Pythagorean Mathematics

UNIT 1: Pythagorean Mathematics

(9 hours)

Introduction

There is geometry in the humming of the strings, there is music in the spacing
of the spheres.
-Pythagoras

It is sometimes claimed that we owe pure mathematics to Pythagoras, and he is

often called the first “true” mathematician. But, although his contribution was
clearly important, he nevertheless remains a controversial figure.

He left no mathematical writings himself, and much of what we know about

Pythagorean thought comes to us from the writings of Philolaus and other later
Pythagorean scholars. Indeed, it is by no means clear whether many (or indeed
any) of the theorems ascribed to him were in fact solved by Pythagoras
personally or by his followers.

The school he established at Croton in southern Italy around 530 BCE was the
nucleus of a rather bizarre Pythagorean sect. Although Pythagorean thought was
largely dominated by mathematics, it was also profoundly mystical, and
Pythagoras imposed his quasi-religious philosophies, strict vegetarianism,
communal living, secret rites and odd rules on all the members of his school
(including bizarre and apparently random edicts about never urinating towards
the sun, never marrying a woman who wears gold jewelry, never passing an ass
lying in the street, never eating or even touching black fava beans, etc) .

The members were divided into the “mathematikoi” (or “learners“), who
extended and developed the more mathematical and scientific work that

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Pythagoras himself began, and the “akousmatikoi” (or “listeners“), who focused
on the more religious and ritualistic aspects of his teachings. There was always
a certain amount of friction between the two groups and eventually the sect
became caught up in some fierce local fighting and ultimately dispersed.
Resentment built up against the secrecy and exclusiveness of the Pythagoreans
and, in 460 BCE, all their meeting places were burned and destroyed, with at
least 50 members killed in Croton alone.

The over-riding dictum of Pythagoras’s school was “All is number” or “God is

number”, and the Pythagoreans effectively practiced a kind of numerology or
number-worship, and considered each number to have its own character and
meaning. For example, the number one was the generator of all numbers; two
represented opinion; three, harmony; four, justice; five, marriage; six, creation;
seven, the seven planets or “wandering stars”; etc. Odd numbers were thought
of as female and even numbers as male.
The holiest number of all was “Tetractys” or ten, a triangular number composed
of the sum of one, two, three and four. It is a great tribute to the Pythagoreans’
intellectual achievements that they deduced the special place of the number 10
from an abstract mathematical argument rather than from something as
mundane as counting the fingers on two hands.

Learning Outcomes

Upon the completion of this unit, you are expected to:

A. Determine the contributions of Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans in the
field of Mathematics
B. Discuss some of the contributions of Pythagoras in Mathematics.
C. Define perfect numbers, amicable numbers, deficient numbers,
abundant numbers and figurate numbers.
D. Derive a formula that generates a figurate number.
E. Present some of the early proofs of the Pythagorean theorem
F. Describe a Pythagorean triple.
G. Discuss how irrational numbers were discovered.

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Topic 1: Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans

Time Allotment: 2 hours

Learning Objectives

Upon the completion of this topic, you are expected to:

✓ Be familiarize with the life and works of Pythagoras
✓ know the names of the Pythagoreans
✓ Appreciate the contributions of Pythagoras in the field of mathematics

Presentation of Content

Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans

He was the founder of the influential philosophical and religious

movement or cult called Pythagoreanism, and he was probably the first man to
actually call himself a philosopher (or lover of wisdom). Pythagoras (or in a
broader sense the Pythagoreans), allegedly exercised an important influence on
the work of Plato.
As a mathematician, he is known as the "father of numbers" or as the
first pure mathematician, and is best known for his Pythagorean Theorem on
the relation between the sides of a right triangle, the concept of square
numbers and square roots, and the discovery of the golden ratio.

Pythagoras was born on the Island of Samos

PYTHAGORAS
Pythagoras (born between 580 and 572 B.C., died about 497 B.C.) was
born on the island of Samos, just off the coast of Asia Minor . He was the earliest
important philosopher who made important contributions in mathematics,
astronomy, and the theory of music.

