, like the need to support one’s family,
in Delhi’s public schools in the aftermath of the that result in withdrawal from school. Dropout rates
COVID-19 pandemic. Developing a comprehensive have historically been higher among girls than
understanding of the key factors and policy boys, particularly in developing countries. Gender
interventions that significantly influence changes in and caste-based disparities in school enrolment
student enrolment is crucial for addressing dropout and retention have been well-documented in the
issues and further enhancing the educational system Indian context. Research suggests that the lack
(Kishore and Shaji, 2012). Furthermore, the absence of an inclusive curriculum that fails to address the
of robust scholarly literature investigating migratory diverse cultural and social backgrounds of students
trends among enrolled students represents a contributes to further disengagement and dropout.
significant knowledge gap. Addressing these It is imperative to recognise the immediate benefits

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of improving the educational situation in India, and these fundamental factors. Simply maintaining
this research has been instrumental in addressing the status quo is insufficient; the challenges facing
and learning more about the causes of dropouts and the education system in Delhi make it clear that
enrolments in Delhi’s education system. reform requires a more comprehensive approach.
Organisations must adopt new frameworks and
The quality of school hygiene and the socioeconomic vocabulary to address the core issues of state
circumstances of students’ families are significant capacity and competence.
determinants of school attendance and completion
rates. Poor hygiene in schools, including inadequate One major reason for school dropout is financial
sanitation facilities, lack of clean drinking water, hardship. Students from lower socioeconomic
and poorly maintained infrastructure, can lead to backgrounds often face difficulties continuing their
health issues that contribute to higher dropout studies due to the burden of being the primary
rates. Furthermore, socioeconomic challenges such earner and the inability to afford school fees. While
as poverty, gender biases, and lack of parental child labour is a less common factor, financial
education exacerbate the problem. Studies have constraints account for around 50% of dropout
highlighted a link between these substandard school cases (Kishore and Shaji, 2012).
conditions and higher absenteeism and dropout
rates, particularly among female students who face Another key factor is a lack of student motivation to
additional challenges due to inadequate menstrual attend school. NFHS III (IIPS 2007) surveys identified
hygiene management. “lack of interest” as the most prevalent reason for
dropping out. An earlier NSSO survey (1998) found
Socioeconomic factors also play a significant role that 24.4% of respondents gave this as a reason for
in school dropouts. Poverty, the need for children dropping out. Similar issues, such as “problems at
to contribute to family income, and domestic school” and “lack of motivation,” also play a role.
responsibilities, especially for girls, are major reasons
for withdrawal from education. Research indicates Poor academic performance stemming from learning
that higher dropout rates are associated with lower difficulties and perceived “slowness” can also lead
household income, lack of maternal education, and to disengagement and withdrawal from education
adolescent engagement in paid work. Substance (Kishore and Shaji, 2012; Khokhar, Garg, and Bharti).
abuse among boys is also a contributing factor. This
multifaceted issue, where poor school hygiene and Physical and mental disorders can significantly
adverse socioeconomic conditions create a cycle of impact students’ ability to attend school. The
absenteeism and dropout, requires a comprehensive most common reasons cited are various physical
approach. conditions, followed by mental retardation (Kishore
and Shaji). Severe physical disabilities, such as
Addressing these challenges is crucial for improving those caused by cerebral palsy and post-polio
retention rates in Indian schools. Interventions paralysis, accounted for a 33% of the cases. Some
should focus on improving school infrastructure, students even had to stop attending when their
providing economic support to families, and assistive devices, like tricycles, broke down.
promoting gender equality in education. Targeted
policies in these areas can significantly reduce Parental desires to discontinue their children’s
dropout rates and enhance educational outcomes for education are frequently cited as a significant factor
all children across the country. contributing to school dropouts. Research indicates
a statistically significant overrepresentation of
The Delhi example highlights a key, straightforward female students being withdrawn from school
fact that is often overlooked in discussions of by their parents, often to undertake domestic
educational reform. Reforms involve more than just responsibilities such as caring for siblings (Khokhar,
communicating compliance requirements through Garg, and Bharti). Some parents harbour beliefs that
written policies or transferring technical knowledge excessive education could lead to problems during
through training. They require addressing the marriage, while others do not consider completing
complex interplay of information, design, compliance, education an essential requirement. Additionally,
and the underlying attitudes, beliefs, and practices Indian students from the Scheduled Caste (SC)
at the ground level. True change is about addressing and Scheduled Tribe (ST) categories exhibit higher
these real-world experiences and realities. Numerous dropout rates compared to their peers from other
experiments and initiatives have struggled to have demographics (Chauhan, 2006).
lasting impact because they fail to grapple with

78 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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The impacts of parental involvement in their 3.3 Stakeholder Interviewees’ Profile:

children’s education are often overlooked. School This study collected in-depth qualitative data from
dropout is more prevalent among adolescents key people involved in education policies of Delhi
whose parents did not actively participate in government schools over the past decade. The
parent-teacher association meetings, discuss researchers selected these stakeholders based
academic progress with teachers, or oversee their on their important roles in policy development,
homework during primary schooling. Conversely administration implementation, and school
Active communication between parents and management. The interviewees included five senior
teachers and family involvement in school-related administrators from the Delhi Education Department,
activities usually lower the chances of dropouts three policymakers, and five principals from Delhi
in lower secondary schooling (Anghel, R. Neacsa government schools, totalling twelve participants.
Lupu, C. Voicu, 2016). Furthermore, adolescents The researchers used a targeted sampling method,
whose parents have attained higher educational with two criteria: first, that the participants had been
qualifications demonstrate a lower probability of actively involved in the Delhi government education
school dropout, consistent with existing research sector since 2015, and second, that they had held
findings that suggest less-educated parents provide their positions at least since before the COVID-19
less encouragement for their children’s education pandemic. Only those who met these conditions
(Drèze and Kingdon, 2001). were selected for interviews.

Academic performance is a key concern for schools, 3.4 Data Collection

and they often resort to expelling students with
The data collection process involved scheduling
failing or below-average grades in an effort to
interviews with key stakeholders during their
maintain high success rates. Consequently, school
availability, such as break times or after work
dropout rates are disproportionately higher among
hours, to minimise disruption to their professional
adolescents with average or below-average
duties. Prior to each interview, participants were
academic performance, as these persistently low-
provided with a research overview and informed of
performing students are more likely to be expelled,
their option to remain anonymous. The interviews
potentially skewing the overall performance metrics
were conducted using a carefully curated checklist
of their respective schools (Fetler, 1989).
designed to address the key research questions,
while also cross-checking secondary data sources.
The discussion began with open-ended prompts
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY to elicit broader insights from the interviewees,
enabling them to freely share their expertise. This
This study employs an exploratory mixed-methods was followed by more targeted, closed-ended
approach, integrating both quantitative and questions aimed at verifying and supplementing the
qualitative data. The methodology consists of three existing data. This structured approach facilitated
key steps: an in-depth exploration of the stakeholders’
perspectives and ensured comprehensive data
3.1 Quantitative Analysis: collection.
The study analysed enrolment and dropout trends
from the Unified District Information System for 3.5 Content Analysis:
Education datasets spanning the period from 2014 The study further analysed the factors that
to 2021, with the aim of identifying any notable contributed to the observed changes in enrolment
changes over time and dropout patterns, based on the quantitative
data and the insights gathered from the qualitative
3.2 Qualitative Validation: interviews.
The trends identified from the quantitative analysis
were then explored further through comprehensive 3.6 Study limitation:
interviews with 12 key stakeholders, including This study adopts a qualitative methodology with a
administrators, educators, and policymakers. This limited number of participants, which may constrain
qualitative component provided a more nuanced and the generalisability of the findings to the broader
contextual understanding of the observed data. population.

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4. FINDINGS 4.2 Natural and Artificial Dropouts

Delhi’s education system has undergone a During the interviews, there was a recurring
significant transformation, marked by notable discussion about “natural” versus “artificial”
shifts in enrolment numbers and dropout rates. This dropouts. Natural dropouts refer to students who
section critically examines the dynamics of school leave school because of unavoidable personal or
enrolment and dropout rates in the city and delves family challenges, such as financial struggles or
into the underlying factors that contribute to these health issues. Contrarily, systemic issues such as
trends. poor facilities, bureaucratic hurdles, or the difficulty
in obtaining necessary documents like transfer
certificates effectively push students out of the
Figure 6: Enrolment and Estimated dropouts education system, leading to artificial dropouts.

Programs such as Mission Buniyaad and Chunauti,

aimed at enhancing basic literacy and numeracy,
may inadvertently lead to an increase in artificial
dropouts. By placing students in groups based on
their academic performances, these programs can
stigmatize those who are struggling, making them
feel disconnected and, over time, more likely to
drop out. Furthermore, getting transfer certificates
can be especially challenging for students from
disadvantaged backgrounds, often leading to
extended absences or even permanent dropouts.
Source: UDISE data

4.3 Challenges for Marginalised Groups

4.1 Growing Trend of Private Schooling in
Delhi Gender disparities remain a significant challenge
in Delhi’s education system, particularly for girls
The growing popularity of private schools in Delhi from economically disadvantaged backgrounds.
is a key factor influencing enrolment trends. Data Qualitative insights revealed that girls are more
indicates that the proportion of students attending prone to dropping out of school due to domestic
private institutions increased from 35.21% to nearly responsibilities and cultural norms prioritising
42% between 2013-14 and 2017-18, as reported boys’ education. The lack of gender-sensitive
by a Delhi Education Department official. This infrastructure, such as separate toilet facilities for
shift suggests that many parents perceive private girls, can further discourage their school attendance.
schools as providing higher-quality education and
better outcomes compared to government schools, While attempts have been made to address these
despite the higher financial costs. This preference issues, such as constructing gender-segregated
is often driven by the perceived advantages of restrooms, these measures often fall short of tackling
private schools, such as better infrastructure, more the deeper-rooted social and economic barriers
disciplined environments, and higher academic impeding girls’ educational attainment.
standards. However, this trend also exacerbates
educational inequalities, as not all families can Similarly, children with disabilities face considerable
afford private schooling. This leaves children from obstacles in accessing high-quality education.
less affluent backgrounds at a disadvantage, further Despite the government’s commitment to inclusive
widening the socio-economic gap. The stagnation in education, many schools lack the necessary
government school enrollments reflects a growing resources, including trained special education
lack of confidence in the public education system, teachers and accessible facilities. Consequently,
often attributed to perceived deficiencies in teaching these vulnerable students are often marginalised
quality, infrastructure, and available resources. from the education system or provided inadequate
support, resulting in higher dropout rates among this
population.

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4.4 Challenges Facing Delhi’s Public of migrant workers. Consequently, the dropout issue
could be more extensive than what is captured in
Schools
official reports, especially in areas where socio-
economic barriers and limited access to education
Systemic barriers continue to pose significant
prevail.
challenges, hindering the effectiveness of
government schools in engaging students. One of
the most pressing issues is the lack of adequate 4.6 Impact of Government Initiatives
infrastructure and resources. Despite ongoing efforts
to improve facilities, many schools still lack basic In recent years, the Delhi government has launched
amenities such as science labs, libraries, or sufficient several initiatives to address challenges in the
classroom space. These deficiencies can discourage education system. Programs like Mission Buniyaad,
students, especially at the secondary level where the Happiness Curriculum, and the distribution of
subjects like science become crucial for future tablets have been recognised for their potential to
opportunities. Overcrowded classrooms are another improve learning outcomes and reduce dropout
persistent problem, as the limited capacity of these rates. However, their effectiveness remains subject
schools is further strained by increasing enrolment, to debate.
particularly during times of economic hardship.
Mission Buniyaad, designed to enhance basic
To address these challenges, some interviewees literacy and numeracy skills, has helped many
suggested expanding school infrastructure and students catch up to grade-level standards. Yet, the
introducing flexible scheduling, such as morning program’s practice of separating students based
and evening shifts, to accommodate more students on academic performance has sparked concerns
and help reduce dropout rates. However, these that it may alienate and stigmatise those who are
solutions would require substantial investment struggling.
and political commitment. Another concern is the
limited educational options available to students. The Happiness Curriculum, introduced in 2018
With restricted access to diverse curricula and to promote emotional well-being and holistic
extracurricular activities, students often become development, has received mixed feedback. While
disengaged from their education. This issue is some educators have observed positive results,
particularly prevalent in government schools, where others question whether it adequately addresses the
the emphasis tends to be on rote learning and exam more pressing academic needs of students.
preparation, rather than fostering creativity and
critical thinking. Expanding educational choices and The introduction of technology-driven learning
providing more opportunities for students to explore tools like tablets is seen as a positive step toward
their interests could help lower dropout rates and modernising Delhi’s education system. However,
improve overall student satisfaction. the digital divide remains a significant issue, as not
all students have equal access to the necessary
technology and internet connectivity, potentially
4.5 Need for focus on children from
exacerbating existing inequalities.
marginalised communities

While UDISE reports indicate a substantial decline

4.7 The Role of Technology and
in dropout rates and a consistent rise in enrolments Infrastructure
within Delhi’s government schools, ground insights
reveal a more nuanced reality. Many children, Enhancements to the physical infrastructure and
particularly from vulnerable communities, continue integration of technology have had a positive
to miss out on education, underscoring the need influence on enrolment and dropout rates within
for greater emphasis on the inclusion of these Delhi’s government schools. The provision of
marginalised groups. improved classrooms, laboratories, and sports
facilities has created a more engaging learning
Interviews suggest that government statistics may environment. Additionally, initiatives such as
underreport dropout rates or overstate enrollment midday meals and free textbook distribution have
numbers. This could be due to factors such as the increased accessibility and appeal, particularly
pressure on schools to meet enrollment targets, for students from economically disadvantaged
leading to inflated figures, as well as challenges in backgrounds. The integration of technology-enabled
tracking transient populations, such as the children remote learning during the COVID-19 pandemic

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has also helped mitigate dropouts by facilitating 4.10 The Change in promotion policy post
continued education. However, the success of these
covid
efforts is contingent upon reliable internet access
and teachers’ proficiency in utilising technology
In the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2021,
effectively.
the Delhi Department of Education introduced a
revised academic promotion policy for students in
The research findings highlight the complex nature
grades 9 and 11. According to a senior departmental
of dropout and enrolment challenges in Delhi’s
official, the rationale behind this policy change was
school system. While significant progress has been
to address the learning gaps that had emerged due
made in terms of infrastructure and technology,
to the prolonged school closures. As many students
systemic barriers continue to impede advancement.
had been unable to physically attend classes
The growing preference for private schooling, the
during the academic year, they faced challenges
persistence of natural and artificial dropouts, and
in developing comprehensive subject knowledge.
the challenges faced by marginalised groups all
To mitigate the disparities in educational access
underscore the need for a more comprehensive and
and prevent students from forfeiting an academic
inclusive approach to education reform.
year due to circumstances beyond their control, the
policy incorporated the provision of grace marks
4.8 Socio- Economic issues due to covid to facilitate their advancement to the next grade.
This measure aimed to maintain continuity in the
Following the onset of COVID-19, many families educational trajectory despite the unprecedented
experienced severe financial constraints due to disruption caused by the pandemic.
the loss of livelihood. Consequently, the high fees
forced them to transfer their children from private
to government schools. According to findings from
the principal of one of the Delhi government schools, 5. DISCUSSION
there has been a notable increase in enrolment
trends in these schools post-COVID. Families from The examination of enrolment and dropout trends
lower economic strata primarily drove this surge by in Delhi’s government schools over the past decade
transferring their children to government institutions reveals significant fluctuations, influenced by a
as a more affordable alternative. complex interplay of systemic, social, and policy-
related factors. From 2013-14 to 2017-18, a rise
in private school enrolment, from 35.21% to nearly
4.9 Migration Due to Covid 42% (Economic Survey of Delhi, 2019), highlighted
concerns regarding the perceived quality of
The COVID-19 pandemic led to a nationwide
government schools. Families’ preference for private
shutdown, triggering widespread job losses and
schools, which were viewed as offering superior
severe financial constraints for many individuals.
infrastructure and academic standards, contributed
Faced with this instability and uncertainty, a
to widening the gap for socio-economically
significant number of people were compelled
disadvantaged students (Kishore & Shaji, 2012;
to return to their native places. According to an
Anghel et al., 2016).
administrative officer from the Delhi Department
of Education, the pandemic triggered a substantial
Dropout rates spiked between 2018-19, driven by
exodus from Delhi as residents relocated back to
financial challenges, health issues, and systemic
their hometowns.
shortcomings such as inadequate infrastructure
and bureaucratic delays (Kishore & Shaji, 2012;
An unintended consequence of this mass migration
Anghel et al., 2016). Initiatives like Mission
was the persistence of outdated data in educational
Buniyaad, designed to improve literacy, may have
records. As these families moved, they often failed
inadvertently stigmatised underperforming students,
to update or remove their children’s records from
further exacerbating dropout rates (Fetler, 1989).
their previous educational institutions. This issue
Marginalised groups, including girls and children
was exacerbated by the Right to Education Act’s
with disabilities, faced disproportionately higher
provision that prevents the expulsion of students
dropout rates due to societal norms and lack of
unless they voluntarily leave. Consequently, many
support (Khokhar et al.).
students’ names remained in school records, which,
coupled with the RTE policy, contributed to an
In the post-pandemic period, government
artificially low dropout rate during this period.
interventions such as Mission Buniyaad, the

82 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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Happiness Curriculum, and the distribution of tablets has helped to prevent academic delays and
have demonstrated some positive effects on literacy reduce dropouts (India Today, 2022). The financial
and emotional development, though challenges like constraints experienced by families have also
the digital divide have persisted (Chauhan, 2006; contributed to a shift from private to government
Anghel et al., 2016). Despite a reported decrease in schools, leading to increased enrolments (India
dropout rates after 2020, the data may be inflated Today, 2022).
due to pressures on schools to meet enrolment
targets (Nair, 2023) and issues related to unreported While the implemented policies have had some
student exits during mass migration. positive impacts, challenges remain in ensuring
data accuracy, addressing systemic inequities,
Additionally, a revised promotion policy for students and providing equitable access to resources, all
in grades 9 and 11, which introduced grace marks of which must be addressed to achieve sustained
to address learning gaps caused by the pandemic, improvements.

6. CONCLUSION
Delhi government schools have experienced Nonetheless, discrepancies in data reporting—
significant fluctuations in enrolment and dropout exacerbated by pressures on schools to meet
rates, driven by a complex interplay of factors. From enrolment targets and the limitations of new
2013-14 to 2017-18, there was a notable rise in policies—suggest that the true extent of the
private school enrolments, driven by perceptions problem might be underreported. Moving forward,
of better quality education and infrastructure. This it will be crucial to address systemic barriers,
trend highlighted growing inequalities and a decline improve infrastructure, and ensure equitable access
in public confidence in government schools, as to resources to sustain progress and effectively
families from higher socio-economic backgrounds reduce dropout rates across all socio-economic
opted for the perceived advantages of private groups.
institutions. However, the COVID-19 pandemic in
2020 paradoxically led to a reduction in dropout Additionally, more comprehensive and longitudinal
rates despite the hardships and systemic failures data collection, as well as robust monitoring and
faced by many students and families. This was evaluation mechanisms, are needed to better
largely due to policy changes, as well as policy understand the evolving dynamics and inform
loopholes and financial constraints affecting people evidence-based policymaking. Targeting the
from lower economic strata, which compelled root causes of educational inequities, such as
them to transfer their children from private to socioeconomic disparities, gender biases, and
government schools as a more affordable option. lack of accessibility for students with disabilities,
The Delhi government’s initiatives, such as Mission will be essential in designing truly inclusive and
Buniyaad and the Happiness Curriculum, have transformative reforms for Delhi’s education
aimed to address the issues within government system.
schools and enhance the curriculum to better
align with private institutions. These programs
have shown some positive impacts on literacy and
holistic development.

