COMPUTER OPERATIONS & PACKAGES

MODULE

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DEFINE A COMPUTER
 An electronic machine that works under the control of stored programs to accept,
process & output data/information for use by the operator.
 A device that accepts data, processes the data in accordance with a stored
program, generates results, and usually consists of input, output, storage, and
arithmetic, logic, and control units.
 A functional unit that can perform substantial computation, including numerous
arithmetic operations or logic operations, without human intervention during a run.

Computer software: Written coded commands that tell a computer what tasks to perform.
For example, Word, PhotoShop, Picture Easy, and Photo Deluxe are software programs.
or
Coded instructions (programs) that make a computer do useful work.

Stand alone computer: A computer that is not connected to any other computer. All its
resources are dedication to a single user

Computer network: It is an interconnection of at least two computers. It is meant to

facilitate data communication.

Input devices: They are special devices that are used to capture data from various
external sources into a computer e.g keyboard, disk drive ,tape drive, scanner, touch
screen, voice recognition system.

Output devices: devices and materials that are used for data storage purposes e.g paper,
disks, tapes.

Peripheral devices: Devices that can be connected to a computer to enhance its

capabilities but a computer can do without them e.g printer, mouse, scanner, graph plotter.

Computer program:

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  A set of instructions, written in a specific programming language, which a computer
follows in processing data, performing an operation, or solving a logical problem.
See also software.
 A computer program is a set of statements or instructions to be used directly or
indirectly in a computer in order to bring about a certain result.

STATE THE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

 Input unit
 Output unit
 Main memory
 Central processing unit [ALU & CU]

A DIAGRAM SHOWING THE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM.

CPU Control unit-
issues commands to computer
elements & interpret stored
instructions

Arithmetic &
logic unit- performs
arithmetic & logic
Input Unit operations Output Unit
Data & Information after
instructions processing

Main Memory-
Holds data & instructions &
results of processing
-RAM -ROM

Backing/Auxiliary
Storage- supplements
the main storage.

The CPU consists of the ALU & CU

KEY
Data Instructions

Command Flow
DESCRIBE THE FUNCTIONS OF EACH COMPONENT.

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DESCRIBE THE FUNCTIONS OF EACH COMPONENT?
PROCESSING DEVICE

The only processing device on a computer is The Central Processing unit known as the
CPU. It is the main part of the computer as all other devices are built around it. It can be
referred to as the heart or brain behind the computer.

Functions of the Central Processing Unit (CPU)

a) It interprets the instruction in the program according to the type and sequence of
processing operations that are to be performed on input data.
b) Performs the varied arithmetic and logic operations that are necessary to
convert input data into output information.
c) Stores intermediate results of data being processed on its registers.
d) Directs or controls output to all other devices (input, output, auxiliary storage
units), telling each what to do and when to do it.

CPU COMPONENTS

It consists of the control unit (CU) and Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU). In most
computers the two components - CU and ALU units - are combined in a unit called
the microprocessor (CPU).

The Control Unit

The Control Unit manages input/output to and from the main memory and to and
from auxiliary storage units and output devices. It interprets instructions in their
sequence, It determines what is to be done to follow the instruction and, transmits to
the appropriate device directions specifying the work to be done. For example, it
advises each input device what data to transfer, when to transfer it, and when to
send the data. It arranges for data to move from the main memory to the ALU and
spells out the calculating and logic operations that are to be performed, and then
arranges to send the processed results to main storage or to an output device for
printing or display.

The ALU
The Arithmetic Logical Unit has 2 functions i.e. to perform calculations and logic
operations at a fast speed (measured in nanoseconds, i.e. billionths of a second). It
consists of registers (special storage locations to hold the data to be processed),

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 and an accumulator to store intermediate results of operations. Logic operations
compare values for greater, smaller or equal.

CPU speed
The CPU speed is measured in Megahertz (MHz) being millions of instructions that
can be executed per second (MIPS). Each computer has specified the processor
speed.