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Pythagoras is credited with introduction the words “philosophy,”

meaning love of wisdom, and “mathematics” - the learned disciplines.
Pythagoras is famous for establishing the theorem under his name: Pythagoras’
theorem, which is well known to every educated person. Pythagoras’ theorem
was known to the Babylonians 1000 years earlier but Pythagoras may have been
the first to prove it.

✓ He believed that everything could be reduced to numbers and these

numbers had their own characteristics.
✓ To him 10 was the most complete number because it was made up of the
first 4 digits and when written in dot notation, they formed a triangle.
✓ He also believed geometry to be the highest form of mathematical studies
through which one can explain the physical world.

Early life
➢ Pythagoras spent most of his early childhood at Samos.
➢ At first, he studied from the scholars of Syria.
➢ His meeting with Thales elicited in him an interest in science,
mathematics and astronomy.
➢ He then went to Babylon and began to study mathematics.

Later Life
➢ The Pythagoreans, as the followers of Pythagoras were called. They
lived and worked at the school.
➢ Like most geniuses, Pythagoras too created many enemies. One of them
instigated the mob against the Pythagoreans and set fire to the building
where they were staying. However, Pythagoras was able to escape. He
then went to Metapontum and starved himself to death

Works of Pythagoras in the field of mathematics

1. Pythagorean theorem - provides the relationship between the sides in a

right triangle. A right triangle consists of two legs and a hypotenuse. The
two legs meet at a 90° angle and the hypotenuse is the longest side of
the right triangle and is the side opposite the right angle.
2. Pythagorean triples - consists of three positive integers a, b, and c, such
that a2 + b2 = c2. Such a triple is commonly written (a, b, c), and a well-
known example is (3, 4, 5). If (a, b, c) is a Pythagorean triple, then so
is (ka, kb, kc) for any positive integer k.
3. Pythagorean tetractys - The Tetractys “also known as the decad” is
an equilateral triangle formed from the sequence of the first ten numbers
aligned in four rows.

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Contributions of Pythagoras in Mathematics

1. Pythagoreans considered the number “1” just not a number itself but the
beginning. The dictum of the Pythagorean School was “All is Number”
2. Recognize the even and odd numbers.
3. It is found in Aristotle’s writings that The Pythagoreans assume One as
both even and odd.
4. Classification of numbers based on prime and composite numbers
5. Perfect number; a number which is equal to sum of its parts (factors
excluding itself but including 1); is called the perfect number; for example
6; 6 = 1 + 2 + 3 .The other examples of perfect numbers are 28 and 496.
6. Discovered friendly numbers
7. Discovered musical intervals such as 4:3 (the fourth), 3:2 (the fifth) and
2:1 (the octave), proved that musical notes could be translated into
mathematical equations.
8. Pythagorean observed that 10 contains in it the “Point”, “Linear”, “Plane”
and “Solid” varieties of a number. 1 is a point, 2 is a line, 3 is plane and 4
is solid.
9. Figured Numbers: It seems to go back to Pythagoras himself. A dot is a
point which represents 1, two dots represent 2 and once joined define a
straight line. Similarly 3 dots in the same plane represent the triangle which
is first rectilinear plane figure. Four dots 3 in the same plane and fourth
outside the plane represent a solid.
10. Discovered that the sum of any number of successive terms of the series
of natural numbers (1, 2, 3, 4, 5………..) beginning from 1 makes a
triangular number.
11. Discovered the square numbers. If we have a number of dot(s) forming
and filling up a square then we can get the next higher square by adding
two rows of dots round the two adjacent sides of the original square. I
explained it below;
1 + 3 = 4, Added “first two” odd numbers gives the square of “2”.
1 + 3 + 5 = 9, Added “first three” odd numbers generates the square of “3”
12. GNOMONS: The odd numbers successively added are known as
gnomons. Originally the gnomon was an astronomical instrument used to
measure time. Gnomon was also used for a square edge to draw right
angles.
13. Developed theory of means and proportions.
14. Sum of three angles of a triangle is equal to two right angles.
15. Discovery of The Theory of Irrationals according to Proclus.