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86 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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CHAPTER

5
Educational Dilemmas:
Public School Teachers’
Choices Between Public and
Private Schools for Their
Children in Urban Chennai

Partha Amarendra Samal

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ABSTRACT children to government schools. In contrast,

Government Higher Secondary School teachers
with regional language backgrounds were
This study examines the educational choices
more inclined to choose private schools for
made by public school teachers in Chennai, India.
their children. This suggests that perceptions
Through interviews and surveys of teachers from
of language and cultural capital shaped the
a Kendriya Vidyalaya and a Government Higher
school selection decisions of these public school
Secondary School in urban Chennai, the findings
teachers.
indicate that more KV teachers prefer to enrol their
children in government schools. In comparison, more
• The findings suggest that a greater proportion
GHSS teachers opt for private schools. Additional
of Kendriya Vidyalaya teachers utilized
factors shaping these decisions include teacher
private tuition or coaching for their children,
demographics, perceptions of quality, language,
compared to only 30% of Government Higher
and socioeconomic status. The research provides
Secondary School teachers. This indicates a
insight into the complex decision-making processes
stronger tendency among KV teachers to seek
of teachers regarding their children’s education. It
supplementary educational support outside the
also offers implications for policy measures aimed
school system, particularly for students enrolled
at enhancing public education and promoting
in institutions following the Central Board of
educational equity for all students.
Secondary Education curriculum.
Keywords: School, School choice, Parents, Socio-
• Location and safety were important factors for
demographics, public school teachers, India, private
Kendriya Vidyalaya teachers when selecting
education.
schools for their children, with 57.14% citing
these considerations. In contrast, only 20% of
Government Higher Secondary School teachers
KEY FINDINGS viewed location and safety as significant
factors. This difference may be attributed to the
• The findings suggest a notable divergence in centralized locations of KV schools compared to
the educational preferences of public school the more dispersed nature of GHSS institutions.
teachers in Chennai. While a substantial
proportion (71.43%) of Kendriya Vidyalaya
teachers chose to enroll their children in
government-run schools, a contrasting pattern
1. INTRODUCTION
emerged among Government Higher Secondary
Parents often find themselves stranded in an
School teachers, with 70% of them opting for
increasingly complex decision-making process
private institutions. This disparity indicates
regarding their children’s schooling. This process
varying perceptions of educational quality
is usually intricately personal and considerate of
between the two cohorts of teachers.
many variable factors. For teachers, however, these
dynamics are of a different paradigm, offering a
• The study found that teachers’ socioeconomic
unique, multi-stakeholder, eagle-eyed perspective
and demographic backgrounds influenced
of an administrator, a tutor and a parent. Alongside
their school choices for their children. Younger
utility-maximising decision-making, they also intend
Kendriya Vidyalaya teachers, many of whom
to find a suitable bridge between their professional
were the first in their families to receive higher
and societal roles and their parental aspirations to
education, tended to choose government-run
provide the best for their children.
schools. In contrast, older teachers from the
Government Higher Secondary Schools were
This conundrum is especially pronounced in the
more inclined to send their children to private
Indian context, wherein the growth of private
institutions. This suggests that generational and
education, alongside issues of quality and equity
socioeconomic factors played a role in shaping
in the public system, have considerably altered
the school selection decisions of these public
the educational landscape (Kingdon, 2007). Public
school teachers.
school teachers, who are exposed to both sectors,
must navigate these complex trade-offs and often
• The majority of Kendriya Vidyalaya teachers
employ intricate strategies to ensure the optimum
did not report that regional language influenced
educational outcomes for their children.
their own education and preferred to send their

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The Indian education system has been characterized Union government-run schools? How does it
by a dichotomy. According to a 2017 Hindustan compare to the overall Tamil Nadu and all-
Times survey, 90% of government school teachers India averages of private school enrolment?
in Barnala District, Punjab, enroled their children in b. Do factors such as school location, subject
private schools. This suggests a lack of confidence in specialization, curricula, pedagogy, and
the very system they serve, as they appear to place teacher experience play a role in the
more trust in private schools, which they perceive information domain, which is not as readily
as offering superior facilities and better educational available to ordinary parents in Tamil Nadu
outcomes. Furthermore, in 2018, the Times of India and India?
reported that Yogi Adityanath, the Chief Minister of
c. If so, how are the specific reasons ranked
Uttar Pradesh, urged government school teachers
in terms of preference by the public school
to send their children to public schools. This call by
teachers? What are the patterns observed
the political leadership reflects a concern about the
among the three stakeholders with vastly
disconnect between government officials and the
different information domains and emerging
general public, which was also reflected in a 2015
profiles?
Allahabad High Court judgment directing the UP
Chief Secretary to pressure government officials to d. How do these teachers perceive the
enrol their children in government schools. infrastructure, pedagogy, and curricula of
public and private schools? Do they engage
Although extensive research has examined how in substantial supplementary support,
parents, as a singular stakeholder, make school such as private tuitions, outside of the core
choices for their children, there is a notable gap in infrastructure provided by the schools their
the literature regarding how public school teachers children attend?
rationalize their educational decisions for their own e. Is there an emergence of superior
offspring. This study aims to investigate some of the information and cultural capital that puts
key factors influencing these choices, with the goal teachers in an advantageous position
of contributing to the growing body of scholarship for decision-making and maximizes their
on rational choice and utility maximization in rational choice-making compared to other
educational decision-making. By drawing on parents? How do these patterns manifest in
insights from sources such as the Hindustan Times terms of class and caste?
report, the research provides introspection into the f. What is the outside perception of these
perceived shortcomings of the public education teachers’ choices, and what are the
system and the appeal of private institutions, perceived shortcomings of the public or
ultimately informing potential policy interventions to private school systems that are deemed
address these issues. important for consideration? Does this align
with the perspectives of the public school
teachers themselves?
2. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
From this context-rich investigation, the study aims
This study aims to evaluate the educational choices to derive the following:
made by public school teachers in government-run
schools regarding their own children’s schooling. a. Whether a chronic lack of trust in the public
While significant research has examined the education system drives this ‘elite’ exodus,
educational decision-making of parents from diverse given that public school teachers are
socioeconomic backgrounds across urban and rural relatively well-paid, rigorously trained, and
India, there is a notable lack of literature focused highly qualified.
specifically on this topic, necessitating the scope of b. Understanding how this trust is formulated
this investigation. and through which competing variables.
The study seeks to evaluate the interplay
The primary research questions outlined in this between strategic calculations and social,
paper are: cultural, and economic factors.
c. Whether negative experiences from the
a. What proportion of public school teachers teachers’ own childhood educational
enrol their children in private schools versus experiences play a role in their current
government schools? Does this vary between decision-making. To what extent this
Tamil Nadu government-run schools and

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contributes to their self-perception as Consistent with the 1996 PROBE survey, in

‘informed and empowered’ consumers in the 2006, 79% of children aged 6-12 were enroled in
increasingly privatized education market? government schools, while 21% were in private
schools[Hill et al. 2011]. However, data shows stark
contrasts in some rural areas, with more private
school students than government school students
3. CASE STUDIES [Lahoti & Mukhopadhyay 2019]. The cost of private
schooling increased from Rs 940 to Rs 1,360
The existing literature on the educational choices of
annually between 1996 and 2006, while government
public school teachers regarding their own children’s
schooling decreased slightly. Private schooling at the
schooling is limited. However, there are several
upper primary level costs more than three times as
studies, both within India and internationally, that
much as government schooling [Hill et al. 2011].
examine similar cases of parents and students
exercising their educational agency in varying
The studies cited herein reveal persistent disparities
contexts and timeframes. I have provided a detailed
in school choice based on socioeconomic status,
discussion of these relevant studies below:
caste, and gender. Enrolment data shows that
91% of Scheduled Caste (SC) children attended
The studies conducted by Choudhury and Mousumi
government schools, while only 9% were enrolled
(2024) in rural Odisha reveal a national trend of the
in private schools. In contrast, 67% of general caste
proliferation of private schools (from 2782 in 2005-
students attended government schools, and 33%
06 to 7430 in 2016-17) as as well as the enrolment
were in private schools. Boys were more likely (24%)
in them in the rural sector (0.22 million in 2005-06
to attend private schools compared to girls (18%)
to 0.64 million in 2016-17), particularly Low-Fee
[Hill et al. 2011]. Household incomes ranged from
Private Schools (LFPS), in the post-liberalization
Rs. 3,000 to Rs. 25,000 per month, with an average
period These LFPS are seen as providers of
of Rs. 8,429. Families spent an average of Rs.
social mobility, freedom from teacher apathy and
11,643 per month, with education being a significant
accountability, and better English-medium education
expense [Mousumi & Kusakabe 2022]. This suggests
compared to local government schools. Other factors
a rational allocation of resources towards perceived
driving the shift towards private schools include
productive members of the family and, by extension,
the growing bureaucracy, flexibility in curricula, and
Indian society, leading to the accumulation of
access to extracurricular activities, which parents
educational, economic, and cultural capital.
view as worthwhile trade-offs despite the higher
expenses.
The qualifications of teachers also varied
significantly between government and private
Similarly, studies by Hill et al. (2011) and Kingdon
schools. In some low-fee private schools, only a few
(2020) have found a 10% increase in private school
teachers had university degrees, and none had B.Ed.
enrolment between 2006 and 2014, leading to an
degrees, likely due to the higher salaries demanded
overall expansion of the school market. Comparing
by professionally trained teachers [Mousumi &
private school fees, Lahoti and Mukhopadhyay
Kusakabe 2022]. These private school teachers
(2019) found the median values to be INR 275 in
earned a meager Rs. 2,000 to Rs. 3,000 per month.
rural areas and INR 500 in urban areas. Kingdon
Conversely, teachers in Kendriya Vidyalaya schools
(2020), in agreement with Lahoti et al. (2019),
were highly qualified, with most holding Bachelor of
attributed the general preference for private schools,
Education degrees and passing the Central Teacher
even among low-income families, to the perceived
Eligibility Test (CTET) [Nambissan 2009].
deficiencies in the government school system, such
as teacher absenteeism, lack of accountability, and
In a study of 12(1)(c) admissions that reserved
excessive bureaucracy.
25% of seats in private schools for economically
weaker sections found that 92.19% of families with
Separate studies by Monsumi and Kusakabe (2019),
knowledge of the program applied, but only 54%
and Dongre et al. (2018), have uncovered the need
of those applicants were allotted seats, and 75%
for LFPS among families from minority backgrounds,
of those allotted seats were ultimately admitted
which often offer customized religious teachings
[Dongre, Sarin, & Singhal 2018].
as a trade-off with other aspects of school quality.
The alignment of schools with cultural and religious
The persistent preference for private schooling,
values emerged as a key finding in these studies.
even among lower-income families, reflects a
deep-rooted perception that private schools offer

90 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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better-quality education compared to government social context in shaping educational decisions.

schools [Lahoti & Mukhopadhyay 2019; Kingdon Habitus encompasses the feelings, perceptions, and
2020]. Surveys suggest that parents recognize behaviors shaped by one’s social class and cultural
education as a pathway to upward social mobility background, which in turn influence how individuals
and choose schools they believe will best serve their conceive of and evaluate various educational
children’s future success [Nambissan 2009]. Despite opportunities. For example, students from working-
financial constraints, the ability of lower-income class backgrounds may possess a habitus oriented
families to pay for private schooling demonstrates towards practical, employment-focused programs
the importance they place on quality education. rather than academic pathways, as they are
There is also evidence that private schools are conditioned by their social circumstances and
perceived to offer a more comprehensive curriculum, perceived future prospects. Habitus thus elucidates
extracurricular activities, moral education, and how social class and cultural capital can profoundly
English language instruction, which are highly impact decision-making in educational choices,
valued by parents [Lahoti & Mukhopadhyay 2019]. especially in meritocratic societies.

Ultimately, the choice between public and Jæger’s research on educational choices and
private schooling reflects a complex interplay of meritocracy in Denmark has provided valuable
socioeconomic, cultural, and political factors that insights into how different forms of cultural capital,
shape the educational landscape in India. passed down through various channels, influence
students’ educational decisions [Jæger 2009].
International research has also examined the By incorporating the concepts of cultural capital,
educational choices of parents, particularly the parental socialization, and investment, the authors
nuanced decisions of middle-class families. have presented a comprehensive understanding of
A study by Crozier et al. (2008) explored the how cultural capital is embedded within the habitus
contradictions and complexities underlying the of learners. This, in turn, helps explain educational
schooling preferences of white, middle-class parents expectations and academic achievement, even in a
in England, including cross-interviewing 125 context like Denmark where economic capital and
households across 3. Despite having the financial purchasing power are less restrictive. The study
means to opt for private education, these parents found that school-based cultural capital assets, such
often chose to send their children to state-run urban as the possession of fine arts, educational resources
schools, though they exhibited anxieties about this at home, and engagement in cultural activities,
decision. To mitigate their concerns, they sought positively and directly shape students’ intentions
external support structures, such as gifted and to pursue academically rigorous upper secondary
talented programs, which research has shown tend education pathways. This suggests that the cultural
to disproportionately benefit middle-class children. capital inherent in students’ habitus predisposes
This highlights the tensions between the parents’ them to educational options aligned with the cultural
purchasing power and their adherence to labor- norms and aspirations of their community.
oriented be beliefs as they sought interventions
outside the private schooling system. The research reviewed here highlights the
importance of understanding the multifaceted and
Scholarship has also examined the rationality context-specific nature of educational choices,
underlying educational choices in different cultural particularly for parents and their children.
contexts. For instance, a study by Alexander Evans
(2008) challenged the perception of madrasa The concept of habitus, which encompasses the
education in Pakistan as an irrational choice, socially conditioned dispositions and perceptions
emphasizing the diversity within this sector and the that shape individual behavior, has significant
bounded rationality of parents, for whom madrasas implications for educational choices beyond the
may be the only accessible option. Evans found that family context. Based on the research reviewed,
such “rational choices” can lead to better outcomes, it can be hypothesized that teachers’ extensive
as parents seek to enhance job prospects and socialization within the education system and their
teacher accountability, which are often lacking in in-depth knowledge of its various facets may endow
opaque government structures. them with a unique habitus that can provide an
advantage to parents when making school choices
Theories of “habitus,” developed by Pierre Bourdieu, for their children. This is likely because teachers’
[Bourdieu 1977] have been useful in understanding habitus is shaped by their familiarity with diverse
the interplay between individual agency and educational pathways, their experience with

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different pedagogical approaches, and their ability weighing the costs and benefits of different ways of
to anticipate the potential consequences of various reaching the end in educational pathways. However,
educational decisions. students’ habits, wishes, and expectations of their
abilities also guide their choices. In Sweden, JonsIn
The extant research on educational choices has Sweden, Jonsson reported that while comparative
spanned various countries, establishing that advantages in certain subjects may partially
socioeconomic and cultural factors significantly explain sex segregation in educational choices,
shape parental decisions. For instance, a study in socialisation and gender norms also play a crucial
Chile by Farias demonstrated that economic status role [Jonsson 1999]. at societal expectations and
and cultural capital strongly predicted students’ gender stereotypes, in addition to rational ability
school track placements, wherein those from assessment, also influence students’ choices. In Italy,
lower-income backgrounds were more likely to Mocetti identifies early school failures and family
enrol in vocational programs, even when controlling background as critical in deciding post-compulsory
for academic performance and competition. This educational choices [Mocetti 2007]. Early academic
suggests that parental choices are informed not difficulties, therefore, make students more likely
only by their perceptions of their children’s abilities to drop out of school or join the less demanding
but also by prevailing social and cultural norms. accumulation of disadvantaged educational
Similarly, research in Kazakhstan by Amankulova trajectories. Further, Trusty et al. (2000) conducted
and Whitsel (2024) found that while parental a study that explored how gender, socioeconomic
education level had greater influence than wealth status, and early academic performance influence
in determining school selection, geographic location post-secondary educational choices in the United
remained the primary determinant, particularly for States. They concluded that gender is the most
disadvantaged households. The practical limitations influential factor, with females inclined to choose
of distance and scheduling constraints often restrict social majors and investigative and realistic ones
lower-socioeconomic status parents’ access to for males. They concluded that the students’ choices
preferred, high-performing schools, as Gibbons were based on their capabilities and what society
and Machin (2008) observed in England, despite a expects from the genders.
general preference across socioeconomic groups for
their children to excel academically. Another interesting perspective is the one developed
by Gabay-Egozi, Shavit, and Yaish (2009) on
The collapse of the Soviet Union enabled Eastern curricular choices within Tel Aviv-Jaffa high schools.
Europe and former Soviet states to undergo Their research found that students’ choices are
significant educational policy changes, characterized influenced not only by a simple cost-benefit analysis,
by decentralization and the introduction of school but also by factors such as gender, socioeconomic
choice [Heyneman 1997]. Previously, the Soviet status, and perceptions of future risk and utility. More
Union had contemplated a hypothetical voucher specifically, it was determined that a significant
system, which, although never materialized, signaled portion of students prepare a “hedging” portfolio,
a neoliberal influence in attempts to introduce which is a mix of high-utility, high-risk disciplines
parental control and market forces within the like science and math, and lower-utility, low-risk
education sector, following a wave of social and disciplines like the humanities and social sciences
political reforms [Heyneman 1997]. This proposed [Gabay-Egozi, Shavit, and Yaish 2009].
system would have given parents greater authority
over the funding allocated to schools for each year The study by Doyle et al. (2004), conducted nearly
their child attended. While such market-oriented two decades ago, is highly relevant to the current
reforms aimed to enhance the quality and efficiency work. The researchers sought to examine the
of education, their implementation faced challenges, school enrolment patterns of public school teachers’
including legal-administrative complications, children in the United States, utilizing data from the
concerns over state control and inequity, as well as 2000 Census. They found that the incidence rate
societal divisions. for urban public school teachers is greater (21.5%)
than the urban population (17.5%) and all-US
While parents have the most to say in determining population (12.2%). This is even more apparent
education choices, especially for the younger ones, when teachers have a lower income ($42,000) and
the students, especially in the higher grades, exercise choose private schools (14.9%) at a higher rate than
their agency in educational decision-making. The the lower-income population (10.3%). However, they
literature on student choice indicates that students denote that local trends might vary depending on
engage in a rational process, just like parents, by place to place (for instance, Chicago saw a higher

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incidence rate for teachers while Louisville saw Prior to selecting this model, I needed to evaluate
the opposite). Despite this, a worrying trend of US the limitations of utilizing it, which Boudon (1998,
public school teachers ‘defecting’ to private school 2003) has extensively critiqued. Boudon argues that
systems, symbolic of class aspiration, persists. Rational Choice Theory is unable to contextualize or
They draw the conclusion that this discovery could account for actions rooted in value systems, beliefs,
influence the evaluation of the public educational and other such factors. However, these criticisms
model’s effectiveness, while also acknowledging the have been addressed by scholars like Hechter et al.,
data’s limitations due to the inadvertent inclusion of and I will outline some of their counterarguments
suburban homes. below.

The primary justification for adopting the Rational

Choice Theory in this study is its ability to capture
4. SOCIOLOGICAL MODEL the decision-making process of public school
USED teachers as they weigh the costs, benefits, and
constraints involved in selecting educational
Identifying an appropriate theoretical model institutions for their children.
to analyze public school teachers’ educational
choices for their children is crucial, given the unique Boudon argues that Rational Choice Theory is
circumstances and constraints they face. This limited in its ability to explain actions not solely
section examines several potential frameworks and driven by self-interest. He contends that the
explains the rationale for adopting the Rational instrumental rationality underlying RCT, which
Choice Theory, which was originally proposed by assumes individuals make decisions to maximize
economist-philosopher Adam Smith and further their own utility, fails to account for the myriad other
developed by Nobel laureate Milton Friedman. factors influencing human behavior, such as beliefs,
values, and social norms. However, the work of
The academic field of social science is currently sociologists like Hechter and Kanazawa (1997) has
experiencing a surge in positivist approaches, with advanced RCT, presenting a more nuanced theory
Rational Choice Theory being increasingly cited in that may address some of Boudon’s criticisms. For
scholarly publications (0% in 1957 to nearly 40% in instance, according to Hechter and Kanazawa,
1992; Hechter et al. 1997). As Ullah and Mukherjee individuals do not necessarily act solely to maximize
(2023) have reasonably argued, there are several their own utility, but may also act to maximize the
compelling reasons for the growing prominence of utility of their social group or kinship network.
Rational Choice Theory, some of which will be drawn
upon in this analysis. The sociological applications of Rational Choice
Theory (RCT) have expanded beyond its purely
a. People seek to maximise their utility and economic conceptualization, adopting a multilevel
therefore rank their preferences, with the perspective that considers individual actions and
choice being with the one who is perceived the social structures shaping them. This multilevel
to be of the highest rank (Hernstein 1990 approach integrates non-instrumental motivations
and Krull 2016). within the broader context of rational decision-
b. Throughout the studies mentioned above, making. For instance, the choice of school enrolment
Indian parents have made informed choices may be viewed as a rational decision, informed not
based on information. The weighted criteria only by factors like academic quality or proximity, but
for this process include factors such as also by considerations of religious affiliation, social
distance, accessibility, cost-effectiveness, class, or institutional ethos.
curricula and pedagogy, and the involvement
of parents, all of which contribute to greater The versatility of RCT is demonstrated across
information reception. (Kelly, 2007) various sociological domains. Examples include
Brewster’s work on community influences
c. With education being a marketplace,
on adolescent sexuality, Lee et al.’s research
parents are buyers, whereas schools are
on neighborhood effects on mobility, Hoem’s
sellers of services. The government acts as
investigation of legal impacts on marriage and
an intermediary by imposing the not-for-
childbearing, Iannaccone’s scholarship on religious
profit clause, as frequently directed by the
pluralism and mobilization, Brinton’s exploration
Supreme Court (2022), distorting but not
of gender inequality in Japan, Petersen’s analysis
eliminating the market system.
of salesperson earnings, Hedström’s study of labor

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union diffusion, Horney and Marshall’s examination show how opportunities and constraints shape
of criminal risk perception, and Pampel and individual choices about marriage, divorce, and
Gartner’s multilevel explanation of homicide rates. fertility. The availability of alternative partners, legal
These examples illustrate the broad applicability and economic consequences of divorce, and social
of Rational Choice Theory within the sociological expectations of parenthood are some of the factors
discipline. that determine choices individuals make even when
self-interest may not be the sole choice.
This is where Boudon’s call for alternative forms
of rationality, including cognitive and axiological The central element of Boudon’s critique is the
rationality, may not be essentially at odds with notion that Rational Choice Theory reduces all
RCT. Indeed, Hechter and Kanazawa demonstrate human actions to the sole motive of self-interest
that RCT in sociology has itself developed to maximization. However, Hechter and Kanazawa
accommodate a multilevel theory operating across (1997) have refuted this argument by demonstrating
the individual actions and social structures within that RCT can readily incorporate actions motivated
which individuals act. This multilevel framework by broader social concerns and values. They point
allows even non-instrumental motivations to fit into to studies in the realm of crime and deviance, where
the broader pattern of rational decision-making. individuals’ choices to engage in criminal behavior
are determined not merely by the potential rewards,
The flexibility of Rational Choice Theory is but also by the risks of punishment and the social
exemplified in its application to religious behavior. stigma associated with criminality.
While Boudon contends that RCT is limited in
accounting for belief- and value-driven actions, Further, the application of RCT to historical sociology
Hechter and Kanazawa (1997) demonstrate that underlines the power of RCT in explaining collective
RCT can effectively analyze religious participation by action or social change when the action is not
considering the dynamics of individual agency and only dictated by individual self-interest. They also
the religious market context. Religious attendance refer to various studies examining changes in state
or practice can be understood as a rational choice autonomy and policy choice in absolutist societies,
influenced by factors such as perceived benefits showing how power and resource dependence
of religious community membership, social norms structures shape institutional emergence. These
of the religious affiliation, and availability of suggest that RCT can capture the subtle interplay
religious alternatives. Similarly, RCT has been between individual and collective motivations that
applied to explain gendered behaviors, employing influence social outcomes.
axiological rationality or rational choice within given
social contexts to elucidate gender differences in While the critique by Boudon raises some pertinent
educational attainment and career options. Although questions regarding the limitation of RCT, it must
Boudon emphasizes axiological rationality, these be realized that RCT, as applied in sociology, has
value-based arguments can be incorporated within undergone much refinement in most of the aspects
RCT by acknowledging that individuals’ preferences mentioned above. The multi-level approach,
and choices are shaped by, or filtered through, the addition of the social structures and consideration
social structures and cultural norms they inhabit. of non-instrumental motives mark the beginning of
a sophisticated framework that can explain large
A key concern raised by Boudon is that RCT does social phenomena.
not adequately consider how social structures
influence people’s actions. However, as argued by RCT’s strength is that it systematically carves out
Hechter et al. (1997), RCT in sociology recognizes the framework within which the analysis of social
the interactive nature of individual agency and social behaviour can take place in a testable manner. With
structure. RCT does not assume that individuals due regard for the complicated interplay of human
make decisions in a social vacuum; rather, it agency, structural features in society, and various
acknowledges that their choices are constrained and motivations, RCT yields very important insights
determined by the social environment in which they into the dynamics of action in people. While RCT
are embedded. Sociological RCT thus incorporates is admittedly not a perfect theory, the theory is
Boudon’s emphasis on the role of social structures certainly adaptable and does explain much, and
and cultural norms in shaping individual preferences hence it is undeniably useful in sociological analysis.
and behaviors. In fact, Hechter and Kanazawa conclude that “RCT
is not a panacea for all of sociology’s ills, but it is a
For instance, RCT studies of family dynamics powerful tool that can be used to shed light on a

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wide range of social phenomena” (p. 193).