STORAGE DEVICES

These are devices that store information permanently. They are also known as
Auxiliary storage devices or Secondary storage devices. They include:-

a) THE HARD DISK

A fixed device for storing information within the computer system unit. The disk is
not moveable and is also referred to as the C:\ drive. The amount of disk space a
computer has determines the power of a computer. It provides fast access known
as Random access and has high-speed storage.

b) FLOPPY DISKETTE
An external form of storage used for back up. Information can be deleted and
rewritten and re-saved. The storage device is common for microcomputers. The
disks are either High density or double density disks because data is stored more
densely/ compactly than on regular density disks. Common size of disk is
31/2inches.

ADVANTAGES OF FLOPPY DISKETTES

1. They are cheaper than Hard disks and CD-ROMS
2. They are portable hence used to transfer data or information from one computer to
another
3. They offer direct access and they are faster than magnetic tapes

DISADVANTAGES OF FLOPPY DISKETTES

1. They are prone to viruses
2. They are difficult to handle
3. They can easily be corrupted
4. They have a relatively short life span
5. They hold relatively small amounts of data
6. They are not always 100% reliable

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CARE AND HANDLING OF A FLOPPY DISKETTE
1. Don’t put the diskette near any magnetic field.
2. Don’t put the diskette near any electronic motor.
3. Don’t expose the diskette to direct sunshine or heat.
4. Store the diskette in a cool dry dust-free environment.
5. Don’t spill liquid onto the diskette.
6. Don’t use any diskette which has had liquids spilled on it.
7. Don’t bend or fold a diskette.
8. Don’t staple labels onto the diskette.
9. Use a soft pencil or felt-tip pen when writing on diskette labels, as the pressure of
a ballpoint may leave indentations on the magnetic surface.
10. Don’t touch the magnetic surface (the black plastic like plate) of the disk, as your
fingerprints may hinder the drive in reading from and writing to the disk .

c) CATRIDGE TAPE
Data is recorded in the form of magnetized spots on an iron oxide coating of a
plastic tape. Gaps are used to separate individual data records. The tape is similar
to audiotapes. Access of information from the tape is in sequential form and thus
slow.

d) CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory)

Beams of laser light are used to write on optical disks by magnetic means. After
writing, the disk can only be read from and not written to. Access to information is
direct and very fast.

e) WORM (Write Once, Read Many)

WORM Disks allow microcomputers with the proper drive known as a CD Rewriters
(or a burner) to record own data on a blank CD. Once the recording is done, the
disk can only be read from and cannot be rewritten.
Erasable optical disks are also available and are known as EPROM. The major
advantage of optical disks is their storage capacity. The information on one optical
requires multiple floppies.

f) DVD (Digital Versatile Disks)

A form of optical disks similar to CD ROMS but has much more storage
capacities of up to 3.9GB. They support audio and video as well as
data on the same disk.

g) ZIP DISKS

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 These are high capacity removable diskettes. They have gained favor for back-up
purposes. Some zip disks use magnetic technology and others use laser. They
have a capacity of about 100MB.

Storage devices differ in terms of capacity, cost and access methods. For any
device to be used there is a need for the device drive on the computer e.g. A floppy
disk drive.

DISK CARE

1) Do not expose them to sun or a hot environment.

2) Keep them away from moisture or water.
3) Keep them away from magnetic fields i.e. Phones, tops of some monitors,
magnetized items etc..
4) Do not touch the actual tape.
5) Keep them away from dust.
6) Do not place heavy objects on them.
7) Write on a floppy disk label only with a felt-tip pen, or write before sticking the label
8) Avoid using rubber bands, paper clips and erasers on floppy disks

HARDWARE CARE
1) Make sure there is enough space for the machines to breathe. (Fresh air is
necessary to make the fan keep the electronics cool).
2) Do not block air vents with books.
3) Keep the computer dry.
4) House the machine in a dust free environment e.g. 1ST floor carpeted-room
(Carpets suck dust) and, use a vacuum cleaner to clean the carpet. (Dust is the
biggest killer of hard drives).
5) Do not expose the machine to extreme temperatures.
6) Properly shut down the machine before turn-off.
7) Pull the plug out of socket when there is thunder and lightning.
8) Do not move the system when the computer is on. The hard drive can be
damaged.
9) Use of UPS- Uninterruptible Power Supply in case of power failures,
10) Use of Surge Protectors against too high voltages.

DEFINE HARDWARE & GIVE EXAMPLES.