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16. Pythagorean triplets and Pythagorean Theorem.

17. Many other discoveries of theorems involving triangles, circles, parallel
lines and polygons are discovered by Pythagoreans

Pythagoreans
✓ Pythagoras’ followers were called “Pythagoreans,”.
a. Aristotle - Aristotle is a towering figure in ancient Greek
philosophy, who made important contributions to logic,
criticism, rhetoric, physics, biology, psychology,
mathematics, metaphysics, ethics, and politics.
b. Theon of Smyrna - a Greek philosopher who described how
prime numbers, geometrical numbers such as squares,
progressions, music and astronomy are interrelated.
c. Plato - Plato the mathematician is perhaps best known for his
identification of 5 regular symmetrical 3-dimensional shapes,
which he maintained were the basis for the whole universe, and
which have become known as the Platonic Solids: the
tetrahedron (constructed of 4 regular triangles, and which for
Plato represented fire), the octahedron (composed of 8 triangles,
representing air), the icosahedron (composed of 20 triangles,
and representing water), the cube (composed of 6 squares, and
representing earth), and the dodecahedron (made up of 12
pentagons, which Plato obscurely described as “the god used for
arranging the constellations on the whole heaven”).
d. Herodotus – Greek mathematician and historian. Known as 'the
Father of History'. He was the first historian to collect his
materials systematically, test their accuracy to a certain extent,
and arrange them in a well-constructed and vivid narrative.
e. Philolaus of Tarentum - was the contemporary of the
mathematicians Hippocrates of Chios, who was the first to write
an Elements of geometry, and Theodorus of Cyrene, and,
although Philolaus was not a mathematician himself, his
philosophy appears to have been influenced by the important
new developments in Greek mathematics that they brought
about. Like most philosophers of the fifth century his work is in
part a response to Parmenides.

The Pythagorean School

The school of Pythagoras was every bit as much a religion as a school
of mathematics. A rule of secrecy bound the members to the school, and oral
communication was the rule. The Pythagoreans had numerous rules for
everyday living. For example, here are a few of them:
✓ To abstain from beans.
✓ Not to pick up what has fallen. ‘Not to touch a white cock.
✓ Not to stir the fire with iron.
✓ Do not look in a mirror beside a light.

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Vegetarianism was strictly practiced probably because Pythagoras

preached the transmigration of souls.

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Topic 2: Pythagorean Theorem and the Pythagorean Triples

Time Allotment: 2 hours

Learning Objectives

Upon the completion of this topic, you are expected to:

✓ Define Pythagorean theorem and Pythagorean Triples
✓ Solve problems involving Pythagorean theorem and Pythagorean
Triples
✓ Appreciate the concept of Pythagorean theorem and Pythagorean
Triples

Presentation of Content

Pythagoras’ Theorem

Over 2000 years ago there was an amazing discovery about triangles:
When a triangle has a right angle (90°) ...
... and squares are made on each of the three sides, ...

The biggest square has the exact same area as the other two squares put
together!

It is called "Pythagoras' Theorem" and can be written in one short equation:

a2 + b2 = c2

Note:

• c is the longest side of the triangle

• a and b are the other two sides

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The longest side of the triangle is called the "hypotenuse", so the formal
definition is:

In a right-angled triangle:
the square of the hypotenuse is equal to
the sum of the squares of the other two sides.

Example: Does an 8, 15, 16 triangle have a Right Angle?

Does 82 + 152 = 162 ?
• 82 + 152 = 64 + 225 = 289,
• but 162 = 256
So, NO, it does not have a Right Angle

Example: Does this triangle have a Right Angle?