5. STRUCTURE OF THE
The concept of bounded rationality, as defined by EDUCATION SYSTEM IN TAMIL
Green (2008), further refines the understanding of
rationality in the context of school choice decisions. It
NADU
recognizes that, like other decision-makers, parents
Tamil Nadu’s education system is similar in
and students have access to limited information
composition to the Delhi School Educational Model.
and cognitive resources, and their choices are not
There is a multitude of assessment mechanisms
fully optimized but rather ‘satisficing’ - settling for
on offer, primarily ranging from Tamil Nadu
an adequate rather than an optimal option, given
State Board (TNSB) and CBSE (Central Board of
the constraints they face. This aligns with Boudon’s
Secondary Education) to privately administered
emphasis on the role of cognitive limitations and the
boards such as CISCE (Council for the Indian School
influence of the social context in shaping individual
Certificate Examinations) that is further subdivided
decisions.
into ICSE (Indian Council of Secondary Education)
and ISC (Indian School Certificate) for teaching
Applying RCT to school choice also highlights this
and examining pupils up to Class 10 and Class 12,
theory’s ability to capture how social structures and
respectively.
cultural capital influence educational choice. The
literature review refers to Bourdieu and Jaeger, who
note that social class, caste, and other sociocultural
factors influence aspirations, access to information, 6. METHODOLOGY
and hence the educational choices made by parents.
While Boudon blames RCT for completely omitting The research methodology utilized a mixed-method
any social structural variables, its sociological approach, primarily qualitative in nature, with n=22
applications prove quite the opposite and reveal interviews and a survey conducted between the
its ability to include them within its explanatory period of August to September 2024. The interviews
framework. were open-ended and semi-structured, each lasting
approximately 30-40 minutes. The study was
Again, the study by Gabay-Egozi et al. (2009) carried out in urban Chennai, with a Government
depicts how vigorously rational choice theory Higher Secondary School and a Kendriya Vidyalaya
interplays with social context in educational selected as the research sites. The exact locations
decision-making. It demonstrates well that student have been kept confidential to protect the privacy of
curricular choices depend not only on their perceived the participants. The number of interviewees was
utility and risk assessments, but also on their social determined based on the criterion of saturation,
background and the structural realities they are with 7 participants from the KV, 10 from the
facing. The current study exemplifies the effective GHSS, and an additional 5 individuals who had
integration of RCT with other theoretical frameworks extensive experience working with teachers in public
to enhance comprehension of intricate social institutions.
phenomena like school choice.
The GHSS has traditionally followed the Tamil Nadu
It follows, therefore, that while Boudon’s critique State Board and spans from Class 6 to Class 12.
of RCT raises crucial questions concerning its This GHSS, in particular, has received funds from the
limitations, this application of RCT in school choice SSA (Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan) since its inception in
testifies to its flexibility and explanatory power. 2000. This scheme has been credited with increased
Using a multilevel approach, RCT brings in widely enrolment and infrastructure, especially in rural
acknowledged social structure relations and the areas (ASER 2018 and Oxford University Press
impact of non-instrumental motivations. It is not a 2017). The Samagra Shiksha Scheme has subsumed
static theory, but a dynamic instrument that can the SSA scheme, which has been developed to raise
adapt and change to accommodate the diverse the quality of education from preschool to class
aspects of human behavior in school selection. 12. The interview consisted of teaching personnel
from Class 6 to Class 10, all female. Class 11 and
Class 12 teachers declined to take the survey and
the interview. All the teachers had completed a
minimum of post-graduation in various subjects
ranging from the humanities to natural sciences.
The ethnolinguistic makeup has been primarily Tamil
with just one being a Hindi teacher.

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The Kendriya Vidyalaya, located in urban Chennai, The study also included interviews with other
is among the most well-resourced schools in the participants who have experience collaborating
region. The research involved interviews with four with public school teachers or working in the public
Bal Vatika (pre-primary) teachers, one teacher education sector. This group comprises full-time
specializing in serving students with special needs, academics as well as fellows associated with non-
and two teachers who instruct students in other governmental organizations that provide support to
grade levels. The Kendriya Vidyalaya adheres to schools facing challenges related to infrastructure
the CBSE curriculum, and its teaching staff have and teacher training. Additionally, they have assisted
completed postgraduate degrees complemented by in addressing behavioral issues among students in
specialized Montessori training. The school’s faculty the public school system.
reflects the diverse ethnolinguistic composition of
India.

7. FINDINGS

Table 26: Response Table

Parameter Kendriya Vidyalaya GHSS in Chennai

Choice in favour of Govt School 71.43% 30%

Choice in favour of Private School 28.57% 70%

Gender All female All female

Age Range 37 to 46 years old 48 to 58 years old

1 Kid 28.57% 20%

2 Kids 71.43% 80%

3 Kids NA 10%

Yes 57.14% 60%

1st Gen Educated
No 42.86% 40%

No 0.00% 10%

Regional Language in self-education Yes 71.43% 80%

Mixed Education 28.57% 10%

96 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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Yes 14.29% 20%

English Preference for kids No 71.43% 80%

No preference 14.29% NA

Yes 57.14% 30%

Tuition/Coaching utilised for kids
No 42.86% 70%

Yes 57.14% 20%

Distance/Safety considerations
No 42.86% 80%

The educational preferences of teachers in Chennai, value of education compared to Government Higher
India, selected from Kendriya Vidyalayas and Secondary School teachers, who came from families
Government Higher Secondary Schools, are better with longer educational legacies. Additionally, the
reflected in the data presented in the table above. findings show that no KV teachers reported regional
The analysis indicates that a greater proportion of language influences in their own educational
KV teachers, at 71.43%, chose government schools backgrounds, while a few GHSS teachers did,
for their children’s education compared to only 30% implying that KV teachers may be more aligned with
of GHSS teachers. This disparity in school selection the English medium of instruction, which could be a
may be attributable to a combination of personal factor in their educational choices for their children.
experiences, perceptions of educational quality, and
socioeconomic factors that shape their decision- However, the results also reveal that most teachers
making processes. Additionally, the table highlights across both groups did not express a notable
several other important issues worthy of further preference for English-medium schooling for their
examination offspring, challenging the common assumption
that English language education is prioritized
This shows a high contrast in school choice between among India’s educated professionals. Furthermore,
KV and GHSS teachers. While a majority of KV the data indicates that a larger proportion of KV
teachers preferred government schools, a majority teachers utilized tutoring or coaching services for
of GHSS teachers preferred private schools. It their children, potentially linked to perceptions
may be due to a set of reasons that sets private of the CBSE curriculum’s competitiveness in KVs,
and government schools apart regarding quality the availability of educational resources, and
of education, school facilities’ infrastructure, and the academic aspirations of KV parents for their
teachers’ competence. It can also be observed from children’s success.
the table that KV teachers were somewhat younger
and more likely to have two children, whereas The data in the table suggests that location and
GHSS teachers were slightly older and more likely safety considerations play a more significant role
to have one or three children. These differences in school selection for Kendriya Vidyalaya teachers
in demographics imply a disparity in preferences compared to teachers from Government Higher
over school choice, with younger parents being Secondary Schools. This can be attributed to
more open to trying different school options, while the centralized locations of KVs versus the more
for older parents, stability and familiarity could be dispersed nature of GHSSes, resulting in greater
ranked higher. importance placed on proximity and security by
KV teachers. Additionally, the table implies that
The data suggests that Kendriya Vidyalaya teachers socioeconomic factors influence teachers’ choices
were more likely to be first-generation educated, between public and private schools. The higher
potentially indicating a stronger emphasis on the proportion of first-generation educated teachers in

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KVs suggests that they may be more aspirational

and willing to invest in their children’s education,
8. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
even if it means opting for private schooling options.
The limitations of this study have been multifold
since this was the first attempt to investigate
Furthermore, the findings from this table can be
teachers’ choices in sending their children to public
contextualized within the existing literature on
or private schools. Every GHSS, or KV for that matter,
parental school selection within and beyond the
is not endowed with the same financial or human
Indian context. The observation that KV teachers
capital, thereby limiting this study to the categorical
prefer government schools aligns with the
GHSS and KV explored herein. Additionally, I did not
hypotheses proposed by Crozier et al. (2008)’s,
have the opportunity to conduct a linear examination
indicating that these choices are informed by factors
of teachers teaching the same student grades.
beyond just financial considerations, such as the
perceived quality of the school and the qualifications
However, my comparative examination of both
of the teaching staff.
central and state school teachers also reveals the
desirability of continuing the comparison in a more
Results from the following table can be
breadth manner but instead in a more in-depth
contextualized against available literature on
perspective. Simplifications that I made in my early
parental school choice within and outside India.
research conducted in some places point toward
This fact that KV teachers would instead go to
new kinds of research that need to be done. First,
governmental schools agrees with Crozier et al.
the small sample size argued for a replication of this
(2008)’s hypotheses. Therefore, the choices are
study with a large and representative sample of
informed by considerations other than the parents’
teachers so that the results could be generalised to
financial capability, such as the school’s perceived
the population of teachers.
quality and the teachers’ qualifications.
Further to this, expanding the scope of the
Increased access to tuition or coaching among
research to include more comprehensive contextual
teachers is in good tandem with several studies,
data would strengthen the explanatory power
which note that the supplementary education
of the findings. Future studies should examine
industry plays an essential role in India, even for
schools in greater depth, considering factors
families who enrol their children in private schools.
such as geographic location, institutional type,
It follows that competition is very high within the
socioeconomic status, and diverse forms of
Indian education system; it therefore further piles
school leadership. Incorporating these contextual
extra pressure on the parents to ensure academic
variables would likely enhance the application and
success on the part of the children.
generalizability of the conclusions drawn about
teachers’ professional development and perceptions.
The data presented in this table illuminates the
multifaceted nature of school selection decisions
Third, future research should incorporate qualitative
among teachers in India. These choices are
methods to provide additional insights. Qualitative
influenced by a confluence of individual, social,
approaches could offer more detailed information
and contextual factors, encompassing teacher
about teachers’ perceptions, beliefs, intentions,
demographics, perceptions of educational quality,
and reasoning behind their educational choices.
language preferences, and socioeconomic
Understanding the ‘why’ behind these decisions is
considerations. Further in-depth research would be
crucial for informing appropriate interventions and
necessary to more thoroughly explore the underlying
developing sound policies. Additionally, other factors
motivations behind the observed variations in
worthy of examination include teachers’ years of
school preferences across different regions and
experience, professional development opportunities,
socioeconomic groups. The insights gained from
and student performance, as these may influence
this study have the potential to inform policy
teachers’ experiences and perspectives. More
interventions aimed at strengthening the public
specifically, pre- and post-treatment assessments
education system, bridging the gaps between public
of teacher attitudes and behaviours could shed
and private schools, and ensuring that all students
light on the factors that predict teacher satisfaction,
have access to a high-quality education that aligns
professional development, and retention. Addressing
with their needs and aspirations.
these limitations would strengthen the research
and contribute to the development of better policies
and practices in the field of education. Accordingly, I
recommend this paper for further consideration and
use.

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Addressing the final point, controlling for the will be availed for gem focus, special concentrators,
possibility of social desirability bias is crucial. new methodologies and embracing technologies.
This bias can encourage participants to provide People will have more options to select from in their
responses they perceive as desirable, rather than classes and their learning styles. This means the
expressing their true perspectives, especially when opportunity and competition a labour of quality
anonymity is assured. Employing indirect and mixed will make it even more inexpensive for the average
questioning strategies can help mitigate this issue. consumer.
Therefore, the current study should be viewed as
a starting point, but the identified shortcomings The privatization of schools is proposed as the
suggest the need for further research to better primary reform strategy to enhance student
understand the teaching profession. Overcoming the performance. Government-run or traditional public
limitations noted above in future studies will be vital schools are characterized as centralized, command-
to gaining a more comprehensive understanding driven systems that promote complacency over
and creating a foundation for programs aimed at creativity and productivity, unlike market-driven
enhancing teachers’ job satisfaction and overall private schools which are accountable to parents.
school performance. The paper suggests measures to facilitate the
conversion of public schools to private schools
and the expansion of the private school sector. It
is argued that the creation of more private schools
9. POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS will foster a competitive environment, ultimately
benefiting all students.
Based on the findings presented in this study, I
propose a set of transformative reforms inspired by
I believe that creating Education Savings Accounts
the work of Nobel Prize-winner Milton Friedman. The
would empower parents by providing them with
key element of this proposal is the implementation of
more control over their children’s education. These
a robust school voucher system. Under this system,
tax-advantaged accounts would allow parents
each parent would receive a government-funded
to save and use funds for a variety of educational
voucher that can be used to enrol their child in any
resources, such as tuition, tutors, books, and
school of their choice, whether it is a public, private,
learning materials. ESAs would give parents a more
parochial, or secular institution. This approach
comprehensive selection of educational options
empowers parents to decide where their children
for their children and greater involvement in the
will receive their education, allowing them to select
educational process.
the school that best aligns with their child’s needs,
learning abilities, and moral standards. Introducing
These recommendations are firmly grounded in
such a voucher system would foster competition
the foundational principles of individual freedom,
within the education sector, as schools would have
market-driven forces, limited government, and the
to differentiate themselves, improve their standards,
empowerment of parents as key stakeholders in
and work diligently to meet the diverse needs of
their children’s education. Implementing such a
learners in order to attract and retain students.
transformative approach would help produce a more
efficient, competitive, and responsive education
The government’s primary role within the education
system – one that is better equipped to address the
system should be to ensure that all citizens are
evolving learning needs of students as they prepare
literate and have basic numeracy skills. The
to navigate the challenges and opportunities of the
current structure, with its centralized curriculum,
21st century.
standardized teachers and professionals, and
other bureaucratic requirements, stifles creativity,
By reducing the degree of government control
innovation, and flexibility in the education market. If
and intervention, this paper champions the idea
the government were to reduce its control, schools
of cultivating an educational context that is more
would be free to experiment with their chosen
adaptable, innovative, and tailored to the unique
curriculum, teaching approaches, and assessment
requirements of each learner. Through increased
formats.
competition and by empowering both parents and
students, we can foster an education system that
The educational market should be liberalised,
unlocks the full potential of young minds, equipping
making it easier for new schools and other providers
them with the knowledge, skills, and critical thinking
to enter. The doors will be opened for new and
abilities necessary to thrive in the rapidly changing
unique types of schools, teaching methodologies,
world. This vision for reform holds the promise of
and technology for teaching processes. New schools
a more dynamic, student-centric education system
that ultimately benefits learners, families, and
society as a whole.

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“Curricular Choice: A Test of a Rational Choice Model
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CHAPTER

6
Balancing Excellence:
Curriculum and Infrastructure
in Delhi’s Specialised Schools

Paarul Rai | Tabassum Muhammad

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ABSTRACT • While students expressed satisfaction with

teaching methods, ongoing professional
development for teachers is crucial to
This study examines the effectiveness of the
maintaining high standards of curriculum
curriculum in Delhi’s Schools of Specialized
delivery.
Excellence, focusing on student experiences, learning
outcomes, and infrastructure. The research seeks
• Student feedback indicates dissatisfaction with
to evaluate the efficacy of the Delhi government’s
the current range of sports and extracurricular
curriculum reform initiative, which involved
activities. To offer a more balanced educational
establishing the Delhi Board of School Education
experience, the SOSEs should invest in improved
and implementing its curriculum in the Schools of
sports facilities and structured extracurricular
Specialised Excellence.
programs.
However, despite high student satisfaction,
challenges persist. Key issues encompass
inadequate sports facilities, insufficient 1. INTRODUCTION
infrastructure, and limited extracurricular
engagement. While the curriculum promotes The Indian education landscape is undergoing
academic excellence, addressing these significant transformation with the emergence
infrastructural deficits is essential for holistic student of innovative models to address longstanding
development. This study provides insights into how challenges. Among these, the Dr Ambedkar Schools
these specialized schools can enhance students’ of Specialised Excellence (SOSE) in Delhi represent a
academic and non-academic experiences through bold experiment in curriculum reform and specialised
targeted reforms. education. Established in 2021 by the Government
of the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, these
Findings from this study suggest that these schools schools aim to nurture students’ unique interests
are performing well, and students find them very and aptitudes, offering tailored learning experiences
beneficial. Given its recent establishment, the school across different fields. The SOSE initiative is part
faces several infrastructural and other challenges of a broader reform agenda, which includes the
that require attention. creation of the Delhi Board of School Education
(DBSE). This new board, developed in partnership
Keywords: Delhi Board of School Education (DBSE), with international organisations like the International
Schools of Specialised Excellence (SOSE), Curriculum Baccalaureate (IB), seeks to move away from rote
Effectiveness, School Education, Learning Outcomes, memorisation towards a more holistic, skill-based
Holistic Development Infrastructure approach to education. While existing research has
largely focused on documenting the establishment
and initial reception of these schools, there is a
KEY FINDINGS notable lack of critical analysis regarding their
curriculum implementation, teaching methodologies,
and student outcomes. This study employs a
• Over half (58%) of the surveyed students believe
mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative
that the new curriculum approach in the Schools
interviews and quantitative data analysis, to provide
of Specialised Excellence will improve their
a comprehensive evaluation of the SOSE model and
future employability.
integrate relevant secondary research data.
• Most (72.5%) of the surveyed students think the
SOSEs have well-trained and skilled teachers to
effectively deliver the new curriculum, indicating
successful capacity building in these schools.

• The majority (61%) of surveyed students would

recommend the SOSEs to others, showing a
positive attitude toward these institutions.