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  Hardware comprises all of the physical parts of a computer, as distinguished from
the data it contains or operates on, and the software that provides instructions for
the hardware to accomplish tasks.
DEFINE SOFTWARE & GIVE EXAMPLES.
 Computer software (or simply software) refers to one or more computer programs
and data held in the storage of a computer for some purpose.
 Program software performs the function of the program it implements, either by
directly providing instructions to the computer hardware or by serving as input to
another piece of software.

TYPE OF COMPUTERS/COMPUTER CATEGORIES

 Supercomputers
 Mainframes
 Minicomputers
 Microcomputers
Supercomputers
 Describes a category of extremely powerful computers specifically designed for high-
speed numeric computation.
 The computers can process hundreds of millions of instructions per second.
 High capacity computers capable of executing instructions faster than main frame & are
extremely expensive.
 The speed of executing these instructions generates extreme heat, and therefore the
computers require special cooling system to operate.
 Uses include weather forecasting, scientific and mathematical research, and design of
high-speed aircraft and space exploration.
Mainframes
 Are large, powerful computers that are physically larger than micros and minis and
usually have one or more central processors with faster instruction processing speeds?
 They typically process hundreds of millions of instructions per second.
 Mainframes have large primary storage capacities.
 Many mainframe models have the ability to service hundreds of users at once.
 Some commercial organizations require large amounts of data to be processed in the
list possible time.
 Mainframes allow one to perform such functions
 Uses of mainframes include: data warehousing, commercial airline ticketing &
reservations, government record keeping & financial servicing
 Application categories: Host computers, Database servers, and Transaction
processors.

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Minicomputers
 Are larger and more powerful than most microcomputers but are smaller and less
powerful than most mainframe computer systems.
 Serve in industrial process-control manufacturing plant computers and play a major role
in CAM.
 Also take the form of powerful technical workstations for CAD applications.
 Often used as front-end processors/computers to help mainframe computers control
data communications networks with large numbers of data entry terminals.
 Also used as powerful Network servers to help manage large interconnected LANs that
tie together many workstations
 Downsizing is a term that was commonly used in the early nineties when smaller
computers, capable of much of the functions of mainframes, began capturing the
computer market.
 Minicomputers are suitable for mid-sized companies that require the computing power
of mainframes to be efficient and at the same time be cost effective.
 Users of mini-computers would be smaller banks & financial institutions, supermarket
chains and departmental stores.
 Application categories: Network servers, and Application systems
Microcomputers
 We refer to a microcomputer as a personal computer or PC.
 Microcomputers categorized by size include: Desktops, Laptops for example.
 Most microcomputers are single user computers.
 The late nineties have seen a huge influx of microcomputers whose sole aim was to
provide affordable computing power to the general public.
 They are now used as Network servers. The demand for microcomputers and the
changes in microchip technology have produced cheaper computers that are affordable
to students and the general public.
 Can support CAD.
 Users of microcomputers range from students, who use them for word processing, to a
salesperson. Who depend on the microcomputer for information?
 Application categories: PCs, Network servers.
 Network servers are powerful microcomputers that controls & coordinates
communication & resource sharing in LANs of interconnected PCs & other devices.

The main differences among the above computer types are in:
 Processing speed,
 Memory capacity
 Number and capabilities or peripheral devices that can be attached to the
computer
 Usage.

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COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

a) Business- for administration, payroll and accounting.

b) Government- keeping database records.
c) Education- Record keeping, accounting and training in the classroom.
d) Health- Record keeping, life-support systems.
e) Sport- fitness monitoring.
f) Art and Design- desktop Publishing, technical graphics, Computer Aided
Design.
g) Homes- PCs for home accounts, games, e-mail, online shopping, home
education etc.
h) Banks- Record keeping and updating, on-line Automated Teller Machines
(ATMs).
i) Supermarkets- Electronic point Of Sale Machines (EPOS) – tills.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN BUYING A PERSONAL COMPUTER

Shopping for a personal computer (PC) can be enjoyable, or it can be frustrating.