Does a2 + b2 = c2 ?
Does (√3)2 + (√5)2 = (√8)2 ?
Does 3 + 5 = 8 ?
Yes, it does!
So this is a right-angled triangle

Example: Solve this triangle

Start with: a2 + b2 = c2
Put in what we know: 52 + 122 = c2
Calculate squares:25 + 144 = c2
25+144=169:169 = c2
Swap sides:c2 = 169
Square root of both sides:c = √169
Calculate: c = 13

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Example: Solve this triangle.

Start with:a2 + b2 = c2
Put in what we know:92 + b2 = 152
Calculate squares:81 + b2 = 225
Take 81 from both sides:81 − 81 + b2 = 225 − 81
Calculate:b2 = 144
Square root of both sides:b = √144
Calculate:b = 12

For more information you may watch this video:

✓ https://youtu.be/_87RbSoELW8
✓ https://youtu.be/Zb0thZ6_5G8

Pythagorean triple

A Pythagorean triple consists of three positive integers a, b, and c, such

that a2 + b2 = c2. Such a triple is commonly written (a, b, c), and a well-known
example is (3, 4, 5). If (a, b, c) is a Pythagorean triple, then so is (ka, kb, kc) for
any positive integer k. A primitive Pythagorean triple is one in
which a, b and c are coprime (that is, they have no common divisor larger than
1). A triangle whose sides form a Pythagorean triple is called a Pythagorean
triangle, and is necessarily a right triangle.
The name is derived from the Pythagorean theorem, stating that every right
triangle has side lengths satisfying the formula a2 + b2 = c2; thus, Pythagorean
triples describe the three integer side lengths of a right triangle. However, right
triangles with non-integer sides do not form Pythagorean triples. For instance,
the triangle with sides a = b = 1 and c = √2 is a right triangle, but (1, 1, √2) is
not a Pythagorean triple because √2 is not an integer. Moreover, 1 and √2 do
not have an integer common multiple because √2 is irrational.
Pythagorean triples have been known since ancient times. The oldest known
record comes from Plimpton 322, a Babylonian clay tablet from about 1800 BC,
written in a sexagesimal number system. It was discovered by Edgar James
Banks shortly after 1900, and sold to George Arthur Plimpton in 1922, for P10.
When searching for integer solutions, the equation a2 + b2 = c2 is a Diophantine
equation. Thus Pythagorean triples are among the oldest known solutions of
a nonlinear Diophantine equation.

Example: The smallest Pythagorean Triple is 3, 4 and 5.

Let's check it:
32 + 42 = 52
Calculating this becomes:
9 + 16 = 25
✓ Yes, it is a Pythagorean Triple!

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Example: The Pythagorean Triple of 3, 4 and 5 makes a

Right Angled Triangle:

Here are two more Pythagorean Triples:

5, 12, 13 9, 40, 41

52 + 122 = 132 92 + 402 = 412

25 + 144 = 169 (try it yourself)

And each triangle has a right angle!

The simplest way to create further Pythagorean Triples is to scale up a set of

triples.

Example: scale 3, 4, 5 by 2 gives 6, 8, 10

Which also fits the formula a2 + b2 = c2:
62 + 82 = 102
36 + 64 = 100

List of the First Few

Here is a list of the first few Pythagorean Triples (not including "scaled up"
versions mentioned above):
(3, 4, 5) (5, 12, 13) (7, 24, 25) (8, 15, 17)
(9, 40, 41) (11, 60, 61) (12, 35, 37) (13, 84, 85)
(15,112,113) (16, 63, 65) (17,144,145) (19,180,181)
(20, 21, 29) (20, 99,101) (21,220,221) (23,264,265)
(24,143,145) (25,312,313) (27,364,365) (28, 45, 53)
(28,195,197) (29,420,421) (31,480,481) (32,255,257)
(33, 56, 65) (33,544,545) (35,612,613) (36, 77, 85)
(36,323,325) (37,684,685) ... infinitely many more ...