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2. LITERATURE REVIEW lifelong learning, and encouraging entrepreneurship

and innovation.
Paulo Freire, in his book Pedagogy of the Oppressed,
In his work, Reforming the Indian School Education
talks about the ‘Banking Model of Education’. He
System, Karthik Muralidharan discusses the
equated teachers with bank clerks and saw them
structural challenges in the education system.
depositing information into students’ minds, where
He states, “There are massive inequalities in the
students receive, repeat, and memorize it. He argues
overall education system, which, on the one hand
that this approach leads to a lack of intellectual
routinely produces students who go on to achieve
development, critical skills, problem solving, and
global excellence in their fields, while on the other
creative thinking skills. While critiquing conventional
hand also produces the world’s largest number of
deep-rooted educational practices, he also proposed
primary school-completing students who are not
an alternative approach, known as problem-posing.
functionally literate and numerate at even a second-
In this transformed relationship, the teacher no
or third-grade level.” He attributed this outcome
longer merely imparts knowledge, but actively
to the lack of improvement in curriculum design
engages in dialogue with the students, who, in
and the absence of rewards for good performance
turn, also impart knowledge. They become jointly
among parents, teachers, and students. Secondly,
responsible for a process in which all grow.” At its
he states, “An obsessive focus on exams and marks
core, problem-posing education serves as a pathway
has led to an education system characterised by
to developing critical consciousness.
rote memorisation to pass exams (often through
cramming of past exams) as opposed to conceptual
R.D. Anderson, a prominent scholar in the field
understanding that can be applied and used in
of curriculum studies and education reforms,
practical situations.” Moreover, one of the major
conceptualises the curriculum as a dynamic, ever-
challenges is a low level of practical skills. Therefore,
evolving guide that supports students in their
he articulated, “A fundamental objective for Indian
academic pursuits. This perspective underscores
education policy must be to transition the system
the need for a critical examination of how these
from a’sorting’ and’selection’ paradigm to a ‘human
curriculum reforms influence student learning
development’ paradigm, enabling every citizen to
outcomes, which requires a sophisticated
acquire the necessary knowledge for a lifetime of
understanding of the nuances involved. Effectively
ongoing learning in any skill they may pursue.”
implementing a redesigned curriculum is crucial for
achieving positive educational results.
The research highlights the importance of reforming
curriculum design to improve learning outcomes.
India’s education landscape exhibits significant
In this context, Schools of Specialised Excellence
variations, resulting in uneven learning outcomes.
represent an exciting new educational approach,
National and international assessment bodies,
offering tailored learning experiences that cater
such as the Programme for International
to students’ unique interests and abilities. Existing
Student Assessment and the Annual Status of
studies have consistently demonstrated that
Education Report, have identified shortcomings
incorporating cutting-edge learning technologies
in the Indian education system. These include
and aligning curricula with industry demands and
disparities in learning outcomes across different
technological advancements can significantly
states, which are likely rooted in infrastructure
enhance academic achievement, knowledge
disparities, teacher preparedness, and resource
retention, and critical thinking skills. Moreover, a shift
accessibility. Additionally, an excessive focus on rote
from traditional, discipline-based teaching methods
memorisation has emerged as a major impediment,
to more integrative, active, and student-centred
hindering the development of critical thinking and
approaches is necessary. The interplay between
the application of knowledge in real-world contexts.
curriculum design and specialised education has
These issues underscore the need for curriculum
become a central focus of educational research, with
reform. Shazia Chaudhary, in her research article
SOSEs serving as key case studies in the evolution of
“Examining the Impact of Curriculum Reforms on
21st-century learning models. The DBSE’s curriculum
Student Learning Outcomes,” has proposed eight
framework is meticulously designed to equip
potential reforms to enhance learning outcomes.
students with essential skills for thriving in the 21st
These include ensuring relevance to evolving global
century, including critical thinking, problem-solving,
dynamics, fostering critical thinking and creativity,
collaboration, communication, and creativity.
addressing skill gaps, promoting inclusivity and
equality, embracing technology integration,
enhancing global competitiveness, stimulating

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According to reports issued by the Delhi government, often incorporating local language and cultural
as well as an analysis by the Indian Express, elements. However, most state boards tend to use
SOSEs have seen a steady increase in the number outdated learning methods, and their syllabi are
of applicants since their inception in 2021-22. rarely updated. Additionally, state board schools that
This year for Class 9, STEM (science, technology, follow state-mandated curriculums often lack skilled
engineering, and mathematics) has received the teachers.
most applications — at 37,960 — while Humanities
is the second most popular. In Class 11, the highest Another prominent board is the International
number of applications this time was for STEM Baccalaureate (IB). The IB is known globally for
— 28,135. One of the reasons for this influx is the its rigorous curriculum and emphasis on critical
assistance provided by these schools in preparing thinking. A hallmark of the IB program is its balanced
students for competitive examinations like NEET and curriculum, which includes traditional academic
JEE. SOSEs have partnered with various ‘Knowledge subjects, as well as arts, physical education, and
Partners’ who offer specialised guidance and community service. The program focuses on student
sessions for competitive exam preparation. well-being and offers a more pluralistic curriculum,
allowing students to explore a broader range of
Other Educational Boards subjects and interests, with components like CAS
and ATL. By promoting inquiry-based learning,
The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) the IB program encourages students to question
is a widely recognised education board in India, and research rather than simply memorise facts.
known for its standardised national curriculum. The However, schools affiliated with the IB are limited in
board was formed and expanded between 1929 and India and tend to be highly expensive, making them
1962. CBSE-affiliated schools can be found across less accessible.
the country and even internationally. The CBSE’s
vision focuses on innovations in teaching-learning DBSE has partnered with the IB to develop its
methods, including student-friendly and student- curriculum, which is implemented in the SOSEs. This
centred approaches, reforms in examinations and blends DBSE’s focus on specialised education with
assessment, and regular updates to teachers’ the globally recognised IB curriculum.
pedagogical skills. However, the board’s curriculum
has been criticised for its emphasis on theory-based The DBSE is a relatively new addition to India’s
learning, which limits students’ exposure to practical educational landscape, which caters to the newly
learning and can encourage rote memorisation. formed SOSEs in Delhi. The board aims to create an
educational environment where students can delve
The Indian Certificate of Secondary Education deeply into their areas of interest, guided by expert
(ICSE) is another prominent education board in faculty and industry professionals. This approach
India, renowned for its comprehensive curriculum is designed to prepare students not just for higher
that emphasises English language proficiency and education but also for potential careers in their
practical learning approaches. This board positions chosen fields. While DBSE shares some common
itself as child-centric, offering a comprehensive and goals with other educational boards in India – such
broad-based curriculum that caters to Indian ethos as providing quality education and preparing
while maintaining a global perspective. The Council students for future success – its approach is uniquely
for the Indian School Certificate Examinations tailored to nurture specialised talents. By focusing
(CISCE), a private and non-governmental education on specific areas of excellence and providing a
board in India, administers two examinations: the more industry-aligned, skill-based curriculum, DBSE
Indian Certificate of Secondary Education and the represents a new direction in Indian education,
Indian School Certificate. particularly suited to the diverse and dynamic needs
of Delhi’s educational landscape.
However, the ICSE network is significantly smaller
compared to the Central Board of Secondary Initiatives In Other States
Education, and it is often characterised by a rigorous
grading system and extensive syllabi. Additionally, Many states have recognised issues such as
these ICSE schools tend to be relatively more rote memorisation and lack of practical skills,
expensive. and, like the Delhi government’s establishment
of DBSE and SOSEs, they have also attempted
Apart from these, various state boards across educational reforms. One such initiative is ‘MO
India cater to region-specific educational needs, Schools’ in Odisha, a philanthropic platform that

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invites alumni to collaborate in improving current Vidyalaya focuses on holistic student development,
government and government-aided schools. These while Utkarsh Bangla in West Bengal provides
schools receive operational and financial support low-cost vocational training to school dropouts
from the government, with their everyday affairs and unemployed youth. Uttar Pradesh in 2020
run by an MO School Executive Body, supported started Atal Residential Schools to offer quality
by a Governing Council and Board of Advisors. education to marginalised communities. Although
These bodies comprise thought leaders, eminent not all such initiatives have been successful, the
educationists, social scientists, and notable high satisfaction levels among students at Delhi’s
individuals from various fields, including art, Schools of Specialised Excellence suggest a positive
architecture, design, advertising, communication, outcome. Delhi has tried to tackle these issues by
film-making, literature, science, technology, sports, establishing a new education board and opening
and public administration. They aim to nurture specialised schools. The remarkable performance
school children to become dreamers, doers, of SOSE students in competitive exams has drawn
makers, growers, explorers, experimenters, and widespread attention.
entrepreneurs. Although this initiative is not identical
to DBSE, the intentions are similar. School Of Specialised Excellence (SOSE)
Another similar initiative is the ‘Eklavya Model The Delhi government introduced the Schools of
Residential Schools’ introduced by the Tamil Nadu Specialised Excellence in 2021, which are affiliated
government. This initiative was started by the with the Delhi Board of School Education (DBSE).
National Education Society of Tribal Students The DBSE was established in 2021 as an alternative
(NESTS), established under the Ministry of Tribal to the existing central and state education boards.
Affairs to uplift marginalised communities. They In 2019, former Delhi Education Minister Manish
aim to provide quality modern education, offer a Sisodia stated that the fee hikes of the Central Board
common core-curriculum to ensure comparability of Secondary Education were financially burdening
in standards, facilitate an understanding of the students, and as a result, Delhi decided to set up its
common and composite heritage of tribal people, own education board.
help students acquire employment-oriented skills,
including self-employment, and strive to achieve The DBSE and SOSEs aim to move away from
the best academic standards, excellence in sports, rote memorisation and standardised assessment,
and extra-curricular activities. While this initiative instead focusing on skill development and practical
resembles DBSE, it is more localised and focused on learning. They advocate for the holistic development
uplifting the local tribal population. of students and preparing them for future challenges
in a stress-free environment, which aligns with the
The Gujarat government has implemented the Gyan vision of the National Education Policy, 2020. The
Kunj Project as an educational initiative aimed at DBSE is recognised by the Ministry of Education,
promoting digital inclusion within schools. Launched Government of India, and is on par with the CBSE
in 2017, this programme has transformed numerous and other state boards.
primary school classrooms across the state into
dynamic digital learning environments, furnished The DBSE has partnered with the International
with smart boards, projectors, and tablets. However, Baccalaureate, a non-profit educational foundation
the project’s impact extends beyond the mere that serves students aged 3-19 years. Additionally,
incorporation of advanced technological devices. the DBSE provides training for teachers to
Gyan Kunj has invigorated traditional academic integrate global contexts into their everyday
subjects, rendering learning more interactive and classroom teaching and learning. The board offers
engaging for students. The project’s expansive transdisciplinary, interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary,
reach, encompassing both urban and rural school and skill-based curriculum frameworks, which can
settings, has been noteworthy. Furthermore, Gyan be adapted to suit the local context. The DBSE
Kunj’s influence stretches beyond merely altering receives technical and managerial support from
the way students learn; it has also reshaped their the Australian Council for Educational Research
relationship with education, rendering it more (ACER) and the Boston Consulting Group (BCG).
relevant and stimulating within our increasingly Currently, the DBSE is only implemented in Delhi,
digital landscape. and it is being introduced in phases, with only a few
government schools currently affiliated with it. The
Several other states have launched initiatives to DBSE has developed curriculum for foundational
improve education. For example, Rajasthan’s Adarsh and specialisation-level education at the SOSEs,

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the Delhi Model Virtual School (DMVS), and the Humanities specialisation offers a progressive
Schools of Applied Learning (SoAL). The DBSE has education in the Humanities and Social Sciences,
aligned itself with the NEP 2020 by prioritising skill aiming to develop students into future leaders,
development and increasing curriculum flexibility for innovators, researchers, and top global professionals.
students. Students receive training in contemporary skills
such as research, collaboration, critical thinking,
The Government of NCT of Delhi established and analytical skills. They are also prepared for
the Schools of Specialised Excellence to cater to examinations like the Common University Entrance
students who demonstrate interest and aptitude Test (CUET).
in specific domains. Before establishing SOSE, the
Directorate of Education GNCTD conducted a survey The curriculum for the Humanities specialisation
during 2020-2021, involving over 3200 students includes foundational subjects in 9th and 10th
and parents. The findings suggested that 79% of grades, as well as specialised subjects. The
students in grades 8-10 and 88% of students in foundational subjects are the same across all
grades 11-12 expressed an interest in the idea specialisations. The specialised subjects include
of early specialisation in their subjects of interest. Systems and Societies and World of Work.
SOSE are choice-based schools for grades 9 to 12,
allowing students to specialise in their chosen fields The Systems and Societies course explores
of study. These schools claim to offer world-class contemporary issues such as environmental
infrastructure and top teachers to deliver a new- challenges, global politics, recent historical
age curriculum and assessment in the specialised events, and transportation systems, using a
domains. They also have partnerships with reputed multidimensional approach. This practical approach
organisations, premier universities, and globally aims to engage students and help them understand
and locally acclaimed professionals. Additionally, the complexities of societal systems and their
they provide increased exposure to various interactions.
career pathways through master classes, expert
interactions, and field visits. As a result, students The World of Work subject introduces students
receive targeted preparation for relevant higher to careers in the humanities and social sciences.
education pathways and career opportunities. Through expert teaching, field trips, and projects,
students learn about fields like urban planning and
Prior to 2021, there were three main types of schools law, gaining practical skills and real-world insights.
in Delhi: Sarvodaya Vidyalaya, which catered to
students from nursery to senior secondary; Rajkiya In 11th and 12th grades, the foundational and
Pratibha Vikas Vidyalaya, which admitted students specialised subjects include English, Interdisciplinary
through an entrance examination for grades 6-12; Studies, and World of Work modules covering
and School of Excellence, which were co-educational topics such as Legal Studies, Mass Media, Teaching
schools from nursery to grade 12. To align with the Aptitude, Research and Critical Thinking, and
vision of the National Education Policy 2020, the Mapping and Visualisation. Students must also
Directorate of Education in Delhi phased out these choose three specialised elective subjects from
“special category schools”, including the popular options like History, Geography, Psychology,
Rajkiya Pratibha Vikas Vidyalaya and School of Mathematics and Statistics, Economics, Political
Excellence, which had been established in 2018. The Science, Sociology, Computer Science, and Business
government focused on converting these schools Studies.
into specialised institutions. Initially, 20 schools
were upgraded and renamed as Dr. B.R. Ambedkar The “High-end 21st Century Skills” specialisation
Schools of Specialized Excellence. Currently, there offered by these schools aims to equip students with
are 56 SOSE across Delhi, offering five different the competencies required for emerging industry
specialisations. Of these, 18 schools provide dual demands. The curriculum emphasises a hands-on,
specialisation, while the remaining offer a single inquiry-based learning approach to develop new-
specialisation. The five specialisations available at age skills for enterprising 21st-century careers,
SOSE are Armed Forces Preparatory School, High- opening up pathways for early employment.
end 21st Century Skills, Humanities, Performing Students have access to immersive labs, industry
and Visual Arts, and STEM (Science, Technology, visits, masterclasses, and employment-readiness
Engineering and Mathematics). programmes that extend beyond the classroom.
The curriculum is developed by a stellar committee
comprising industry professionals, academicians,

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and global educators from institutions like IIT Delhi, English, Mathematics/Humanities electives, and
NIFT Delhi, and LAHI. Business Strategy as foundational subjects, along
with one specialised subject. The specialisation has
In grades 9 and 10, the foundational subjects are partnered with premier institutes like Global Music
the same across specialisations, but students also Institute, Srishti Manipal Institute, and Whistling
explore six “taster courses” under two subject Woods. Currently, there are only 5 such specialised
areas: Advanced Technologies and Design and schools in Delhi, which limits their accessibility to
Commerce. In grades 11 and 12, the foundational students.
subjects include English, Physics, Chemistry, and
Mathematics, while students specialise in one of the The Shaheed Bhagat Singh Armed Forces
taster subjects they studied previously. Graduates of Preparatory School (SBS-AFPS), is a flagship project
this specialisation can pursue diverse career paths, of the Delhi government, dedicated to training and
such as Data Scientist, Front-end and Back-end preparing students from grades 9-12 for admission
Developer, Fashion Designer, Illustrator, Chartered to the National Defence Academy, Indian Navy,
Accountant, and Robotics Design Engineer. Army, Air Force, and other uniformed services. It is
a co-educational school with separate residential
The STEM specialisation aims to provide a cutting- facilities for girls and boys.
edge education in the science disciplines and
focuses on teaching a STEM-focused curriculum The curriculum is divided into foundational and
to help students prepare for competitive exams in specialised subjects. For grades 9 and 10, the
engineering, medicine, and pure sciences. In terms of foundational subjects include Mathematics, English,
the curriculum, the foundational subjects for classes Hindi, Science, Individual and Societies, and
9 and 10 remain the same, while the specialisation Entrepreneurial and Digital Skills. The specialised
subjects include Advanced Science and Advanced subjects focus on developing general awareness,
Mathematics. In grades 11 and 12, the foundational exam techniques, time management, exam
subjects are English, Physical Education, and preparation, psychological assessments, personality
Computer Science, while the specialised subjects development, individual and group activities, and
include Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, and mock interviews and public speaking sessions. These
Biology. This specialisation opens up a diverse specialised subjects typically occupy 2-3 hours per
range of career paths for students, including roles day.
as Software Developers, Engineers, Architects,
Doctors, Dentists, Nurses, Surgeons, Veterinarians, For grades 11 and 12, the foundational subjects
Data Analysts, Business Analysts, Data Scientists, shift to Mathematics, English, Chemistry, Physics,
Researchers, Professors, and Consultants. Some and either Computer Science, Biology, or Physical
notable achievements of this specialisation include: and Health Education. The specialised subjects
146 students from STEM-SOSEs cleared the JEE continue to cover areas such as general awareness,
Mains-2023 exam, 187 students from STEM-SOSEs exam skills, psychological assessments, personality
cleared the NEET-2023 exam, and 5 students from development, and practical sessions. However, there
STEM-SOSEs participated in IIT Delhi’s “STEM is currently only one such specialised school located
Mentorship Program for High School Girls”. in the Jharoda Kalan area of Delhi, which may limit
its accessibility for students.
The Performing and Visual Arts specialisation caters
to students interested in pursuing careers in fields The assessment practices employed in the
like music, theatre, painting, and filmmaking. It offers curriculum are carefully aligned with the specified
instruction from industry professionals, providing learning objectives and outcomes. This ensures
students access to studios, art exhibitions, and that the assessments are relevant to the expected
music studios. Competitions are held to showcase student learning. A key emphasis of the assessment
student talents. The curriculum features foundational policies is on ensuring inclusive and equitable
subjects in grades 9-10, while grades 11-12 offer access to assessment opportunities for all students,
three specialised tracks: Music, Filmmaking, and regardless of their backgrounds or abilities.
Visual Arts. The Music track covers core music and
applied music/instrument studies; the Filmmaking The assessment approach combines the use of
track includes Film and Cinematic Arts and Media formative and summative assessments, which
and Communications; and the Visual Arts track collectively facilitate the monitoring of student
focuses on Visual Arts and Creative Expressions/ progress. A fundamental principle is the provision
Analytical Thinking. Students in grades 11-12 study of timely and constructive feedback to learners,

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intended to guide them through the learning process news articles, reports, online video documentations,
and encourage them to become better performers. and other reliable sources.

The assessment strategies encompass a variety of 1. Limitations

methods, such as written examinations, practical
evaluations, projects, and presentations. These The study was limited to four of the five
diverse approaches address individual preferences specialisations offered at the Schools of Specialised
in terms of studying modes and contribute to Excellence - STEM, Humanities, HE 21, and PVA.
more comprehensive evaluations of student The fifth specialisation, AFPS, is a residential
comprehension. This enables the assessment Sainik School with its own unique constraints and
practices to be meaningful and effective. regulations, which precluded the researchers from
engaging with its students. While the researchers
Collectively, these assessment principles aim to endeavoured to obtain authentic responses from
establish a fair, transparent, and effective system students in the remaining four specialisations, the
that promotes student learning and development. demographic and attitudinal diversities among the
The structure and calendar of assessments used student population may have introduced a degree of
by DBSE are designed to ensure a comprehensive potential bias in the data collected.
approach to evaluating student learning. DBSE
utilises a multi-faceted assessment structure,
2. Qualitative Data
involving various types of assessments administered
throughout the learning period. This approach allows
2.1 Data Collection
students to be assessed in different ways at different
times, thereby enhancing the overall evaluation Sampling Method:
process. A purposive sampling approach was employed,
targeting 20 students, with 5 participants selected
from each specialisation, for semi-structured
interviews. The interviews were conducted through
3. METHODOLOGY in-person conversations after school hours, which
also yielded some anecdotal insights. The open-
The research adopted an integrated approach
ended interview questions further led to focus
combining qualitative and quantitative methods.
group discussions involving additional students,
This dual-pronged data collection and analysis
enhancing the richness and reliability of the collected
strategy enabled a comprehensive examination
data. Notably, most students felt more comfortable
of patterns in the data, enhancing its validity and
communicating in Hindi, necessitating the manual
reliability. The integration of findings from both data
translation of interview responses into English.
sources facilitated the derivation of comprehensive
conclusions. Students from grades 9 to 12 served 2.2 Data Analysis:
as key informants in the research methodology.
Three schools were covered for each specialisation The qualitative data from the interviews and focus
to maintain consistency in the data (8 in total, 4 of group discussions were transcribed and analysed
them offering dual specialisation). The research was thematically to identify key patterns, trends, and
conducted transparently, with students informed insights.
about the purpose of the study. Data was collected
after obtaining informed consent and ensuring The interview transcripts were carefully documented.
confidentiality of personal details. Some students The transcripts were manually coded and collated
were hesitant to reveal their names, so anonymity into an Excel spreadsheet, with relevant excerpts
was ensured. assigned to appropriate categories. Thematic
analysis was applied to the collected data to identify
Additionally, secondary research was undertaken to and report patterns aligned with the research topic.
gather in-depth knowledge about DBSE and SOSEs, Additionally, general feedback insights about the
involving the analysis of circulars, framework drafts, school were noted separately in the ‘Anecdotal
Insights’ section of the paper (refer sub-heading 4.3).