Unfortunately, some shoppers believe all personal computers are alike so their main
objective is to find the cheapest one. Doing so can be a mistake. The old saying "You get
what you pay for" is true. Many buyers have later discovered the computer they
purchased lacked important components and features. Avoid making this mistake. The
following sections provide some useful guidelines to help you in your search for the right
PC.
• Plan Before You Buy
Before spending your money, prepare a written list of your computing needs
and how and where you will be using your new system. Following is a list of
questions that will help you identify your needs.
1. How much can I afford to pay for a computer? Prices of personal computers
range from a few hundred to thousands of dollars. Faster and more feature-rich
PCs are usually more expensive. Also, personal computers soon become
obsolete. Within a few years you may want or need one that is faster and more
versatile.

2. Where will my new PC be used? If you will be using it only in your home or
office, a desktop computer will be suitable. However, if you will need to take it
with you, you should consider purchasing a laptop (notebook) computer
weighing 4 pounds or less.

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3. Which applications will I run on my computer? Make a list of applications for
which you plan to use your PC. For example, will you use your PC to prepare
letters and reports? Analyze numeric and financial data? Prepare visual
presentations? Access the Internet? Listen to music? Create and work with
graphics?

4. How long will I keep this computer? Try to estimate the length of time (years)
you will use your computer before buying the next one. If you expect use your
PC for several years or if you think you may later want to add new applications,
consider one that is expandable, so you can add new components, such as a
modem, printer, or add-on boards. Make sure the PC has expansion slots so
you can connect these devices to your PC.

5. Check out the manufacturers and seller’s reputations and warranties and
become familiar with various brands and models. Talk with friends, co-
workers, classmates, teachers, and others about their PCs. Ask about the
performance of their PCs and get recommendations from persons you trust.
Eventually you may need to have your PC serviced. Ideally, the vendor has a
service department that can repair your PC. If not, you may need to locate a
third-party to provide this service.

6. PC architecture. PC architecture refers to the design and construction of the

PC and its system unit, and not all architectures are the same. For example, the
architecture of an Apple Macintosh differs from that of an IBM or compatible PC.
Therefore, software written for an Apple Macintosh PC may not run on an IBM or
IBM-compatible PC. Although some users prefer a Macintosh PC, more
software is available for IBM and IBM-compatible PCs.

7. Microprocessor. Selecting the right microprocessor is extremely important.

Processing speed, measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz), is
probably the first consideration. The higher the number of MHz or GHz, the
faster the processor will manipulate data. If speed is important, consider
choosing a microprocessor with a speed of 866 MHz or more. PCs containing
microprocessors with speeds up to 1.5 GHz and higher are available.

8. Main memory. Main memory (RAM) is needed for the temporary storage of
programs and data while the data is being processed. Some application
software requires a considerable amount of RAM to function properly, and
newer software versions usually require more RAM than older versions. Typical

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 PCs now come with 64 megabytes (MB), 128 MB, or more of RAM. Make
certain the PC has sufficient RAM to run the software you will be using.

9. Secondary storage. What type(s) and amounts of secondary storage are you
likely to need? Typical computers come with a floppy disk drive and a hard disk
drive already installed. A standard floppy disk can store up to 1.44 MB of data,
although other types of floppy disks are available that provide greater storage
capacity. A hard disk drive contains one or more rigid storage platters and
provides for the permanent storage of considerably more data. However, the
disk itself cannot be removed from the drive. The storage capacity of a hard disk
is an important consideration because it is used to store all system and
application software. Typical hard disk capacities are 20, 40, or 60 GB and
more. Be certain the PC you are considering has sufficient secondary capacity
for your needs.Other secondary storage devices and media are available. CD-
ROM drives provide high storage capacities. Most software publishers store
their programs on CD-ROM because of the high capacity and because CD-
ROMs operate faster than floppy disks. If you will use your PC to play movies,
your purchase should include a DVD (digital video disk) drive. If you will work
with large files, consider purchasing a computer that includes a CD-RW drive.
A CD-RW disk is a reusable high-capacity disk that allows you to store huge
amounts of data and to erase data no longer needed.

10. Ports. The number of ports (slots) available inside the system unit determines
the number of add-on boards that can be installed inside the system unit. For
example, you cannot connect a printer to your computer unless your computer
is equipped with an appropriate port (slot). Be sure the PC contains the
necessary slots for the add-on boards and peripheral devices you will be using
with your computer.