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Topic 3: Discovery of irrational numbers

Time Allotment: 2 hours

Learning Objectives

Upon the completion of this topic, you are expected to:

✓ Define irrational numbers.
✓ Differentiate perfect numbers, amicable numbers, deficient numbers,
abundant numbers and figurate numbers
✓ Appreciate the history of irrational numbers as on how was it
discovered by Hippasus

Presentation of Content

Irrational Numbers
An Irrational Number is a real number that cannot be written as a simple fraction

Fun Facts

Apparently Hippasus (one of Pythagoras' students) discovered irrational

numbers when trying to write the square root of 2 as a fraction (using
geometry, it is thought). Instead he proved the square root of 2 could
not be written as a fraction, so it is irrational.

Famous Irrational Numbers

Pi is a famous irrational number. People have calculated Pi to
over a quadrillion decimal place and still there is no pattern.
The first few digits look like this:
3.1415926535897932384626433832795…

The number e (Euler's Number) is another famous irrational

number. People have also calculated e to lots of decimal places
without any pattern showing. The first few digits look like this:
2.7182818284590452353602874713527…

The Golden Ratio is an irrational number. The first few digits

look like this:
1.61803398874989484820…

Many square roots, cube roots, etc are also irrational numbers.
Examples:

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√3 1.7320508075688772935274463415059 (etc)
√99 9.9498743710661995473447982100121 (etc)

Discovery of irrational numbers

The first man to recognize the existence of irrational
numbers might have died for his discovery. Hippassus of
Metapontum was an Ancient Greek philosopher of the
Pythagorean school of thought. Supposedly, he tried to
use his teacher's famous theorem 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2 to find the
length of the diagonal of a unit square. This revealed that
a square's sides are incommensurable with its diagonal,
and that this length cannot be expressed as the ratio of two integers. The other
Pythagoreans believed dogmatically that only positive rational numbers could
exist. They were so horrified by the idea of incommensurability, that they threw
Hippassus overboard on a sea voyage, and vowed to keep the existence of
irrational numbers an official secret of their sect.

There are good reasons to believe Hippassus's demise is

merely an apocryphal myth. The primary sources that
refer to the incident are both sparse and written 800 years
after the time of Pythagoras and Hippassus. That said, a
few ancient accounts and their more contemporary
embellishments suggest that one of these likely
happened:

• Hippassus of Meropontum (5th century BC), might have followed his

curiosity to a watery grave.
• Hippassus discovered irrational numbers on a boat, and his colleagues
were so horrified, they threw him overboard.
• Hippassus discovered irrational numbers, the pythagoreans ostracized
him, and the gods were so disgusted by his discovery that they scuttled
his boat on the high seas.
• Hippassus discovered irrational numbers, he died on an ocean voyage in
a natural accident (the sea is a treacherous place). His colleagues were
still so displeased with his discovery that they wished they had been the
ones to throw him overboard.
• None of the above are true, and they are tales invented and embellished
through the ages to illustrate a pivotal moment in history.

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• If Hippassus did discover irrational numbers, it is also not certain which

method he used to do so. For the curious, the Brilliant summary page
on Rational Numbers builds up to Euclid's famously beautiful proof of
the irrationality of √2. This is one way Hippassus might have done it,
however many scholars think Euclid's method(written 300 years after
the time of Hippassus) is more advanced than what Hippassus would
have been able to do.

Numbers may have originated from purely practical needs, but to the
Pythagoreans, numbers were also the spiritual basis of their philosophy and
religion. Pythagorean cosmology, physics, ethics, and spirituality were
predicated on the premise that "all is number." They believed that all things--
the number of stars in the sky, the pitches of musical scales, and even the
qualities of virtue, could be described by and apprehended through rational
numbers.

One reason to think that positive rational numbers would form the basis for all
things in the universe is that there is an infinite amount of them. Intuitively, it
might seem reasonable that an infinite amount of numbers should be enough to
describe anything that might exist. Along the number line, rational numbers are
1 1
unfathomably “dense”. There is not much “space” between 100000 and 100001,
but if you ever needed to describe something between those two numbers you
would have no problem finding a fraction between them.