110 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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3. Quantitative Data 4. FINDINGS

3.1 Data Collection This section presents a thematic analysis and
The researchers collected data through a structured documentation of the data collected through
survey, where respondents were asked to indicate interviews and surveys. Here, we have broken down
their preferences based on their learning experiences the curriculum into four key themes, often referred to
in the SOSEs up to that point. The survey was as the “four pillars” of curriculum design:
designed to quantify insights and demographics
relevant to the research topic. This survey provided
an initial basis for the interviews, establishing Table 27: Themes of Curriculum Design
a structured framework for the interviewees CURRICULUM DESIGN
regarding the key themes the researchers sought
to explore further. The survey responses enabled Theme-1 Learning Outcomes
the researchers to gather preliminary information, Theme-2 Content or Subject Matter
serving as a reference point for additional
Theme-3 Teaching Methodologies
investigation during the interviews.
Theme-4 Assessments
Survey Design:
Learning outcomes are clear statements detailing
The survey comprised close-ended questions what students should know, understand, and be
using Yes/No responses and Likert-type scales of able to do upon completing a course or programme.
3 and 5 points. These questions were aligned with These predetermined, specific and measurable
the thematic areas of the curriculum, providing a outcomes align with broader educational objectives.
baseline for understanding participants’ perspectives
and experiences relevant to the research topic. The content or subject matter comprises the
Additionally, the survey included a feedback section knowledge, skills, and concepts to be taught and
that facilitated a deeper comprehension of students’ learned. It is organised logically and sequentially,
personal experiences at the Schools of Specialised is age-appropriate and relevant, and is aligned
Excellence (Appendix-II). with educational standards and objectives. Its key
components include facts, concepts, and principles,
Sampling Method: as well as skills, processes, attitudes, and values.

The researchers employed a targeted sampling Teaching methodologies are also known as
approach, utilising both purposive and snowball instructional strategies, which are the approaches
techniques, to engage a total of 120 student and techniques used to deliver the content and
respondents. This ensured that the responses facilitate learning. These strategies can be varied in
received were proportionately representative of the characteristics to accommodate different learning
four targeted classes and specialisations. The online styles and should be age-appropriate for the content
administration of the survey through a Google Forms and learners.
link enabled the researchers to reach a broader
participant pool. Assessment methods are the tools used to measure
student progress, provide feedback for improvement,
3.3.2 Data Analysis: and evaluate the curriculum’s effectiveness on
The survey data was systematically analysed by student learning outcomes. They can vary in format
referring to the automated data visualisations and approach to accommodate learners’ needs.
generated by the Google Forms platform.
Furthermore, the researchers conducted a detailed Furthermore, the learning environment and
examination of the open-ended feedback provided resources, including digital media, sports
by participants, identifying consistent patterns that equipment, washrooms, and comfortable spaces,
aligned with the insights gathered through the are also integral components of the curriculum. The
interview process. researchers analysed the improvements in learning
outcomes aligned with these themes and sought to
understand the participants’ perceptions towards
the newly proposed curriculum implemented in these
schools.

Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice 111

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1. Quantitative:

The charts above depict the percentage voting share of classes and specialisations in survey.

Figure 7: Percentage voting share of classes and specialisations

Class Share Specialisation Share

24% 21% 24% 21%

28%
27% 28%
27%

9 10 11 12 STEM Humanities HE 21 PVA

Overall Implication:
The survey results indicate a positive inclination among students regarding the curriculum at the Schools of
Specialised Excellence. A significant proportion, 31% of students, rated the curriculum at 4, while 36% rated
it at 5, collectively accounting for 67% of the total responses. Furthermore, 26% of students maintained
a neutral stance, rating the curriculum as 3. Meanwhile, a smaller percentage, totalling 7%, rated the
curriculum at 2 or 1. Other factors were also assessed, which are documented in the table format below for a
better understanding of the survey outputs:

Table 28: Survey Outputs

Factors Student Voting Pattern (Percentage Share)

Yes – (58.3%)
Whether the curriculum followed at SOSEs will help
Maybe – (35%)
improve future employability prospects.
No – (6.7%)

5- Very Satisfied (26.7%)

4- Satisfied (36.7%)
The SOSEs’ teaching methods effectively enhance
3- Neutral (25.8%)
learning outcomes.
2- Dissatisfied (9.2%)
1- Very Dissatisfied (2.5%)

5- Very Satisfied (27.5%)

4- Satisfied (33.3%)
The curriculum effectively enhances English language and
3- Neutral (30.8%)
communication skills.
2- Dissatisfied (7.5%)
1- Very Dissatisfied (2.5%)

112 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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5- Very Satisfied (35.8%)

4- Satisfied (45%)
The curriculum effectively enhances teamwork and
3- Neutral (14.2%)
collaboration abilities.
2- Dissatisfied (3.3%)
1- Very Dissatisfied (2.5%)

5- Very Satisfied (40%)

4- Satisfied (42.5%)
The curriculum effectively enhances critical thinking and
3- Neutral (12%)
problem-solving abilities.
2- Dissatisfied (3%)
1- Very Dissatisfied (2.5%)

5- Very Satisfied (20.8%)

4- Satisfied (40.8%)
An experiential learning approach at SOSEs. 3- Neutral (25%)
2- Dissatisfied (10.8%)
1- Very Dissatisfied (5%)

5- Very Satisfied (25.8%)

4- Satisfied (39.2%)
Focus and participation in extracurricular activities. 3- Neutral (24.2%)
2- Dissatisfied (9.2%)
1- Very Dissatisfied (3.3%)

5- Very Satisfied (25%)

4- Satisfied (26%)
Focus and participation in sporting activities. 3- Neutral (18%)
2- Dissatisfied (21%)
1- Very Dissatisfied (10%)

Agree- (72.5%)
The staff is skilled and well-trained, ready to implement
Neutral- (2.5%)
the new curriculum.
Disagree- (25%)

Not Challenging- (18.3%)

The level of the new curriculum differs from the one
Neutral – (32.5%)
followed at previous schools.
Challenging- (51.7%)

Yes (60.8%)
Recommend SOSE to others. Not Sure Yet (30%)
No (10.8%)

The survey provides insights into student perceptions at the Schools of Specialised Excellence. While
most students believe the curriculum will enhance their employability prospects, 35% remain undecided.
Satisfaction with teaching methods is high, with 63.4% of students satisfied or very satisfied. Notably,
60.8% of students feel the curriculum has improved their English and communication skills. Teamwork,
collaboration, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills were also highly ranked, with 82.5% of students
expressing positive feedback. The experiential learning approach is appreciated by 61.6% of students, and
65% have a positive outlook on the involvement in co-curricular activities. The sports programme, however,
elicits a more mixed response, with 51% content or very content, but 31% discontent or contemptuous. The
survey also assessed the competency and curriculum of the staff, with a high proportion agreeing that there

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114 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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are skilled and well-trained personnel to implement 2. Qualitative:

the new curriculum, although 25% disagree.
Compared to their previous schooling, 51.7% of Overall Implication:
students find the new curriculum challenging, while
32.5% are neutral and 18.3% find it not difficult at In a survey of 20 students, 18 expressed their
all. Ultimately, 60.8% would recommend SOSE to agreement that the newly implemented curriculum
others, while 30% remain unsure. The data presents at the Schools of Specialised Excellence has proven
an encouraging picture of student satisfaction with effective in improving and enhancing their skill sets.
high levels of learning and skill development, while To conduct a more comprehensive and nuanced
also highlighting areas, such as sports engagement, analysis, the researchers asked additional related
that may warrant further attention. questions, and the findings suggest the overall
effectiveness of the curriculum followed at the
The survey results indicate that a majority of SOSEs.
factors garnered positive and neutral ratings from
students, suggesting that the Schools of Specialised 2.1 Content/Subject Matter
Excellence have a curriculum with commendable
The majority of the students surveyed, 15 out of 20,
offerings. Nonetheless, the significant minority of
expressed that they found the subject matter of the
negative responses highlights areas of concern that
foundational and specialised courses offered at the
educators and administrators should investigate
Schools of Specialised Excellence to be beneficial.
further to identify opportunities for improvement.
Conversely, 3 students maintained a neutral stance,
Despite the challenging nature of the curriculum,
while 2 students conveyed dissatisfaction.
the data implies that students tend to have a
favourable perception of it, with approximately 61%
According to the subject combination schema
expressing a willingness to recommend the SOSEs
provided by the Delhi Board of School Education,
to others, which is a promising outcome. However,
students at the Schools of Specialised Excellence
the underlying reasons behind both the satisfaction
undertake a balanced programme of foundational
and dissatisfaction rates warrant deeper exploration
and specialised subjects. Table 4.3 outlines the
through personal interviews, as indicated by the
schema of subject-combinations for grades 9
researchers.
through 12.

Table 28: Subject Combinations for Grades 9,10,11,12

Subject Subject
Category Name of Subject Category Name of Subject
List List

Compulsory A English Compulsory A English

Compulsory A Hindi Compulsory B Academic Subject 1

Compulsory B Mathematics Compulsory B Academic Subject 2

For Grades 11 and 12
For Grades 9 and 10

Compulsory B Science Optional B Academic Subject 3

Individual and
Compulsory B Compulsory C Specialised Subject 1
Societies

Entrepreneurial
Compulsory C Mindset and Digital Compulsory C Specialised Subject 2
Design (EMDD)

Based on chosen
Compulsory C Optional C Specialised Subject 3
specialisation

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The subject combination schema outlines how and Societies’ to instil a sense of belonging and
the subjects offered by the Delhi Board of School global citizenship within the students. Subjects
Education at the Schools of Specialised Excellence such as EMDD aim to cultivate an entrepreneurial
are categorised. Language subjects are denoted as mindset and life skills. Furthermore, in response to
‘A’, other academic subjects as ‘B’, and specialised emerging global trends, the SOSEs offer students
subjects as ‘C’. This comprehensive list of subjects is the opportunity to learn foreign languages, such as
specified for the different grades and specialisations. German, Spanish, Japanese, or French, which have
garnered significant student interest.
The majority of students indicated a preference
for the specialised subjects over the foundational The interviews revealed that students expressed a
ones, citing the freshness and relevance of the high degree of satisfaction with the co-curricular
subject matter. Students expressed that the content activities offered at the Schools of Specialised
across all subjects incorporates elements that Excellence. They reported that the schools regularly
cultivate strong human values, whether through organise competitions which provide fair and equal
chapters, concepts, or competencies. At the Schools opportunities for student participation. These
of Specialised Excellence, students primarily refer competitive and co-curricular activities were seen
to NCERT textbooks for foundational subjects, as beneficial in enhancing the students’ confidence,
but they are not required to cover the textbooks communication skills, and ability to express and
comprehensively. Instead, they are provided with articulate themselves more effectively. Furthermore,
supplementary reading materials, known as ‘student the students’ involvement in school-level, zonal-
companions’, in the form of PDFs. Students can level, and state-level competitions was viewed as
access these materials on screens or take printouts broadening their perspectives and exposure to the
for convenience. However, the issue of printing these wider world.
companions was raised, as it is not always feasible
and can pose a financial burden on parents. The study findings indicate that sports and games
constitute a vital component of the curriculum at
The curriculum at SOSEs follows a flexible approach, the Schools of Specialised Excellence. Students
rather than a rigid syllabus. For instance, in the case expressed a high level of satisfaction with their
of internal assessments for English, the exam may engagement in both indoor and outdoor sporting
focus on aspects such as grammar, vocabulary, or activities. They actively participate in a range of
comprehension from the specified units, rather than competitive events, including football, volleyball,
requiring students to reproduce in-text question and various other disciplines, at the school and
answers or word meanings. While this flexibility is zonal levels. However, the research revealed certain
appreciated, it can sometimes lead to challenges infrastructure-related challenges. Three out of the
in the timely completion of the syllabus for term- eight institutions visited lacked a dedicated sports
end assessments, which is seen as a drawback playground, while one school faced a shortage of
by students, as it increases the workload for both adequate sports equipment. These infrastructure
teachers and students. deficits were predominantly observed in schools that
were previously regular government institutions and
The specialised subjects are allocated 2-3 hours have since been converted into SOSEs. Students
of daily instruction, which is primarily based on an highlighted the need for infrastructure upgrades as a
experiential learning approach. Students in STEM significant issue during the interviews. Additionally,
specialisations regularly visit laboratories to conduct some students reported receiving only one sports
experiments, while those in other specialisations period per week, a concern they wished to address
engage in activities in specially curated spaces, such by advocating for increased time allocation.
as auditoriums or common halls, relevant to their Considering the growing popularity of sports and
respective fields of study. games, the management of SOSEs should re-
evaluate and enhance their approach to this domain.
The curriculum at the Schools of Specialised
Excellence is designed to foster a diverse range 2.2 Teaching Methodologies
of academic and non-academic competencies, According to the findings, the majority of students,
including analytical, writing, verbal, communication, comprising 17 out of 20 respondents, agreed that
decision-making, collaborative, and creative thinking the teaching methodologies employed at the Schools
skills, as well as the development of moral values. of Specialised Excellence are effective in improving
One of the compulsory subjects, previously known their learning outcomes.
as ‘Social Science’, has been renamed ‘Individual

116 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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Typically, the conventional approach observed involves the teacher delivering a lesson by reading out and
explaining a chapter, and then assigning students to complete the in-text questions as homework. This
traditional, teacher-centric lecture method has been found to contribute to a decline in students’ long-term
interest in the subject and have a limited impact on their learning. In contrast, the Schools of Specialised
Excellence have moved away from this traditional approach and have adopted more innovative teaching
methods, which have been observed to increase students’ engagement and improve their conceptual
understanding of the subject matter. The various teaching approaches utilised are illustrated in the following
smart charts:

Lecture - Method

Teacher-Centric Demonstration - Method

Laboratory - Method
Miscellaneous Student-Centric
Project/Assignment Based Method

Types of
Teaching Heuristic - Method
Methodologies
Seminar/Workshop Method
Deductive
Method Use of ICT Field-Trip Method

Inquiry-Based Method
Inductive
Method
Programmed Instructions Method

Scaffolding

The teaching practices at the Schools of Specialised with teachers of foundational subjects occasionally
Excellence demonstrate a comprehensive utilisation having fewer opportunities to utilise this technology
of technology and innovative pedagogical compared to those teaching specialised subjects.
approaches. Teachers make extensive use of smart This issue can be addressed through the effective
screens and 3D visualisation videos to enhance management of screen-sharing time and space.
the clarity of concepts presented, which research
has shown can contribute to improved long-term The SOSEs also maintain a flexible seating
retention of the subject matter. Additionally, a arrangement, allowing students to work in small
diverse range of engaging instructional methods, groups of 4-6 members. This approach encourages
such as role-play, brainstorming sessions, creative teamwork, social interaction, and a sense of comfort
writing, group discussions, peer interviews, and in the classroom environment. Furthermore, the
presentations, are regularly implemented. These schools have adopted a bilingual approach to
activities are employed across both foundational and language and communication, which provides a
specialised subjects, and the majority of students more supportive setting for students to express
have expressed their appreciation for the teaching themselves, rather than rigidly insisting on English.
methodologies used in all areas of the curriculum. Students are also exposed to new concepts in
language and literature and are encouraged to
However, it has been noted that there may be some appreciate a diverse range of literary works.
imbalance in the access to smart screen resources,

Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice 117

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Teachers at SOSEs encourage students to speak 2.3 Assessments

during school assemblies, which boosts their
confidence. Teachers often use the Scaffolding The term “assessment” is derived from the Latin
method to guide students better when they are verb ‘assidere,’ meaning ‘to sit with.’ This etymology
performing a new activity or learning new concepts. suggests that assessments should be a collaborative
They employ both Inductive and Deductive teaching process undertaken with and for students, rather
methods, as appropriate for specific subjects and than something imposed upon them. However, it is
concepts. Teachers also provide remedial classes for often observed that children’s academic performance
average and weak students, which start after school is evaluated primarily and exclusively based on the
at 2pm and end at 3pm. This additional support marks or grades they obtain in examinations. This
helps these students. During interviews, students approach conditions the child’s mindset to focus on
expressed that teachers are very supportive and attaining marks, rather than developing genuine
encouraging. Teachers recognise when a student is knowledge. Such an assessment methodology is
feeling low and try to provide emotional support in a significant factor that promotes rote learning,
such situations. shaping a child’s attitude towards learning for an
extended period. By the time the child recognises the
Students at SOSEs revealed that their teachers are limitations of this method in addressing real-world
aptly skilled in deploying the new curriculum, and issues, a considerable amount of valuable time has
they are also sent to other countries for attending already passed. The DBSE identified this issue and
international training sessions and workshops. attempted to resolve it by referring to assessment
Furthermore, knowledge partners sometimes send structures employed in global standards. The figure
their staff as guest teachers to SOSEs to provide below illustrates the number of OECD countries
instruction in particular subject areas. However, adopting different competencies in their curricula for
students occasionally face difficulties in studying the new generation of learners.
certain concepts, as the curriculum is new and
little guidance is available outside the school.
Consequently, they have requested a mandatory
doubt-clearing session to address their queries.

Figure 8: Number of Countries/jurisdictions reporting this competency

Number of countries/jurisdictions reporting this competency

25
20
15
10
5
0
Literacy
Creative and
aesthetic thinkiing

Numberacy
ICT Literacy
Digital Literacy
Social/civic and
global competency

Personal capacity
development

Physical
health literacy
co-operation/
collaboration

Literacy for substainable

development
Problem solving
Communication
Critical thinking

Information
Data Literacy
Moral development
and ethical judgement

Entrepreneurship and
career-focused compentencies
Learning to lean

Source: OECD

118 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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Following a comprehensive examination and The levels are labelled as follows:

analysis of the competencies embraced by diverse
educational systems, the DBSE incorporated Level-1 Emerging
the ensuing competencies into its assessment
Level-2 Developing
techniques:
Level-3 Proficient
1. Critical thinking and problem-solving
Level-4 Exemplary
2. Creative thinking
3. Collaboration, communication and social and
citizenship competence The vocabulary employed to denote different
4. Language literacy and levels of achievement is noteworthy. Many have
encountered report cards or notebooks bearing
5. Numeracy labels such as “poor”, “very poor performance”,
“fair”, “good”, “very good”, or “excellent” - a
The assessment approach adopted by the lexicon that can appear demoralising for a child,
SOSEs aligns with the framework established potentially fostering a culture of comparison and
by the DBSE’s, prioritising a competence-based even engendering emotions like envy. In contrast,
evaluation over a traditional marks or grade-based the DBSE’s approach utilises more encouraging
system. These broad competencies are further terminology, with “emerging” denoting the first
subdivided into distinct criteria to facilitate a more level. This mindful choice of vocabulary ensures
comprehensive assessment of students’ learning that children do not feel diminished when their
outcomes. The DBSE has also delineated these performance does not match that of their peers.
criteria across four different levels, which serve as For a more detailed and nuanced understanding of
indicators of attainment. This approach is premised the DBSE’s grade assignment criteria, refer to their
on the belief that by breaking down each criterion Assessment Framework Draft.
into a detailed, fine-grained description of the
various levels, the DBSE can provide students with Based on the perspectives and opinions expressed
more precise and constructive feedback to guide by students during personal interviews, it can
their ongoing development and improvement. be concluded that the board conceptualises
assessments as an integral component of the
learning process, rather than a distinct activity solely
focused on evaluating and categorising students
» Foundational based on the marks or grades they obtain. Students
Subject
» Specialised indicate a positive perception of the assessment
approaches employed in the Schools of Specialised
Excellence, as these offer techniques that enable
» Critical Thinking and them to monitor their own progress, rather than
Problem Solving
Subject relying entirely on the teacher’s evaluation. During
» Creative Thinking
classroom activities, students engage in a variety
» Collaboration,
Communication, Social and
of tasks, including peer-assessment exercises,
Citizenship Competence tests, quizzes, on-the-spot writing, extempore
» Language Literacy presentations, group or individual presentations,
» Numeracy and other assessments. These assessments are
evaluated against defined criteria and attainment
levels, with an equal emphasis on written and
» A -Knowing and verbal skills. Students specifically highlighted their
Criteria Understanding
appreciation for the peer-assessment activities, such
» B - Application
as conducting interviews, participating in role-play,
» C - Higher Order
Thinking Skills and presenting ideas in teams, which they found to
» D - Observation and be the most beneficial.
Investigation
While most schools rely on traditional assessment
Levels
methods like written assignments, regular
homework, and holiday homework, the Schools
of Specialised Excellence adopt a more holistic

Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice 119

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approach that aligns with the vision of the National Aligned with international best practices, the board
Education Policy 2020. Students revealed that has implemented a comprehensive assessment
in teamwork activities, they are given engaging framework wherein students undergo evaluation
tasks with a central issue to resolve, and they work through diverse modalities and at multiple
together to provide solutions. For these teamwork junctures, without disproportionately increasing
tasks, students are assessed individually, even if the workload for teachers or students. The regular,
the team’s overall performance was not entirely multi-phased assessment process is intended to
successful. This ensures that individual efforts are foster a reflective mindset among learners. The
recognised. These factors encourage students at schematic representation below outlines the DBSE’s
SOSEs to strive for excellence. assessment timelines:

Figure 9:

Formative Summative
Classroom
Assessment Readiness Assessment End of Term
Aptitude Test Formative
as per Assessment (Internal Assessment
Assessment
Unit Plan Assessment)

Improvement in
Purpose

Feedback for Preparedness Feedback to Assessment of DBSE

Selection for the learning
improvement to for term-end teacher/schools learning goals/ criteria
ASOSE process for
students assessment on unit learning achievement
teachers (contributes towards (contributes towards
final grades) final grades)
Frequency

Done at the Done as per Done as per Done Done as per Done at the
beginning of student unit plan half-yearly unit plan end of term
the course requirement

Teacher Led/ Teacher Led/

Aptitude Test Teacher Led Board Led
Board Supplied Board Supplied

Source: Assessment Framework Draft version_280622_F PDF (www.edudel.nic.in)

Students preparing for high-stakes competitive frequency and suggested timeline for preparatory
examinations, including NEET, JEE, and CUET, are assessments, formative assessments, and
evaluated separately and on a regular basis through summative term-end assessments conducted
monthly mock tests. Their academic progress is throughout the academic year, along with the
closely monitored, and skilled professionals provide respective weightage assigned in reporting student
them with ongoing, constructive feedback. achievement. The Formative Assessments account
for 20% of the total weightage, while the Term-end
An academic year at DBSE comprises two Assessments contribute 80% to the overall score.
semesters. The diagram below outlines the

120 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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Figure 10:

Apr May Jun

Summer Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar
Begning of

assessment

assessment
Term- Term-

Readiness
Break

Readiness
Session

end 1 end 2

Contribution Internal assesment - IA Contribution

on towards (Unit-end assessments on towards
Internal assesment - IA (Unit-end assessments final
final
Contribution towards final grades - 10% grades-40% Contribution towards grades-40%
final grades - 10%

Source: Assessment Framework Draft version_280622_F PDF (www.edudel.nic.in)

The assessment approaches adopted by the SOSEs environment for learners is of paramount
are not rigid; rather, they follow an integrated and importance. According to the survey data, a majority
flexible methodology. There are multiple ways to of students (16 out of 20) agreed that the SOSEs
assess students’ learning. A task used for internal have successfully created a positive learning
assessment may be evaluated against a single environment, offering ample space and adequate
criterion or multiple criteria, with distinct score resources to support their educational needs. The
points assigned to each. The score points a student maintenance of a favourable student-to-teacher
earns for a particular criterion, across different ratio, set at 30:1, ensures that classes are not
tasks, are then amalgamated and presented overcrowded, thereby enhancing the overall quality
as a holistic evaluation reference point. For of the learning experience. The newly constructed
written examinations, the DBSE employs diverse SOSE buildings feature well-ventilated designs
assessment methods, which are subsequently with large windows, facilitating proper airflow.
implemented by the SOSEs. These may include These modern facilities also offer high-quality
task-wise evaluation, whole script evaluation, or infrastructure, including laboratories, smart screens,
the assessment of script sections by individual libraries, and washrooms. However, some of the
examiners. The evaluation process is carried out by older SOSE buildings require maintenance and
appropriately qualified experts who possess the repairs, which led a minority of students (4 out of 20)
requisite language proficiency to review student to express negative perceptions about the school’s
scripts, adequate technological skills, and access to physical environment.
the necessary resources for on-screen assessment,
where applicable. Students’ testimonies indicate that The SOSEs have implemented a gender-neutral
teachers and evaluators at the SOSEs consistently uniform policy, with students of all genders wearing
strive to maintain an unbiased stance while the same standardised attire of shirts and pants.
assessing students against the established criteria, Additionally, the interviewed students unanimously
thereby fostering a positive learning environment attested to the fairness and objectivity demonstrated
and a healthy competitive spirit within the schools. by the teachers in their opinions, perceptions, and
evaluations. This is a significant factor that fosters
2.4 Additional (Learning Environment) a positive and supportive environment, enabling
learners to express themselves freely without any
The school’s physical environment is a crucial apprehension.
determinant in shaping students’ attitudes and
experiences. Providing a healthy and comfortable

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5. RECOMMENDATIONS 6. CONCLUSION AND WAY

The survey and interview data suggest that
FORWARD
approximately half of the students find the
The initiative shows promising results in its early
curriculum of these schools to be somewhat
stages of implementation. The survey data indicates
challenging. Consequently, there is a need to
that a majority of students perceive the curriculum
ensure the curriculum remains engaging, despite its
positively, particularly in its ability to enhance
demanding nature. This would help students adapt
employability and develop critical skills such as
to the curriculum more gradually and comfortably.
teamwork, collaboration, and problem-solving.
Furthermore, students reported difficulties stemming
The schools’ focus on experiential learning and
from the heavy reliance on online content and
co-curricular activities is well-received by most
PDFs, indicating that providing physical textbooks
students. However, there are areas that require
could alleviate this issue. While the diverse
attention, such as sports engagement and the
supplementary materials aid students in acquiring
varying perceptions of curriculum difficulty.
additional knowledge, the DBSE should also develop
comprehensive booklets. Given the mixed responses
As these schools of specialized excellence continue
regarding sports activities, the government should
to evolve, the government of Delhi should consider
invest in enhancing sports facilities and programmes
the recommendations outlined in this report to
to promote higher student satisfaction. A potential
further refine and strengthen the program.
solution could be introducing a dedicated sports
specialisation where athletically inclined students
Expanding the implementation of this model to other
receive free training during school hours. As these
schools and states nationwide could potentially
schools are relatively new to the educational
enhance the opportunities for students nationwide.
landscape, infrastructure is a critical factor. Some
The recommendations provided, such as enhancing
of the schools were upgraded from pre-existing
sports facilities, maintaining infrastructure, and
institutions, so the government should focus on
improving access to physical textbooks, offer
maintaining and repairing these buildings to meet
a roadmap for the continued refinement and
the expectations of SOSE students. Organising
expansion of this curriculum model. By addressing
timely and effective career counselling sessions is
the areas identified for improvement, the Schools
equally important to help students clearly envision
of Specialized Excellence can further strengthen
their respective career pathways, thereby enabling
their position as centers of academic excellence,
them to make informed decisions about their higher
empowering students across the country.
education pursuits.

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REFERENCES
1. Tripathi, S., & Koshi, A. (2022, May 24). Supporting the
project management unit of the Delhi Board of School
Education. ACER Discover. https://www.acer.org/in/
discover/article/supporting-the-project-management-
unit-of-the-delhi-board-of-school-education
2. Australian Council for Educational Research. (2022).
Supporting the project management unit of the Delhi
Board of School Education. Retrieved from https://
www.acer.org/in/discover/article/supporting-the-
project-management-unit-of-the-delhi-board-of-
school-education
3. Boston Consulting Group. (2020). School education
reforms in Delhi (2015-2020). Delhi Commission for
the Protection of Child Rights. https://web-assets.bcg.
com/1d/3e/9dceac2d4243a4d6a8d3292e3172/school-
education-reforms-in-delhi-2015-2020.pdf
4. Choudhary, S. (2023). Examining the impact of
curriculum reforms on student learning outcomes.
International Journal of Research Publication and
Reviews, 4 (12), 5052-5055. https://www.ijrpr.com
5. Delhi Board of School Education. (2023). Curriculum
policy 2023-24: Secondary and senior secondary
school curriculum (Draft)
6. Directorate of Education (2018, September 1). 2015
and beyond Delhi Education Revolution
7. Muralidharan, K. (2019, January 1). Reforming the
Indian School Education System

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124 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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CHAPTER

7
Exploring the Impact of
School Autonomy on
Educational Performance

Siddhant Shetty | Aditi Thakur

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ABSTRACT promise for educational improvement, it must be

implemented selectively and combined with effective
support and accountability measures to ensure
This paper explores the impact of granting
equitable and high-quality outcomes across the
autonomy to schools, focusing on financial,
system.
administrative, and curricular autonomy, and its
influence on educational outcomes. Using qualitative
interviews with stakeholders from various schools
in Delhi, the study investigates how autonomy 1. INTRODUCTION
affects school performance, student achievement,
and teacher satisfaction. The paper highlights the In today’s rapidly evolving educational landscape,
successes of decentralized models like the Namma granting schools greater independence is becoming
Shale initiative, while also addressing the challenges increasingly popular worldwide (UNESCO 2024).
related to equitable resource distribution. The Governments and education authorities have been
findings suggest that while autonomy allows schools empowering schools with enhanced decision-
to be more responsive and innovative, it must be making authority, allowing them more control over
balanced with appropriate oversight to prevent financial resources and teacher hiring (LSE Business
inequities. The results indicate that when coupled Review, 2024). In India, where challenges such as
with strong leadership, autonomy can enhance resource disparities and regional differences are
accountability and student performance, but without prominent, autonomy offers a potential solution to
careful management, it risks widening the education improving educational outcomes. School autonomy
quality gap. offers a promising solution, where the education
system faces challenges such as resource scarcity,
Keywords: School Autonomy; Educational regional disparities, and a diverse student population
Outcomes; Resource Allocation; Pedagogic Flexibility; (India’s School Education Is in Grave Crisis, The
Financial Management; Teacher Recruitment Diplomat, 2022). By giving individual schools more
control over their decisions, the Government of India
can make its schools more responsive, innovative,
KEY FINDINGS and effective. This approach aims to not only
improve educational outcomes but also cater to local
needs, creating an environment where students,
• Schools with more autonomy can tailor their
teachers, and communities can thrive. The benefits
decisions to local needs, leading to better
of school autonomy in India extend beyond better
resource use and student engagement, as seen
administration; it can foster greater accountability,
in the Namma Shale program.
more efficient resource utilisation, and a more
personalised educational experience for every
• Autonomy could increase the gap between well-
child. School autonomy refers to giving schools the
funded urban schools and under-resourced rural
freedom to make important decisions independently,
schools, highlighting the need for fair support
without relying solely on central authorities.
and oversight to prevent disparities.

In recent years, several Indian states have taken

• Private schools benefit from autonomy in
steps to give schools more independence to improve
teaching methods, allowing teachers to
education and meet local needs better. For example,
adapt to student needs. Government schools
Karnataka launched the Namma Shale initiative,
face challenges balancing innovation and
allowing schools to manage their budgets and
maintaining standards.
make decisions, which has led to better resource
use and more community involvement (Ramavath &
• Private school owners want financial autonomy
Ravindraprakash, 2011). The Namma Shale program
to improve management, but government
was implemented in four regions of the state and,
administrators warn of mismanagement and
ever since then, has been showing fruitful and
unequal resources without proper oversight.
positive results in terms of learning outcomes and
effective administration. It stressed the importance
Schools with hiring autonomy can maintain a more
of community engagement and the role the entire
stable and skilled teaching staff, but government-
community plays along with the stakeholders of
regulated schools face constraints leading to skill
schools in effectively running schools.
mismatches and inefficiencies.
The paper concludes that while autonomy holds

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The Government of Delhi has introduced School corruption or favouritism. Ensuring that all schools
Management Committees (SMCs) comprising are adequately supported and empowered through
parents, teachers, and local officials to oversee appropriate training and capacity-building measures
school operations, thereby enhancing accountability is crucial to mitigate these adverse consequences.
and stakeholder engagement. These initiatives
have yielded positive outcomes, including improved The National Knowledge Commission’s
student performance, elevated teacher motivation, characterisation of the Indian education sector’s
and enhanced school facilities (Rani, 2022). governance structure as ‘over-regulated and
Furthermore, the National Knowledge Commission under-governed’ highlights the need for a more
of India (2009) has advocated for the promotion balanced approach (NKC, 2006). This research
of decentralisation and local autonomy in school aims to evaluate whether granting schools
management. This would enable greater flexibility greater autonomy can, in fact, improve student
in fund allocation, thereby enhancing quality learning outcomes. The study seeks to ascertain
and accountability. Additionally, the Commission whether schools with increased independence
has emphasised the need to upgrade school from centralised management are able to produce
infrastructure and revamp the school inspection superior academic results by examining the impact
process, granting a more significant role to local of enhanced decision-making authority in areas such
stakeholders. as curriculum design, instructional methods, and
resource allocation. By assessing a range of student
Traditionally, central control over India’s education achievement and engagement metrics across
system has led to bureaucratic inefficiencies and schools with varying degrees of autonomy, the study
a standardised approach (Nandamuri and Rao, endeavours to provide insights that can inform policy
2012). Recently, there has been a shift toward decisions and contribute to the development of more
giving schools more autonomy to address these effective instructional practices.
challenges. This involves managing their budgets,
hiring and training staff, designing curricula, and Defining School Autonomy
deciding on teaching methods (Nandamuri and Rao,
2012). Schools can customise their programs to Autonomy according to Cambridge dictionary means
better serve their students and communities, adapt - the right of an organization, country, or region to
quickly to changes, and introduce new educational be independent and govern itself or the ability to
practices (Khaparde, Srivastava, and Meganathan, make your own decisions without being controlled
2005). It also allows for greater involvement from by anyone else. Now that one talks about school
local stakeholders, such as parents and community autonomy, it refers to the degree of freedom a school
members, in school governance. In essence, has/ can have in making decisions without needing
autonomy transfers decision-making power from approval from higher authorities. This study looks
higher authorities to individual schools, enabling at the definition of school autonomy from three
them to function more effectively and responsively. different dimensions/perspectives keeping in mind
This approach considers a government-established three key areas: Financial autonomy, Administrative
superstructure that grants limited autonomy rather autonomy, and Curriculum and Assessment
than complete freedom, potentially causing chaos autonomy.
within schools.
Financial autonomy grants schools’ control
While the devolution of autonomy to schools in India over their budgets, including the allocation and
holds significant potential, it also presents several expenditure of funds. This allows them to prioritize
challenges requiring careful consideration. Not all spending based on their specific needs and
educational institutions may possess the requisite goals. Additionally, schools may have the ability
resources or expertise to manage themselves to generate supplementary resources through
effectively, potentially leading to suboptimal fundraising or partnerships, further enhancing
decision-making and operational mismanagement. their financial flexibility and capacity to cater to
Furthermore, there is a risk of exacerbating their unique circumstances. With this financial
existing disparities between well-resourced urban independence, schools can make informed decisions
schools and their under-funded rural counterparts, about resource utilization, tailoring expenditure
thereby creating inequities in educational quality. to address their most pressing requirements and
Additionally, without robust oversight mechanisms, emerging priorities more effectively.
issues of accountability and transparency could
arise, potentially giving rise to concerns around

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Administrative autonomy grants schools the allocation, they can cultivate learning environments
freedom to manage their internal operations with that more effectively support student academic
greater independence. This includes the power to achievement. International examples, such as the
make decisions regarding the hiring, training, and acclaimed education system of Finland, provide
organisation of staff, as well as the development empirical evidence suggesting that school autonomy
of school policies and the overall structural can indeed contribute to enhanced educational
framework of the institution. With this enhanced performance (Sahlberg, 2015).
administrative autonomy, schools can tailor the
learning environment to better suit their unique Despite the increased interest in school autonomy
contexts, needs, and objectives. This allows them to in India, especially in Delhi, there is limited research
cultivate an educational setting that is responsive to on how it affects educational outcomes. Most
the specific requirements and characteristics of their studies have focused on broader education reforms
student population and the local community they without examining the specific impact of school-level
serve. autonomy (Muralidharan and Sundaraman, 2011).
This research aims to address this gap, providing
Curriculum and Assessment autonomy grants evidence that could inform future education policies
schools the freedom and flexibility to design and and practices. The findings will be particularly
implement their own customised educational relevant for policymakers in Delhi and across India
programs, choose teaching methods and as they seek ways to improve education quality.
instructional approaches that best cater to the Understanding the influence of school autonomy on
unique learning needs, abilities and preferences of educational outcomes could offer valuable insights
their student population, and establish assessment to drive more effective reforms, benefiting students
practices that are closely aligned with the specific not only in Delhi but potentially across India.
educational objectives and desired learning
outcomes of the institution. This level of autonomy
over the curriculum, teaching strategies, and
evaluation methods empowers schools to move
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
beyond a one-size-fits-all approach and instead
The existing body of literature on the topic of school
cultivate a learning environment that is tailored to
autonomy and its impact on educational outcomes
the unique characteristics, requirements and goals
highlights several key perspectives.
of their students and the local community they
serve. With this autonomy, schools can develop
The existing research suggests that financial
educational experiences that are more engaging,
autonomy can facilitate more efficient resource
effective and relevant, allowing them to better
utilisation and enhance school infrastructure (Goyal,
support the academic and personal growth of their
2009). Similarly, autonomy in curriculum design is
students.
associated with increased student engagement
and academic performance (Anand & Sharma,
Rationale of the Study 2015). Schools granted administrative autonomy
often report higher teacher motivation and
This study seeks to examine whether empowering accountability (Rani & Sharma, 2017), as educators
schools with greater decision-making autonomy can tailor instructional methods to better meet
can contribute to enhanced educational outcomes, student needs. This flexibility is linked to innovative
with a particular focus on the context of Delhi, teaching practices and improved learning outcomes
India. The Indian capital has been at the forefront (Chaudhary, 2018). Studies indicate that autonomy
of educational reform, implementing initiatives can enhance student achievement, particularly in
such as the “Chunauti” program and establishing schools with strong and capable leadership (Kingdon
School Management Committees (Government and Banerji, 2009). Greater autonomy also fosters a
of NCT of Delhi, 2016). These reforms reflect a culture of accountability among school leaders and
broader trend towards decentralisation, where staff (Narayan, 2016), although effective autonomy
local schools are granted increased control over requires skilled management, which may be lacking
decision-making processes, enabling them to in some institutions (Sahni, 2013). There is a risk
better address the specific needs of their student that autonomy could exacerbate disparities between
populations. The premise underpinning school well-resourced and under-resourced schools (Rao,
autonomy is that when institutions are afforded the 2014). Crucially, both school administration and
freedom to make decisions regarding curriculum teachers must have the incentive to drive change
design, instructional approaches, and resource even after the granting of autonomy; without

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such motivation, the purpose of autonomy may be autonomy. The academic literature widely recognises
undermined. that school organisation, management, and the
overall school ethos play crucial roles in promoting
Nandamuri and Rao (2012) conducted a school effectiveness (Mortimore, 1998; Thrupp,
comparative study on the condition of school 1999).
autonomy in countries like the USA, UK, Sweden,
Canada, and the Netherlands, comparing it to Hanushek’s (1996) research suggests that if
that of India. Boards or committees, comprising decentralisation is not explicitly aimed at improving
teachers, headmasters, community members, educational performance, it may encourage
parents, and sometimes former students from local schools to prioritise their own distinct objectives
schools, now take on decisions previously made over enhancing student outcomes, potentially
by ministries or other school authorities. These exacerbating rather than improving the quality
groups are directly involved in decisions related to of education. Similarly, Townsend’s (1996)
academic, administrative, and financial matters. It work indicates that less advantaged schools
concludes by saying that there is a strong demand encountered difficulties in benefiting from school-
for autonomy in school management, particularly in based management approaches due to their
private, unaided schools, which already enjoy some limited capacity to generate additional funding.
independence. Policymakers should decentralise Furthermore, Malen et al. (1990) observed that
authority to strengthen public schools and help them school-based management does not typically result
compete with private institutions. in substantial changes or innovations within the core
instructional aspects of schools, noting that the more
A study of high-performing schools in seven closely an activity is tied to a school’s “instructional
Latin American countries found their success was core”, the less impact school-based management
mainly due to excellent school management and appears to have on it.
effective teaching practices. The study also showed
these schools’ success was strongly linked to their
autonomy, which matched administrative trends
towards more decentralised management and
3. METHODOLOGY
teaching approaches (LLECE, 2002).
This study employed a qualitative research
design, utilizing semi-structured interviews as the
According to the Ramamurti Committee Report of
primary data collection method. This approach
1990, the administration of education should involve
facilitated a deep exploration of the perceptions
more non-governmental agencies, thereby reducing
and experiences of key stakeholders, including
government control. If voluntary efforts are lacking,
educators, administrators, and policymakers,
the government should establish autonomous
involved in the educational sector. The researchers
organisations to manage educational institutions
meticulously designed the interview questions to
instead of direct oversight. The report also
investigate various aspects of school autonomy
recommended transferring existing government-
and gain insights into its perceived influence on
run institutions to these autonomous bodies (GOI,
educational outcomes. Through purposive sampling,
1990). Furthermore, a 2005 (Singh, 2006), study by
the study engaged with school owners and heads,
the Centre for Civil Society, New Delhi, emphasised
both from private and government institutions, with
that the major issue lay not in the level of financial
varying degrees of autonomy. This ensured that a
allocations, but rather in organisational inefficiencies,
diverse range of perspectives were captured and
lack of accountability and misuse of funds.
considered in the analysis. The data gathered from
these interviews was then subjected to thematic
Karpade, Ashok, and Meghanathan’s in-depth
analysis, focusing on identifying recurring themes
study (2004) on successful school management in
and patterns related to how autonomy shapes
India, focusing on Navodaya Vidyalayas, discovered
educational practices, student engagement, and
that these schools had effectively implemented
academic achievement. By adopting this qualitative
systematic and participatory management practices.
approach, the study contributes to a nuanced
The study highlighted that managers were granted
understanding that can inform educational policies
autonomy, along with the responsibility for ensuring
and practices aimed at enhancing educational
task completion. Additionally, research by Terry
outcomes through increased school autonomy
and Chubb (1990) found that private schools often
outperform public schools primarily due to their
organisational structure, which benefits from greater