11. Input Devices. Typical input devices are a keyboard and a mouse, although
other kinds of input devices are available. Most keyboards and mice operate
similarly. However, there are slight differences in how each "feels" to the user.
Before buying a PC, you may want to test the keyboard and mouse for comfort
and ease of use. Some sellers will allow you to exchange the keyboard or
mouse that comes with the computer for a different one.

12. Output Devices. Output devices produce output in either soft copy or hard copy
form. Most PCs come with a monitor (for soft copy output), but you may have to
purchase a hard copy device, such as a printer, separately.

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13. Monitors. There are wide differences among PC monitors, with resolution
being perhaps the most important variable. Resolution refers to the clarity of the
text and images being displayed. Before making a purchase, carefully evaluate
the monitor’s resolution. Many vendors allow you to choose from monitors with
varying resolutions. A resolution of 1,024 by 1,024 is considered high-resolution,
in which text and images display exceptionally clearly. High-resolution monitors
are typically more expensive.Monitor size is another important consideration.
Viewing areas range from 15 diagonal inches to 21 inches and higher. Larger
monitors are usually more expensive, but may be worth the extra cost. For
example, an individual with weak vision may prefer a larger monitor. If your
desktop space is limited, consider purchasing a flat-panel monitor, which
occupies less space. Flat-panels are more expensive than standard monitors,
however.

14. Printers. Two popular types of printers are inkjet and laser, both of which are
versatile and capable of producing high-quality output in color. Examine a
variety of printers and models and check the price and output quality of each
type and model.
Most inkjet printers are quiet, produce high-quality output, and are
relatively inexpensive, although the ink cartridges they use can be
expensive. Print resolution is an important factor to consider. Some offer
impressive resolution and can produce output of amazing color.
Laser printers are fast and can produce high-quality output in both black
and color tones. Color laser printers are more expensive than those using
only black toner. The cost of color laser printers ranges from a few
hundred to thousands of dollars. Choose Software to Match Your
Needs List

NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR AN IDEAL COMPUTER ROOM ENVIRONMENT.

1. Cleanliness [books, manuals not encouraged] because they bring dust &
caught fire easily.
2. Air conditioners, which control the room and dehumidates it.
3. It should be dust free; dust is the biggest “killer” of hard drives.
4. No carpets, they caught fire more easily.
5. You are not allowed to eat, smoke or drink in the computer room.
6. No magnetic material should be in the computer room.

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 7. The computer room should be located in such a way that computers are not
exposed to direct sunlight or hot environments, use curtains if otherwise.
8. The computer room should be fitted with burglar bars, alarm systems, or
guarded 24hours to ensure security.
9. The computer room should have surge protectors or suppressors to guard
against electrical faults and high voltages.
10. The computer room should have UPS [uninterrupted power supply] in case of
power failures, which may be fatal.

DUTIES & RESPONSIBILITIES OF COMPUTER PERSONNEL

 Computer support specialists provide technical assistance, support, and advice

to customers and other users. This occupational group includes technical support
specialists and help-desk technicians. These troubleshooters interpret problems
and provide technical support for hardware, software, and systems. They answer
telephone calls, analyze problems by using automated diagnostic programs, and
resolve recurring difficulties. Support specialists may work either within a company
that uses computer systems or directly for a computer hardware or software
vendor. Increasingly, these specialists work for help-desk or support services firms,
for which they provide computer support to clients on a contract basis.
 Technical support specialists answer telephone calls from their organizations’
computer users and may run automatic diagnostics programs to resolve problems.
Working on monitors, keyboards, printers, and mice, they install, modify, clean, and
repair computer hardware and software. They also may write training manuals and
train computer users in how to use new computer hardware and software. In
addition, technical support specialists oversee the daily performance of their
company’s computer systems and evaluate software programs with regard to their
usefulness.
 Help-desk technicians assist computer users with the inevitable hardware and
software questions that are not addressed in a product’s instruction manual. Help-
desk technicians field telephone calls and e-mail messages from customers who
are seeking guidance on technical problems. In responding to these requests for
guidance, help-desk technicians must listen carefully to the customer, ask questions
to diagnose the nature of the problem, and then patiently walk the customer through
the problem-solving steps.Help-desk technicians deal directly with customer issues,
and companies value them as a source of feedback on their products. These
technicians are consulted for information about what gives customers the most