The number line is infinitely dense with rational numbers. The existence of
irrational numbers implies that despite this infinite density, there are still holes
in the number line that cannot be described as a ratio of two integers.

The number line is infinitely dense with rational numbers. The existence of
irrational numbers implies that despite this infinite density, there are still holes
in the number line that cannot be described as a ratio of two integers.

The Pythagoreans had probably manually measured the diagonal of a unit

square before. They probably regarded the measurement as an approximation,
that was close to a precise rational number that must be the true length of the
diagonal. Before Hippassus, they had no reason to suspect that there are
logically real numbers that in principle, not merely in practice, cannot be
measured or counted to.

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Perfect Numbers
A Perfect Number N is defined as any positive integer where the sum of its
divisors minus the number itself equals the number. The first few of these,
already known to the ancient Greeks, are 6, 28, 496, and 8128.
A Perfect Number “n”, is a positive integer which is equal to the sum of its
factors, excluding “n” itself.

Euclid, over two thousand years ago, showed that all even perfect numbers can
be represented by,
N = 2p-1(2p -1) where p is a prime for which 2p -1 is a Mersenne prime.
That is, we have an even Perfect Number of the form N whenever the
Mersenne Number 2p -1 is a prime number. Undoubtedly Mersenne was
familiar with Euclid’s book in coming up with his primes.

Perfect Number Table:

The following gives a table of the first nine Mersenne Primes and Perfect
Numbers

rime, p Mersenne Prime, 2p -1 Perfect Number, 2p-1(2p -1)

2 3 6

3 7 28

5 31 496

7 127 8128

13 8191 33550336

17 131071 8589869056

19 524287 137438691328

31 2147483647 2305843008139952128

61 2305843009213693951 2658455991569831744654692615953842176

Amicable Numbers
Amicable numbers are two different numbers so related that the sum of
the proper divisors of each is equal to the other number.

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The smallest pair of amicable numbers is (220, 284). They are amicable because
the proper divisors of
220 are 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 11, 20, 22, 44, 55 and 110, of which the sum is 284;
the proper divisors of
284 are 1, 2, 4, 71 and 142, of which the sum is 220.

(A proper divisor of a number is a positive factor of that number other than the
number itself. For example, the proper divisors of 6 are 1, 2, and 3.)
A pair of amicable numbers constitutes an aliquot sequence of period 2. It is
unknown if there are infinitely many pairs of amicable numbers.
A related concept is that of a perfect number, which is a number that equals the
sum of its own proper divisors, in other words a number which forms an aliquot
sequence of period 1. Numbers that are members of an aliquot sequence with
period greater than 2 are known as sociable numbers.

The first ten amicable pairs are:

1. (220, 284) 6. (10744, 10856)
2. (1184, 1210) 7. (12285, 14595)
3. (2620, 2924) 8. (17296, 18416)
4. (5020, 5564) 9. (63020, 76084)
5. (6232, 6368) 10. (66928, 66992)

Deficient Number

✓ A number that is larger than the sum of its proper divisors.

✓ Proper divisors are all the positive divisors of a number,
except the number itself.

They are numbers that don't have much value when broken down into a sum of
its proper factors.

For example, the proper factors of

8 are 1, 2, and 4.

➢ This is because a proper factor is any factor of a number except the

number itself. So, 8 is just a factor of itself, it is not a proper factor of 8.

Now, if I add the proper factors of 8 together, I will get another number. Right?

If this new number is less than 8, then 8 is a deficient number.

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1 + 2 + 4 = 7.

The number 7 is less than 8. So, this means that 8 is a deficient number!

Example.
Let's figure out if the number 21 is a deficient number.

Step 1: List the proper factors of the 21.

1, 3, and 7

Step 2: Add the proper factors together to see if the sum is less than 21.
1 + 3 + 7 = 11
11 is less than 21. So, this means that 21 is a deficient number!

Now let's figure out if the number 36 is deficient.

Step 1: List the proper factors of 36.

1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, and 18

Step 2: Add the proper factors together to see if the sum is less than 36.
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 6 + 9 + 12 + 18 = 45
Now 45 is larger than 36. So, 36 is not a deficient number!