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4. FINDINGS individual learning needs. Consequently, the capacity

to adapt teaching methods and curricula to address
these diverse needs can be crucial for fostering
Stakeholders’ viewpoint student engagement and academic success.
Pedagogical autonomy allows educators in these
The interviewed stakeholders, representing diverse settings to innovate and create customized learning
roles within the education sector, expressed a experiences that resonate more deeply with their
range of perspectives on school autonomy. The students, potentially leading to improved learning
discussion primarily involved private school owners outcomes.
and administrators, particularly from low-budget
institutions. They highlighted how autonomy enables Private school owners and administrators often
them to make swift, context-specific decisions, which see pedagogic autonomy as a way to try new
is crucial for effectively managing their schools teaching methods. Without strict national or regional
and responding to unique challenges. One aspect standards, they can experiment with different
they unanimously agreed upon was the need to approaches, incorporate local culture, and respond
transform educational institutions into ‘for-profit’ quickly to their students’ needs. This flexibility can be
entities. This, they believed, would encourage private very useful where traditional education models are
players to enter the market, fostering competition not effective or where the community’s needs differ
and providing better education, as investors would from broader policies.
have the incentive to invest in the sector, ultimately
leading to improved facilities and outcomes. In Government school principals and teachers
contrast, principals and teachers from government tend to be more cautious regarding pedagogical
schools shared insights centred on the necessity autonomy. Their primary concern is maintaining
for equitable access to resources. Their concerns consistent educational standards across their school
regarding increased autonomy extended beyond network. Operating within a structured framework
financial considerations, focusing on the potential of established curriculum goals and standardised
risks it could pose to school governance and assessments, these educators view pedagogical
educational equity, especially if not implemented autonomy as requiring a balanced approach.
with appropriate safeguards. While they acknowledge the potential benefits
of flexibility in teaching methods and curricula
Pedagogic Practices to cater to diverse student needs, they express
apprehension that unrestrained autonomy could
In the field of education, the notion of pedagogical lead to significant variations in educational quality,
autonomy, defined as the freedom for educators to potentially disadvantaging learners in schools with
design and implement their teaching methods and less effective or inconsistent teaching practices.
curricula, has emerged as a contentious issue among
various stakeholders. The perspectives on this The central fear is that increased pedagogical
autonomy are significantly shaped by the contextual autonomy without sufficient guidelines and oversight
factors in which different educational professionals may result in divergent educational experiences,
operate, reflecting both their unique challenges and undermining the objective of providing a uniform
aspirations. standard of education. For instance, if one school
adopts an innovative teaching approach while
Administrators and owners of low-budget private another relies on more traditional methods, the
schools and other private institutions often advocate disparity in student outcomes could become
vigorously for pedagogical autonomy. For these pronounced, resulting in an inequitable educational
stakeholders, the ability to tailor educational landscape.
approaches to the specific needs of their students
is not merely a matter of preference, but a necessity Both the private and government school
driven by the distinct constraints and opportunities perspectives highlight the need for a balanced
inherent to their settings. approach to pedagogical autonomy. The flexibility to
adapt teaching and curricula can foster innovation
Many low-budget private schools contend with and address specific student needs, but it must be
limited resources and highly diverse student tempered by measures that ensure educational
populations. These schools frequently serve standards are upheld and quality remains consistent
communities with varying levels of prior educational across different school settings.
experience, socioeconomic backgrounds, and

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The flexibility for educators to adapt teaching The perspectives of government schools on
methods and approaches can positively impact financial autonomy vary based on their needs and
student achievement by enabling them to cater capabilities. Some favour autonomy as it enables
to the diverse needs, abilities, backgrounds, and them to address local challenges and prioritise
learning styles of their students. This customisation essential needs, leading to better outcomes. But
of instructional practices can lead to more others are hesitant to embrace autonomy due
personalised and effective learning experiences. to concerns about their ability to manage funds
However, unrestricted pedagogical autonomy effectively. Without proper financial expertise, there
may pose challenges, as the absence of a guiding is a risk of mismanagement, making these schools
framework could result in inconsistent standards prefer the stability of centralized funding, where
and expectations, potentially affecting student resources are managed by higher authorities to
performance and the equity of educational ensure consistent support.
outcomes. To address this, a balanced approach to
pedagogical autonomy, incorporating both flexibility The perspectives on incorporating profit motives
and moderation, is recommended. Moderation in the education sector are diverse. Proprietors
involves establishing clear guidelines, structures, of low-budget private schools acknowledge the
and mechanisms, such as regular assessments, potential for utilising financial surpluses to enhance
collaborative planning among educators, and educational quality and promote innovation.
targeted teacher training, to ensure that teaching However, they also recognise the risk that increased
methods remain aligned with broader educational tuition fees could restrict access for economically
goals while still allowing for individualised disadvantaged students. Conversely, administrators
adjustments to meet the unique needs of each from mainstream government schools express
classroom. By judiciously combining autonomy and caution, warning that a for-profit approach could
moderation, schools can maintain high teaching exacerbate existing educational inequities within
standards and consistency while accommodating the Indian context. These administrators advocate
the diverse requirements of their student for a balanced approach that combines financial
populations, thereby fostering success and fairness autonomy with robust safeguards to ensure that
in the educational experience education remains accessible and equitable for all
learners.
Autonomy benefits school administrators. It allows
them to support diverse teaching approaches Feedback System
and encourage creativity. Administrators can help
teachers try new methods and find what works best In the ongoing dialogue about improving educational
for their students, making the school more adaptable systems, stakeholder perspectives on the role
and innovative. When teachers have autonomy, of feedback from teachers and parents reveal a
administrators can better understand and address complex landscape of priorities and challenges.
the needs of different classrooms, providing targeted School owners and administrators from low-budget
support, infrastructure and resources without private schools and other private institutions
lengthy bureaucratic processes. By balancing generally advocate for a proactive approach to
autonomy with effective oversight, administrators incorporating feedback, emphasizing its critical role
can ensure that varied approaches contribute to in refining educational practices and achieving better
the school’s goals and maintain a consistent, fair outcomes. Conversely, principals and teachers from
learning environment. government schools often face a more nuanced set
of challenges when integrating feedback, balancing
School owners and administrators in India have it with the need to maintain consistency and uphold
differing views on financial autonomy and the role educational standards.
of profit in education. Private school owners see
financial autonomy as crucial for their survival and Private schools, particularly those with limited
growth, as it allows them to make quick decisions budgets, often view feedback from teachers and
and bypass bureaucracy. However, government parents as a crucial tool for ongoing improvement.
school administrators are concerned that greater These institutions, which may lack the extensive
financial autonomy could lead to unequal resource resources available to larger or more affluent
distribution and potential mismanagement, schools, rely heavily on feedback to navigate
emphasizing the need for equitable access and strict the dynamic demands of the education sector.
oversight. School owners and administrators in such settings
frequently underscore the importance of being

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agile and responsive to input from stakeholders. Given these challenges, principals and teachers
In practice, feedback allows these schools to in government schools often advocate for a
adapt quickly to changing educational needs and structured approach to incorporating feedback. This
preferences. For instance, if teachers report that approach entails establishing precise guidelines
certain instructional methods are not effective or for the collection, review, and implementation of
if parents express concerns about the curriculum, feedback. This ensures the alignment of changes
private schools can swiftly implement adjustments with the school’s broader objectives and regulatory
to address these issues. This flexibility helps them requirements. This integration of feedback from
stay competitive and relevant, particularly in an teachers and parents within educational systems
environment where educational quality can be a reveals a spectrum of perspectives shaped by
significant differentiator. Moreover, private schools institutional context. Private schools often leverage
often view feedback as a means to foster stronger feedback as a means to enhance adaptability and
relationships with their communities. By actively foster community engagement, while government
engaging with parents and teachers, but schools schools navigate the complexities of balancing
not only enhance their educational practices but feedback with the need for consistency and
also build trust and support within their school adherence to standards. A structured approach to
communities. This relational aspect is crucial for feedback incorporation can bridge these differences,
private institutions, where community perception providing a framework that allows schools to
and satisfaction can directly impact enrolment and benefit from stakeholder input while maintaining
overall success. a high standard of education. Understanding and
addressing these diverse perspectives is crucial for
In contrast, principals and teachers from government developing effective educational practices that meet
schools face a different set of challenges when it the needs of all students and stakeholders.
comes to integrating feedback. Government schools,
which are typically larger and more bureaucratically Hiring of Teachers
structured, operate under stringent regulations
and standardised guidelines that aim to ensure The educational institutions and the processes
consistency and equity across the education governing teacher recruitment and hiring exhibit
system. This can create tension when attempting significant variations across different types of
to incorporate diverse feedback from teachers and schools. Institutions like Sarvodaya and those
parents. One significant challenge is the potential managed by the Municipal Corporation of Delhi
for conflicting opinions. In a large, diverse school operate within a centralised system, where
setting, feedback can vary widely, and reconciling external agencies determine the recruitment
these differing perspectives can be complex. For process. This structure contrasts sharply with the
instance, while some parents may advocate for more autonomous practices observed in Kendriya
more individualised attention for students, others Vidyalayas and private schools.
might prioritise rigorous academic standards.
Teachers might have differing views on instructional Sarvodaya schools and MCD-managed institutions
strategies or curriculum content. Balancing these face substantial constraints regarding teacher hiring.
often conflicting inputs while striving to maintain a These schools lack the discretion to select their own
cohesive educational approach can be daunting. teaching staff. Instead, they are required to employ
teachers assigned to them by external bodies such
Additionally, there is the risk of implementing as the Delhi Subordinate Services Selection Board
changes based on feedback that may not align with or through examinations conducted by the District
broader educational goals or standards. Government Institute of Education and Training and the Central
schools are required to adhere to specific curricula Teacher Eligibility Test. This external control means
and performance benchmarks set by educational that these institutions must accept the teachers
authorities. This framework ensures that all students designated to them, regardless of the specific needs
receive a consistent and equitable education, but it or preferences of the school. The centralised nature
can also limit the scope for making changes based of this recruitment process can be viewed as both a
on individual feedback. For example, if feedback strength and a limitation. On one hand, it ensures a
suggests a shift towards a more innovative teaching standardised and uniform process across multiple
method, this may conflict with established standards schools, potentially maintaining consistency in
or the need for uniformity across schools. teacher qualifications and performance. On the other
hand, it removes the ability of individual schools to
tailor their hiring practices to better fit their unique

132 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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educational environments or address specific local Net Autonomy

needs. This lack of control can lead to challenges in
aligning the teachers’ skills and teaching styles with The structure of Sarvodaya Vidyalayas is notably
the particular needs of the student body, potentially complex and bureaucratic. An ex-teacher of a
impacting the overall effectiveness of education. Sarvodaya Vidyalaya revealed that if a school needs
additional grants for infrastructural improvements,
The Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan (KVS), which the head must send an approval letter detailing the
centrally funds and manages Kendriya Vidyalayas need to the Education Officer. This officer forwards
(KVs), takes a more flexible approach to teacher the letter to the Deputy Director, who then passes it
recruitment. For primary teachers, KVs rely on on to the Regional Director and finally the Director
a recruitment process that involves interviews of Education. Only when each member of this chain
conducted by the Regional Institute of Education endorses the letter does the grant receive approval.
(RIE). This system allows for a more localised and The grant halts if it stalls at any point. In contrast,
tailored selection process, as interviews can assess MCD primary schools, which fall under the Municipal
candidates’ suitability for specific teaching contexts Corporation of Delhi’s development, receive their
and school environments. funds from the Government of India through several
channels. In addition to MCD’s own funds, there
The appointment of post-graduate teachers in is the Directorate of Education, the Department of
Kendriya Vidyalayas follows a nuanced process. Half Urban Development and PWD, and the Department
of the positions are filled through direct recruitment, of Social Welfare.
involving interviews to assess the candidates’
domain expertise and teaching capabilities. The Kendriya Vidyalayas, managed by the Kendriya
remaining half are appointed through a promotion- Vidyalaya Sangathan (KVS), a society registered
based mechanism, where selection is determined under the Societies Registration Act (XXI of 1860),
by performance in interdepartmental examinations. have a more intricate structure. Although not directly
This dual approach allows KVs to maintain a controlled by the government, KVS operates under a
balance between integrating fresh talent and three-tier management system with its headquarters
retaining experienced educators, thereby cultivating in New Delhi, regional offices overseeing clusters
a teaching staff that combines new perspectives and of schools, and Kendriya Vidyalayas located across
institutional knowledge. the country and abroad. Despite the lack of direct
government control, KVS implements an Education
In contrast, private schools exhibit the highest Code that regulates all aspects of the schools,
degree of autonomy in their hiring practices. Unlike limiting their autonomy. In terms of budget allocation,
government-run institutions, such as Sarvodaya the Board of Governors and the Management
and MCD schools, or even the centrally managed Committee, supported by the Executive Committee,
KVs, private schools possess the flexibility to oversee the expenditure of funds released by KVS
manage their recruitment processes internally. according to their general rules. The Management
The school management or the principal typically Committee prepares the budget for the next session,
oversees the hiring of teachers and principals. This which the Board of Governors must approve, while
autonomy enables private schools to align their schools retain some autonomy in allocating a portion
staffing decisions with their specific educational of their funds. Thus, although schools can decide on
philosophies, strategic objectives, and the unique some budget allocations, these decisions must align
requirements of their student populations. The with KVS regulations and receive Board approval.
ability to make independent hiring choices allows
private schools to customise their recruitment In the landscape of school autonomy, a clear
processes to attract candidates who are the best hierarchy emerges when analysing various types of
fit for their educational model and school culture. educational institutions. At the top of this hierarchy
This can contribute to the development of a more are private, unrecognised schools, which enjoy
responsive and adaptable educational environment, the highest degree of autonomy due to their lack
where staffing decisions are closely aligned with of government oversight. These schools operate
the school’s vision and the evolving needs of its independently of government regulations, which
students. affords them significant freedom in managing their
affairs. They can set their own policies regarding
fees, teacher salaries, and overall administrative
decisions without needing to adhere to external
guidelines or seek approval from educational
authorities.

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Next in the hierarchy are private, recognised, Despite their relative autonomy in teacher salary
unaided schools. The Delhi School Education Act decisions, both Kendriya Vidyalayas and private-
of 1973 outlines certain regulations for these aided schools face similar limitations when it comes
institutions, despite their official government to budget formulation and allocation. Both types
recognition. This Act mandates that these schools of schools must adhere to the financial regulations
adhere to specific salary structures as per the imposed by the DoE and the Kendriya Vidyalaya
Seventh Pay Commission, which imposes constraints Sangathan (KVS). These regulations stipulate
on how they can manage teacher compensation. how budgets should be formulated and allocated,
Despite this, these schools retain the authority to requiring approval from higher authorities before any
set their own student fees, though the Directorate of financial decisions can be finalized. This ensures that
Education (DoE) holds the power to intervene if the both KVs and private-aided schools operate within
fees are considered excessive or unfair. Additionally, a framework of budgetary constraints, limiting their
private recognised unaided schools have the flexibility in financial matters and reinforcing the
autonomy to determine increments in teacher role of higher authorities in overseeing their fiscal
salaries, giving them a degree of flexibility in how management.
they reward their staff. This form of autonomy, while
still regulated, allows these schools to operate with a At the bottom of the autonomy hierarchy are
measure of independence compared to those bound Sarvodaya Vidyalayas and Municipal Corporation
by more stringent rules. of Delhi (MCD) schools. These institutions represent
the least autonomous category due to the extensive
Kendriya Vidyalayas (KVs), which hold a notable government oversight they experience. Sarvodaya
position in terms of autonomy. KVs benefit from Vidyalayas and MCD schools lack control over critical
a considerable degree of operational freedom, aspects such as setting school fees, determining
particularly in how they manage teacher salaries. teacher salaries, and hiring staff. Government
KV principals have the authority to decide on salary authorities heavily regulate their financial operations,
increments for teachers, a level of control that requiring approval for all decisions. The process for
private-aided schools do not possess. The DoE’s accessing additional funds or terminating teachers is
requirements constrain the managing committee’s complex and cumbersome. For example, the process
autonomy over teacher salaries in private-aided of terminating a teacher necessitates the filing of a
schools. The DoE elects the members of a selection criminal report if necessary, and the documentation
committee in these schools, and the DoE must of poor performance through annual performance
approve the final appointment of teachers. This reports takes precedence over straightforward
system introduces a layer of bureaucracy and limits dismissal. This rigid framework significantly reduces
the degree of control that private-aided schools the flexibility of Sarvodaya Vidyalayas and MCD
have over their staffing decisions. Consequently, KVs schools, making them highly regulated and less
have a significant advantage over private-aided adaptable compared to their more autonomous
schools in terms of autonomy over teacher salary counterparts.
management.

134 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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7

Figure 11:

Government of India

Government of the NCT of Delhi

(own funds)

Department of Urban Directorate of Department of Social

Development and PWD Education Welfare

Scholarships and others

MCD NDMC

benefits to students
[Own Funds] [Own Funds]

State Govt Schools MCD Schools NDMC Schools

Source: CCS Report, 2013

The degree of school autonomy is markedly contingent on institutional classification. At the apex of the
hierarchy are private unrecognised schools, which enjoy the highest level of operational freedom. Privately
recognised unaided schools occupy the next tier, functioning under some governmental constraints. Kendriya
Vidyalayas, exhibiting unique autonomy in managing teacher salaries, occupy a middle position. In contrast,
privately aided schools face limitations in staffing and budgeting decisions. At the bottom of the hierarchy
are Sarvodaya Vidyalayas and MCD schools, characterised by extensive governmental regulation and
consequently the least autonomy. This nuanced hierarchy underscores the varied ways in which schools
navigate and are impacted by regulatory frameworks, ultimately shaping their organisational independence
and administrative flexibility.

Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice 135

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7

5. RECOMMENDATIONS 6. Streamlining Regulations: The overall

regulatory framework should be simplified
to allow schools more operational flexibility.
Based on the study findings, the following
Rules should focus on outcomes rather than
recommendations are proposed:
dictating school processes, enabling schools
to innovate and improve while being held
1. Structured Feedback System: Introduce
accountable for results.
a clear system for gathering feedback
from teachers, students, and parents. This
The evidence suggests that granting greater
system should include surveys or advisory
autonomy to schools can lead to improved
committees, allowing schools to prioritize and
educational outcomes, particularly in terms of
incorporate relevant suggestions into their
enhanced student performance and the development
operations. Professional development for staff
of innovative teaching practices.
can help implement these changes effectively.
2. Flexible but Structured Guidelines for
Pedagogic Innovation: Develop flexible
guidelines that allow teachers to innovate 6. CONCLUSION
while maintaining core educational standards.
Schools should have autonomy to tailor The debate on autonomy in schools highlights the
their curricula, but this must align with key need to balance flexibility and consistency. While
educational goals and assessment criteria to teachers can adapt their methods to meet diverse
ensure accountability. student needs, this freedom must be controlled to
ensure standards are met. For example, different
3. Professional Development for Teachers: types of schools have varying levels of autonomy
Invest in ongoing training for teachers and and control over hiring practices. Centralised
administrators to ensure they can innovate institutions like Sarvodaya and MCD schools
within structured guidelines. This will help prioritise consistency but may restrict flexibility.
schools maintain educational quality while Kendriya Vidyalayas use a hybrid recruitment model,
allowing room for creativity and adaptation to blending direct hiring and promotions. Private
students’ needs. schools have greater autonomy to customise their
4. Reevaluation of the Right to Education (RTE) approaches to better meet their objectives. Each
Act: The RTE Act, especially its provisions system has strengths and challenges, reflecting
regulating aspects like infrastructure and the broader debate between standardisation and
salaries, should be reconsidered. Schools flexibility in education. Stakeholders’ perspectives
should be held accountable for their results, differ based on context; private schools often see
not the means by which they achieve them. autonomy as a way to innovate, while government
Greater autonomy in operations can help schools emphasise maintaining fairness. The key
improve student outcomes. is integrating autonomy with effective oversight to
ensure dynamic teaching aligned with educational
5. Legal Frameworks for Profit-making Schools:
goals. Achieving this balance is crucial for creating
Regulations preventing schools from
an environment where teachers and students can
operating for profit should be reviewed. While
thrive, leading to a more effective and equitable
maintaining accountability, schools should
education system. It’s about the ‘right to education’
be allowed to generate profit to improve
and the ‘right to choose in education.’
education quality and attract investment.
However, safeguards must be in place to
ensure this doesn’t lead to educational
inequities.

136 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

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7

7. APPENDIX
Interview checklist

1. How do you think autonomy impacts the overall functioning of a school?

2. What all sectors, in your opinion, need autonomy for the betterment of overall educational outcomes?
3. How do you get your funds to improve the infrastructure—washrooms, benches, desks, etc.?
4. How is the budget allocated? What is the process of its allocation?
5. Who are the main stakeholders involved in hiring teachers and faculty?
6. What are the requirements a teacher is supposed to have?
7. How much control do you have over the curriculum, and if at all you make changes to the teaching
style?
8. Is it mandatory for schools to use textbooks for teaching, and who determines the selection of these
textbooks?
9. Are course contents flexible, and who are the key stakeholders involved in deciding them or who do
think should be involved in deciding them?
10. Who designs the assessment for the students, and are there any parameters that need to be followed
in this process?
11. Who can dismiss teachers, and what criteria are considered while dismissing them?
12. The feedback by teachers and students, are they being taken into account?
13. If yes, how are they being incorporated into the curriculum decisions?
14. How is student grade progression determined, and who oversees this process?

Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice 137

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moderating competitive performativity in papers/w9071.
school autonomy reform. Journal of Educational
Administration & History, 50(3), 159–173. https:// 13. National Knowledge Commission (2006). Note on
doi.org/10.1080/00220620.2017.1399864 Higher Education. Mimeo. November 29th 2006

2. Gohain, M. P. (2022). Pradhan: Delhi govt schools 14. National Knowledge Commission (2009). Report
lag behind national average on all parametres. to the Nation: 2006-09. Govt of India. p.14.
In Times of India. https://timesofindia.indiatimes. 15. Townsend, T (1996). “The Self-Managing School:
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16. Terry M Moe and John E Chubb (1990). “Politics
3. Gupta, A. (2013). AUTONOMY OF SCHOOOLS markets and America’s schools”. Washington.
IN DELHI: a COMPARATIVE STUDY (Report CCS Brookings Institution Press. p.183.
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17. Malen, B, Ogawa, R and Kranz, J 1990. “Site-
4. Irmert, N., Bietenbeck, J., Mattisson, L., & based management: Unfulfilled promises, The
Weinhardt, F. (2024). Do publicly funded School Administrator”, 47(2): 30–59.
autonomous schools improve education
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Review (pp. 1–10). https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/ nic.in/bitstream/123456789/1456/1/197318.pdf
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(2006). Early Child Development and Care, 73– (English).pdf
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6. Tewari, S. (2018). A STUDY OF THE AUTONOMY
OF SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN
CURRICULUM PLANNING IN GOVERNMENT
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138 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice 139
 CONCLUSION: NAVIGATING THE
PATH FORWARD IN EDUCATION
REFORM

This compendium underscores the multifaceted and interconnected challenges confronting India’s education
system, with a particular emphasis on urban contexts like Delhi and Chennai. Whilst legislative measures,
such as the Right to Education Act, have made strides in expanding educational access, the research
indicates that access alone is insufficient to address the deeper, systemic issues plaguing the system.
The focus must now shift towards cultivating a more equitable, accountable, and innovative educational
framework that can cater to the diverse needs of all learners, especially those from marginalised and
economically disadvantaged backgrounds.

140 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

EQUITY: BEYOND ACCESS schools are better positioned to adapt to the unique
needs of their student populations. Nonetheless,
decentralisation should be accompanied by robust
One of the most prominent themes across the
oversight mechanisms to prevent autonomy from
research is the ongoing struggle for equity in
exacerbating inequalities between well-resourced
education. Despite policy initiatives designed to
urban schools and underfunded rural institutions.
bring disadvantaged students into the fold, such
as the RTE’s 25% seat reservation in private
schools, significant barriers remain. These include
bureaucratic inefficiencies, document discrepancies, INNOVATION: BUILDING
and a lack of support for first-generation learners,
all of which disproportionately impact economically
SCHOOLS FOR THE FUTURE
weaker sections and marginalised communities.
The research emphasises the critical importance of
innovation in curriculum and pedagogical practices
However, equity is not just about bringing students
for enhancing educational outcomes. The rigid,
into the classroom; it’s about ensuring that once they
examination-focused approach that has long
are there, they can thrive. The research highlights
been the hallmark of the Indian education system
persistent inequalities within the system, where
is increasingly seen as inadequate in equipping
students from disadvantaged backgrounds often
students for the demands of the 21st century.
struggle to keep up with their more privileged peers
Instead, there is a pressing need to adopt more
due to a lack of resources and support at home. This
holistic, student-centred learning approaches that
highlights the need for more targeted interventions
nurture critical thinking, creativity, and problem-
that address the socio-economic barriers to learning,
solving abilities.
ensuring that equity is not just a matter of access,
but of sustained support and opportunity.
The Schools of Specialised Excellence, as examined
in this compendium, represent an innovative model
for addressing this gap. By concentrating on the
GOVERNANCE: THE specific talents and interests of students and offering
BACKBONE OF EFFECTIVE a more skills-oriented curriculum, these institutions
provide a blueprint for moving beyond rote learning
EDUCATION and standardised testing. However, the research
also underscores that innovation in curriculum must
Governance emerges as a critical issue underpinning be accompanied by investment in infrastructure
many of the challenges identified in this and extracurricular opportunities to foster a truly
compendium. The efficacy of educational policy enriching learning environment. Failing to do so may
is contingent on its implementation, and weak undermine the potential of even the most forward-
governance often hinders well-intentioned policies thinking curricula to fully engage students and
from reaching their full potential. The research prepare them for the complexities of the real world.
highlights issues such as teacher absenteeism,
suboptimal accountability structures, and
bureaucratic inefficiencies that impede the delivery
of quality education.

However, the research also indicates that

governance reform holds substantial promise for
enhancing educational outcomes. Decentralisation,
as explored in the context of school autonomy, offers
a viable pathway for granting schools greater control
over their resources and decision-making processes.
This, in turn, can foster more responsive and
innovative approaches to teaching and learning, as

Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice 141

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This compendium is the culmination of was also active in the selection of scholars.
insightful discussions and collaborative Ravi Kumar Yadav, Design Consultant (Policy
research conducted during the Researching Impact & Outreach) designed the compendium,
Reality Training Program, organised by the giving it a creative and professional look.
Centre for Civil Society (CCS). We are deeply
grateful to the Friedrich Naumann Foundation We acknowledge Dr. Amit Chandra, CEO of
for Freedom (FNF) for their generous support the Centre for Civil Society, for his support
as our sponsoring partner. Their commitment in the successful implementation of the
to fostering dialogue on pressing policy issues workshop. Thanks to the mentors who provided
made this project possible. invaluable guidance throughout the process:
Abhishek Ranjan, Innovation Officer at the
The theme of this year’s internship, “Policy Ministry of Education, Government of India;
Challenges in School Education”, brought Mansi Middha, CEO of Indus Action; Mehek
together a diverse group of scholars, educators, Rastogi, Senior Program Manager at Anudip
and policy experts. We extend our thanks to all Foundation; Rohan Joshi, CEO of Ahvaan Trust;
the participants for their valuable contributions, and Vikas Jhunjhunwala, Founder and CEO of
hard work, and dedication in shaping this Sunshine Schools. Their expertise, feedback,
compendium. Their research and insights and encouragement enriched the quality of the
reflect a deep commitment to improving research presented in this compendium.
education in India and addressing the complex
challenges within the sector. The entire team at the Centre for Civil Society
provided support, coordination, and vision
Sadaf Hussain, the Project Lead, led this in making this workshop a success. Thanks
initiative from end to end. His meticulous also to the reviewers and advisors, whose
attention to detail, from editing to overseeing guidance helped shape the final output of this
the design, alongside his leadership in topic compendium.
selection and the recruitment of guides,
ensured the successful completion of this Finally, we extend our gratitude to the readers
project. of this compendium. We hope the ideas and
solutions presented within these pages inspire
Dr Heena Choudhary, Senior Associate further dialogue and actionable change in the
(Research & Trainning Programs) worked realm of school education policy.
closely with the scholars, ensuring the high
quality of the papers and helping to refine the
logical flow of the research. Snehal Thakre,
Associate (Research & Trainning Programs)
played a vital role in managing the logistics,
ensuring the smooth operation of sessions, and
supporting the scholars with their needs. She
ABOUT THE SCHOLARS

Aditi Thakur
Aditi Thakur is pursuing an M.A. in Education at Ambedkar University. She
graduated from Jesus and Mary College at Delhi University with a first-class
bachelor’s degree in elementary education. Aditi is passionate about innovative
teaching and inclusive learning, and she wants to integrate critical thinking into
educational methods and curricula to improve student engagement and growth.

Aman Chauhan
Aman Chauhan is a post-graduate in Development Studies from Jawaharlal
Nehru University (JNU) with a strong passion for research. He enjoys exploring the
intersectionalities within social science disciplines. Aman believes that learning is
an ongoing process, where one must continuously evolve through both learning
and unlearning at various phases of life, shaping his academic and intellectual
journey.

Anshika Priyamvada
Anshika Priyamvada is a Psychology graduate from Lucknow with a passion for
applying psychological principles to real-world policy. She is particularly interested
in the intersections of gender, education, and international relations.

Durgesh Jha
Durgesh Jha is a 2024 Researching Reality Scholar. Currently a post-graduate
student of Political Science at the University of Delhi, his areas of interest
include public policy, governance, political economy, international relations and
sustainable development. He has experience working with organisations like the
National Human Rights Commission, Global Youth India and Project Statecraft
within these domains and disciplines.

Lazana Deshar
Lazana Deshar is a researcher with a Master’s in Sociology and a Bachelor’s
in Computer Science and Information Technology. Her work focuses on the
intersection of technology, child protection, gender, and social inclusion,
advocating for marginalized communities. Lazana actively promotes IT literacy
within these communities and has received recognition for her work, including the
Ageing Nepal 2021 Fellowship. Her research has been presented at national and
international conferences.

Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice 143

 Meena Kumari
Meena Kumari is an Assistant Professor at Law Centre-1, Faculty of Law,
University of Delhi. She earned her LL.B. and LL.M. from the same institution
and recently completed her Ph.D. in Law. Meena also holds a Junior Research
Fellowship from UGC and was selected by the Rajasthan Public Service
Commission in 2018. Her research focuses on personal laws, women’s rights,
and property rights. She was awarded the Best Early Career Paper in Law at
an international conference organized by Northumbria University, UK.

Naorem Nitish
Naorem Nitish is an Economics student minoring in Mathematics. He possesses
strong analytical and communication skills, with experience in policy analysis,
data visualization, and corporate communications. Driven by a passion for
public policy, he seeks to contribute his skills to roles that promote social equity
and economic sustainability.

Ojaswi Anand
Ojaswi Anand is a graduate of Lady Shri Ram College for Women, University of
Delhi, with a degree in Economics. Her academic interests include development
economics, international relations, and behavioral economics. She is passionate
about understanding complex societal dynamics. In her free time, Ojaswi enjoys
analyzing characters in movies and books, exploring their perspectives and
motivations.

Paarul Rai
Paarul Rai has taught elementary and middle school and written about
education for a living. Paarul is currently working on her Master’s in English
Literature and has a B.Tech., a B.Ed., and a CTET qualification. She likes how
education and public policy affect each other and has taken part in events at
the Centre for Civil Society.

Roselin Indani Losan

Roselin Indani Losan graduated from Ambedkar University Delhi with an M.A.
in Development Studies. Her internships at NITI Aayog and the Indian Social
Institute have equipped her with valuable research and policy analysis skills.
Driven by a desire to make a positive impact, Roselin is eager to contribute to
the field of development and beyond.

Samal Partha Amarendra

Partha Amarendra is pursuing an Integrated Master’s in Development Studies
at IIT Madras. His research interests include migrant and refugee experiences,
poverty, environmental challenges, and their global political implications.
Beyond academics, Partha enjoys reading, table tennis, and expressing himself
through poetry.

144 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

Sanyam Mahajan
Sanyam Mahajan is a Political Science undergraduate at Ramjas College,
University of Delhi. He focuses on digital and education policy, particularly
inclusion. Sanyam has presented a policy brief on fiscal federalism to a Member
of Parliament and is researching K-12 education laws impacting private-unaided
schools. He has worked with organizations like the World Mediation Organization,
YLAC, and Centre for Civil Society. He also founded Internet on Trust (IoT) to
express his views on digital policy.

Shashwat Kotiyal
Shashwat Kotiyal is a law student at O.P. Jindal Global University, driven by
a strong commitment to justice and a desire to make a positive impact. He
is dedicated to continuous learning and seeks opportunities to engage with
mentors and professionals in the legal field. Shashwat aims to leverage his legal
knowledge to contribute meaningfully to society.

Siddhant Shetty
Siddhant Shetty holds a degree in Economics and International Relations from
Ashoka University. With a strong focus on diplomacy, macroeconomic trends, and
Indian politics, he is passionate about contributing to these fields. Siddhant, based
in Bangalore, is also an avid sports enthusiast, with a particular love for cricket
and football. Outside his academic interests, he enjoys classic films and has a
background in painting.

Swati Phogat
Swati Phogat is a second-year Political Science student at the University of
Delhi. She is currently interning with the Centre for Civil Society to gain practical
experience in policy analysis and development.

Tabassum
Tabassum graduated with a degree in History from Lady Shri Ram College for
Women and is currently pursuing a Master’s in International Relations from Jamia
Millia Islamia. She combines her love for historical analysis with a keen interest in
global affairs and diplomacy. Through her interdisciplinary approach and passion
for cross-cultural dynamics, Tabassum aims to make a meaningful impact in an
increasingly interconnected world.

Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice 145

 ABOUT THE MENTORS/GUIDES

Abhishek Ranjan | Ministry of Education, Government of India

Abhishek Ranjan is an educationist with a keen interest in public policy,
particularly in the education sector. He currently serves as an Innovation Officer
at the Ministry of Education’s Innovation Cell and is a Zonal Coordinator for the
Institution Innovation Council in five states. Abhishek has worked on leadership
and system transformation projects in government schools across India and
contributed to NITI Aayog’s Aspirational District Program. He holds degrees in
Economics, Sociology, and Law from the University of Delhi.

Supported paper:
• Delhi’s Education System: Examining Shifting Enrolment and Dropout
Patterns

Dr. Amit Chandra | Centre for Civil Society

Dr. Amit Chandra is the CEO of the Centre for Civil Society, where he passionately
advocates for liberal values and focuses on improving governance in school
education and livelihoods. He has significantly influenced public policy in India,
contributing to the National Urban Street Vending Act, amendments to the India
Forest Act, and the Micro Small and Medium Enterprises Development Act. Dr.
Chandra’s insights are widely cited in media and academic publications. He
mentors various organisations and serves on several government committees; he
has previously worked with the Asia Foundation in Kabul and the Central Square
Foundation in Delhi.

Supported papers:
• Money Matters: A Study of Financial Investments and Educational
Equity in Delhi Government Schools
• Educational Dilemmas: Public School Teachers’ Choices Between Public and
Private Schools for Their Children in Urban Chennai

Mansi Middha | Indus Action

Mansi Middha is the National RTE Lead at Indus Action, focusing on the
implementation of educational projects related to the Right to Education Act,
particularly Section 12(1)(c). With a background in planning and evaluation from
University College London, she leads advocacy efforts to enhance educational
access and quality across multiple states. Her expertise includes stakeholder
management and program design. A former Teach for India fellow, Mansi is
dedicated to leveraging education as a tool for development.

Supported paper:
Lost in the System: Document Discrepancies and Other Barriers to RTE
Admissions in Delhi

146 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

Mehek Rastogi | Anudip Foundation
Mehek Rastogi is a Senior Program Manager at the Anudip Foundation,
with extensive experience in education, social development, and program
management. Previously, at Seeking Modern Applications for Real
Transformation, she led initiatives on ending child marriage and promoting
financial literacy among women. Mehek has also worked on education-focused
projects, conducting research on gender inclusion and developing monitoring
tools for community radio stations. Dedicated to driving impactful education and
gender equity initiatives, she actively manages projects across multiple regions
in India.

Supported paper:
• Balancing Excellence: Curriculum and Infrastructure in Delhi’s
Specialised Schools

Rohan (Ruhaan) Joshi | Ahvaan Trust

Rohan (Ruhaan) Joshi has built a distinguished career in education, social
development, and public policy. With degrees from Savitribai Phule Pune
University and Tata Institute of Social Sciences, he has held leadership roles
across both public and private sectors. His experience includes working as
a Programme Director with the Maharashtra government, Senior Fellow at
the Centre for Civil Society, and Head of Teaching Professionals’ Olympiad at
CENTA. Currently, he serves as CEO of Ahvaan Trust, driving educational change
across India.

Supported paper:
• Delhi’s Education System: Examining Shifting Enrolment and Dropout
Patterns

Vikas Jhunjhunwala | Sunshine Schools

Vikas Jhunjhunwala is the Founder and CEO of Sunshine Schools, with
experience across education, financial inclusion, consulting, and the not-for-
profit sector. He has held roles such as Practice Head, Consultant, and Project
Manager, excelling in leading strategic initiatives and managing complex
projects. Vikas is skilled in partnering with business leaders and collaborating in
multicultural environments, making him a valuable figure in the education sector.

Supported paper:
• Exploring the Impact of School Autonomy on Educational
Performance

Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice 147

 ABOUT THE TEAM

Dr. Heena Choudhary | Senior Associate; Research and

Training Programs | Centre for Civil Society
Dr. Heena Choudhary is a Senior Associate for Research and Training Programs
at the Centre for Civil Society (CCS), New Delhi. She holds a Doctorate from
Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur. At CCS, she leads education-
focused projects, analyzing regulatory frameworks, evaluating their ground-
level implementation, and providing strategic recommendations. Her research
interests include digital inclusion, exploring how globalization and technological
advancements impact social inequality, with a focus on mitigating the digital
divide in India, aligning with the Digital India initiative.

Ravi Kumar Yadav | Design Consultant; Policy Impact and

Outreach | Centre for Civil Society
Ravi Kumar Yadav is a Graphic and Web Designer with over six years of
experience in the design industry. He is proficient in CorelDRAW, Adobe
Photoshop, Illustrator, and InDesign. With a Bachelor of Science in Animation,
Ravi has a strong grasp of multimedia graphics and animation, making him a
versatile and skilled professional in the field of visual design.

Sadaf Hussain | Consultant, Project Lead | Centre for Civil

Society
Sadaf Hussain is an experienced professional with a background in strategic
planning, project management, and branding communication. He has worked
with organizations like the Centre for Civil Society, Genpact, Sattva, Language
of Liberty and the Indian School of Public Policy, managing high-impact projects
in public policy, talent management, and organizational strategy across the
corporate, non-profit, and academic sectors. Sadaf is also an author and writer,
known for his insightful articles exploring the intersection of food, culture, and
history.

Snehal Thakre | Assoiciate Research, Program & Trainging |

Centre for Civil Society
Snehal Thakre is an experienced researcher and educator with a background in
public policy, telecommunications engineering, and community service. She is a
Research Fellow at the Centre for Civil Society and has served as a consultant
at the Indian School of Public Policy. Snehal holds a Master’s in Electronics and
Telecommunications and a postgraduate qualification in Public Policy, Design,
and Management. She is committed to enhancing literacy for underprivileged
children and leading environmental initiatives, reflecting her dedication to social
equity and sustainable development.

148 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

ABOUT THE RESEARCHING REALITY
TRAINING PROGRAMME

The Researching Reality Training Programme, offered by the Centre for Civil Society in New Delhi, is a
premier research training initiative for students and has been operating for over two decades.

The programme aims to attract participants from diverse backgrounds, who contribute their unique
perspectives and problem-solving abilities. Scholars engage in collaborative brainstorming sessions,
generating novel insights and potential solutions to address current policy challenges. These training
programmes cover a range of topics, from education to the livelihood sector, with a focus on exploring
diversity-related issues.

Theme for 2024 | Policy Challenges in School Education

The 2024 programme explored the thematic focus of ‘Policy Challenges in School Education’, with a
particular emphasis on issues of Equity, Governance, and Innovation. This emphasis responded to the
pressing concern over stagnating learning outcomes in India’s school education system. Despite growing
student enrolment figures, these gains had not translated into tangible improvements in learning
achievements. This stagnation posed a significant threat to the emotional and economic welfare of children,
while also carrying adverse long-term ramifications for the nation. Consequently, programme participants
were tasked with examining these current challenges and formulating potential solutions.

Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice 149

 CENTRE FOR CIVIL SOCIETY
Founded in August 1997 on the 50th Anniversary of India’s independence, Centre for
Civil Society (CCS) is a leading public policy think tank today, ranked 5th in India and
83rd in the world by the TTCSP 2021 report.

CCS champions individual choice and institutional accountability by shaping India’s

public policy, using evidence-based research, outreach programs and policy training.
Our areas of work include education, livelihoods, governance, environment, agriculture
and science & technology policy.

Since its founding in 1997, CCS has stayed non-partisan and independent, providing
objective analysis and inputs on public policy. Our work in education, livelihood, policy
training, property rights and competitive markets are secured by the rule of law and
promotes choice and accountability across private and public sectors.

FRIEDRICH NAUMANN FOUNDATION

The Foundation was established in Germany in 1958. It aims to promote the goal
of making the principle of freedom valid for the dignity of all people and in all areas
of society, both in Germany and abroad. The Friedrich Naumann Foundation for
Freedom works in over 65 countries worldwide. In South Asia we have offices in
India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. Additionally we work with partners in
Nepal. We promote civic education, trainings and the exchange of ideas in the region
in four focal areas. These are economic freedom, human rights, urban governance
and digital transformation. In addition to the country projects, the Foundation
supports regional programs.

150 Beyond Classrooms: Policy and Practice

A-69 Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110 016
Email: [email protected] | Website: ccs.in
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