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 trouble, as well as other customer concerns. Most computer support specialists start
out at the help desk.
 Network administrators and computer systems administrators design, install,
and support an organization’s local-area network (LAN), wide-area network (WAN),
network segment, Internet, or intranet system. They provide day-to-day onsite
administrative support for software users in a variety of work environments,
including professional offices, small businesses, government, and large
corporations. They maintain network hardware and software, analyze problems, and
monitor the network to ensure its availability to system users. These workers gather
data to identify customer needs and then use the information to identify, interpret,
and evaluate system and network requirements. Administrators also may plan,
coordinate, and implement network security measures.
 Systems administrators are the information technology employees responsible for
the efficient use of networks by organizations. They ensure that the design of an
organization’s computer site allows all of the components, including computers, the
network, and software, to fit together and work properly. Furthermore, they monitor
and adjust the performance of existing networks and continually survey the current
computer site to determine future network needs. Administrators also troubleshoot
problems reported by users and by automated network monitoring systems and
make recommendations for enhancements in the implementation of future servers
and networks.
 In some organizations, computer security specialists may plan, coordinate, and
implement the organization’s information security. These workers may be called
upon to educate users about computer security, install security software, monitor
the network for security breaches, respond to cyber attacks, and, in some cases,
gather data and evidence to be used in prosecuting cyber crime. The
responsibilities of computer security specialists has increased in recent years as
there has been a large increase in the number of cyber attacks on data and
networks. This and other growing specialty occupations reflect an increasing
emphasis on client-server applications, the expansion of Internet and intranet
applications, and the demand for more end-user support.
 Computer programmers write, test, and maintain the detailed instructions, called
programs, that computers must follow to perform their functions. Programmers also
conceive, design, and test logical structures for solving problems by computer.
Programmers write programs according to the specifications determined primarily
by computer software engineers and systems analysts.After the design process is
complete, it is the job of the programmer to convert that design into a logical series
of instructions that the computer can follow. The programmer codes these
instructions in a conventional programming language such as COBOL; an artificial
intelligence language such as Prolog; or one of the most advanced object-oriented

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 languages, such as Java, C++, or ACTOR. Different programming languages are
used depending on the purpose of the program.
 Data preparation staff
Are those people responsible for the translation of data into machine readable form.
 Computer scientists work as theorists, researchers, or inventors. Their jobs are
distinguished by the higher level of theoretical expertise and innovation they apply
to complex problems and the creation or application of new technology. Those
employed by academic institutions work in areas ranging from complexity theory to
hardware to programming-language design. Some work on multidisciplinary
projects, such as developing and advancing uses of virtual reality, extending
human-computer interaction, or designing robots. Their counterparts in private
industry work in areas such as applying theory; developing specialized languages or
information technologies; or designing programming tools, knowledge-based
systems, or even computer games.
 Data entry and information processing workers help ensure the smooth and
efficient handling of information. By keying in text, entering data into a computer,
operating a variety of office machines, and performing other clerical duties, these
workers help organizations keep up with the rapid changes that are characteristic of
today’s “Information Age.” In addition to the job titles discussed below—such as
word processors, typists, and data entry keyers—data entry and information
processing workers are known by various other titles, including electronic data
processors, keypunch technicians, and transcribers.
 Data entry keyers usually input lists of items, numbers, or other data into
computers or complete forms that appear on a computer screen. They also may
manipulate existing data, edit current information, or proofread new entries into a
database for accuracy. Some examples of data sources include customers’
personal information, medical records, and membership lists. Usually, this
information is used internally by a company and may be reformatted before other
departments or customers utilize it.
 DATA CONTROL is our customer services area for all agencies that utilize
Information Technology's services for reports of any kind. This section receives and
distributes all incoming data for appropriate processing; they set up batch reporting
for all agencies and submit schedules for processing to Computer Operations. After
processing has occurred, they check and distribute reports to all customers. This
area interacts with agency customers and other Information Technology areas to
resolve processing problems. This area maintains all tape media including updating
the tape inventory system and it also has responsibility for off site tape storage.
Updating the Information Technology web page using HTML and other software
tools is done by Data Control. Data Control is also responsible for all data