Abundant Number
An abundant number is a number where the sum of all its proper factors is larger
than the original number. In other word numbers that are not abundant numbers
are deficient numbers.

In order to determine if a number is abundant, you must first find all of the
number's proper factors. While factors are numbers that you multiply together
to get another number, proper factors are all the factors of the
number except the number itself.

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Example:
Is 24 an abundant number?
Step 1: List all of the proper factors of 24 (remember to not include 24):
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12
Step 2: Add the factors together.
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 12 = 36
➢ Since 36 is greater than 24, 24 is also an abundant number. 36 - 24 = 8
so the abundance of 24 is 8.

Figurate Number
✓ Figurate number is a number that can be shown by taking points, or dots,
and arranging them into a regular shape, such as a triangle or a pentagon.
✓ They are sometimes called polygonal numbers because they are arranged to
form various polygons, or 2-dimensional shapes with three sides or more.

For example, 10 is a figurate number. You can take ten points and arrange them
to make a regular triangle.

You might see figurate numbers ordered to show how they grow. For example,
take a look at the triangular numbers shown in this image: 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, and
21.

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Triangular Numbers
Imagine a triangle with three dots. Each side is two dots long.
Now, imagine that you want to make a bigger triangle. Each side will be one
dot longer. To make that triangle, you will need six dots.
How long would the next triangle's sides be? If you said, four dots, you are
correct! To make a triangle with four dots for each side, your triangular number
would be 10. To make even bigger triangles, keep adding a layer of dots to one
side of your triangle so that it gets larger and larger, while all three sides remain
the same length in dots.

Rectangular & Square Numbers

Rectangular numbers are just like triangular numbers, except that they can be
represented as rectangles. A rectangle has four sides, and the opposite sides are
equal and parallel.
For example, 8, 12, and 15 are all rectangular numbers, but 5, 7, and 23 are not.
If I gave you five round cupcakes, you could not arrange them into a rectangle.
However, you could easily arrange 12 cupcakes in a rectangle.

This cupcake pan is an example of the rectangular number 12.

Square numbers are numbers that can be represented as…squares! They must
have four equal sides. The smallest square number is 1. The largest square
number is the product of any number multiplied by itself.

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Topic 4: Algebraic Identities

Time Allotment: 2 hours

Learning Objectives

Upon the completion of this topic, you are expected to:

✓ Define algebraic identities.
✓ Understand the different algebraic identities.
✓ Solve problems involving algebraic identities.

Presentation of Content

The algebraic equations which are valid for all values of variables in them are
called algebraic identities. They are also used for the factorization of
polynomials. In this way, algebraic identities used in the computation of
algebraic expressions and solving different polynomials. You have already
learned about a few of them in the junior grades

Standard Algebraic Identities List

All the standard Algebraic Identities are derived from the Binomial Theorem,
which is given as:
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 = 𝑛 𝐶0 . 𝑎𝑛 . 𝑏 0 + 𝑛 𝐶1 . 𝑎𝑛−1 . 𝑏1 + ⋯ + 𝑛 𝐶𝑛−1 . 𝑎1 . 𝑏 𝑛−1 + 𝑛 𝐶𝑛 . 𝑎0 . 𝑏𝑛

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Some Standard Algebraic Identities list are given below:

Identity I: (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
Identity II: (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2
Identity III: a2 – b2= (a + b)(a – b)
Identity IV: (x + a)(x + b) = x2 + (a + b) x + ab
Identity V: (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca
Identity VI: (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3ab (a + b)
Identity VII: (a – b)3 = a3 – b3 – 3ab (a – b)
Identity VIII: a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc = (a + b + c)(a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ca)

Example 1: Find the product of (x + 1)(x + 1) using standard algebraic

identities.
Solution: (x + 1)(x + 1) can be written as (x + 1)2. Thus, it is of the form
Identity I where a = x and b = 1. So we have,
(x + 1)2 = (x)2 + 2(x)(1) + (1)2 = x2 + 2x + 1

Example 2: Factorise (x4 – 1) using standard algebraic identities.

Solution: (x4 – 1) is of the form Identity III where a = x2 and b = 1. So we
have,
(x4 – 1) = ((x2)2– 12) = (x2 + 1)(x2 – 1)
The factor (x2 – 1) can be further factorized using the same Identity III where a
= x and b = 1. So,
(x4 – 1) = (x2 + 1)((x)2 –(1)2) = (x2 + 1)(x + 1)(x – 1)

Eample 3: Factorise 16x2 + 4y2 + 9z2 – 16xy + 12yz – 24zx using standard
algebraic identities.
Solution: 16x2 + 4y2 + 9z2– 16xy + 12yz – 24zx is of the form Identity V. So
we have,
16x2 + 4y2 + 9z2 – 16xy + 12yz – 24zx = (4x)2 + (-2y)2 + (-3z)2 + 2(4x)(-2y) +
2(-2y)(-3z) + 2(-3z)(4x)= (4x – 2y – 3z)2 = (4x – 2y – 3z)(4x – 2y – 3z)

Example 4: Expand (3x – 4y)3 using standard algebraic identities.

Solution: (3x– 4y)3 is of the form Identity VII where a = 3x and b = 4y. So,
we have,
(3x – 4y)3 = (3x)3 – (4y)3– 3(3x)(4y)(3x – 4y) = 27x3 – 64y3 – 108x2y +
144xy2

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Example 5: Factorize (x3 + 8y3 + 27z3 – 18xyz) using standard algebraic

identities.
Solution: (x3 + 8y3 + 27z3 – 18xyz) is of the form Identity VIII where a = x, b
= 2y and c = 3z. So, we have,
(x3 + 8y3 + 27z3 – 18xyz) = (x)3 + (2y)3 + (3z)3 – 3(x)(2y)(3z)= (x + 2y +
3z)(x2 + 4y2 + 9z2 – 2xy – 6yz – 3zx)

For more information you may watch:

https://youtu.be/g_7WVf6OhKU

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Summary
This unit deals with

Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans

This topic tends to help learners familiarize the life and works of
Pythagoras and his followers (Pythagoreans). Also, the contributions of
Pythagoras in the field of mathematics and how were they being used in
today’s generation.

Pythagorean Theorem and the Pythagorean Triples

The unit discusses the Pythagorean theorem and Pythagorean Triples, it
also helps learners appreciate the concept for it apparently needed not only
in the curriculum but into their future endeavor.

Discovery of irrational numbers

The unit discusses irrational numbers, it reviews students on how irrational
number was discovered and formulated by mathematician in the early
times Hippasus. The unit also explain perfect numbers, amicable numbers,
deficient numbers, abundant numbers and figurate numbers.

Algebraic Identities
The topic explains the different algebraic identities and how were they
being utilized in the problem. It also helps learners understand/review the
different identities though examples, exercises and problem solving.

References

Internet:
1. https://www.math.uh.edu/~shanyuji/History/h-4.pdf
2. http://www.mathcentre.ac.uk/resources/uploaded/mc-ty-pythagoras-
2009-1.pdf
3. https://www.philosophybasics.com/philosophers_pythagoras.html
4. https://busy.org/@mathworksheets/history-of-mathematics-the-great-
greeks-pythagoras-and-the-pythagoreans
5. https://www.mathsisfun.com/pythagorean_triples.html
6. https://www.britannica.com/science/perfect-number
7. https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-a-deficient-number.html
8. https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-are-figurate-numbers-
definition-examples.html

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9. https://byjus.com/maths/algebraic-identities/

Book:
1. History of Mathematics, Volumes I and II, D.E Smith, 1953.
2. A History of Greek Mathematics- Volume I from Thales to Euclid, Sir
Thomas Heath, 1921.
3. The Irrationals: A Story of the Numbers You Can't Count on, Julian
Havil, 2012.

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