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 preparation prior to centralized processing. Assisting the paper peripheral area and
reception area are also functions of this section.
 COMPUTER OPERATIONS is responsible for the operation of all enterprise, Unix,
NT, and Windows 2000 servers, Unix and personal computers that are utilized to
service the County's customer base. This area receives all hardware service calls,
assists in terminal and communication equipment installation and
software/hardware trouble diagnosis. Processing of all batch production work as
well as all paper peripheral processing are also functions of Computer Operations.
 A position as a Network Manager, for example, managing a Trusts IT network
infrastructure and providing technical support and advice to the client organisations.
This type of post would usually require the postholder to be educated to degree
level or equivalent standard and to have considerable experience of network
management and protocols including TCP/IP. Additional requirements might include
experience in the management of industry standard network operating systems
such as Novell NetWare, UNIX and MS Windows NT & 2000 server, together with
skills in the use of database applications, such as Oracle, email server applications
such as MS Exchange 5.5 or 2000 and PC applications such as MS Office & XP.

DATA SECURITY /PROTECTION

 Data Security/Protection
 Refers to keeping data safe from various hazards or dangers like natural
hazards, deliberate corruption or destruction of software & hardware by
malicious or terrorist acts, illegal access to data by hackers [people who break
into the system] & accidental destruction of data by hardware or software failure
[operator error].

MEASURES TO ENSURE DATA SECURITY

1. Data Encryption/Decryption- Data is coded before transmission over a WAN &
decrypted only if you have the key & code to decrypt the data on the receiving end.
The process of transforming a message in ordinary language i.e. plain text to
produce what is called cipher text which is then send along a communication
line/link. The receiving computer uses another transformation to decode the
message.

Definitions of decryption on the Web:

 The process of converting encrypted content back into its original form, often the
process of converting cipher text to plaintext. Decryption is the opposite of encryption.

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Definitions of encryption on the Web:

 Any procedure used in cryptography to convert plaintext into cipher text in order to
prevent anyone except the intended recipient from reading that data. There are many
types of data encryption, and they are the basis of network security. Common types
include Data Encryption Standard and public-key encryption.

Definitions of cipher text on the Web:

 Data that has been transformed by encryption so that its semantic information content
(ie, its meaning) is no longer intelligible or directly available.

2. Firewall- a firewall is a software program designed to prevent unauthorized access to a

PC or network through a connection to the Internet. It works by monitoring all data sent to
and from the PC and comparing the data with a set of user-defined security criteria. Any
data that does not meet that criteria is blocked. Firewalls also process encrypted data.
They verify the validity of the user. User would require access to the firewall before they
can transmit data. Latest firewalls also have the ability to detect virus software in packets of
data that is sent through the network. Firewalls disallow data transmission if it detects
strains of virus on the data being transmitted.

Definitions of firewall on the Web:

 A firewall is a hardware or software solution to enforce security policies. In the physical

security analogy, a firewall is equivalent to a door lock on a perimeter door or on a door
to a room inside of the building - it permits only authorized users such as those with a
key or access card to enter. A firewall has built-in filters that can disallow unauthorized
or.

3. Usernames & Passwords-Passwords restrict only authorized

personnel/users to have access to the data or computer rooms [cards].
Passwords bring in an aspect of accountability, if a file is deleted, the person
with the password will be reported as the culprit through logging. Passwords
can be forgotten. Widely used by companies to protect their equipment &
data
4. Authorized entry to computer installations-Most installations have card
readers, voice recognition systems or keypads on the doors that prohibit
entry to unauthorized personnel.

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 5. Backing-up files on external disks periodically.
6. Keeping backup copies of files in a different location and making about 3
generations of backup.
7. Saving work frequently
8. Avoiding viruses.
9. Restricting access to the computer room. Access could be only through
codes, voice recognition etc.
10. Installing fire alarms.
11. Lining computer rooms with fire resistant material.
12. Placing the computer room in upper floors of a building to avoid
burglaries.
13. Having a security guard overnight

 BACK UP
 Copying or saving data to a different location. One can restore the backup
copy if data is lost or damaged.
 To create a copy of a disk’s contents on another location for safe keeping.
Since hard drives are not infallible, it is recommended that you backup its
contents regularly.

DISASTER PLANNING
 Many companies have comprehensive emergency plans so that even after suffering a
severe:
 Bomb
 Fire damage
 Natural disaster, the company can be up and running within a day or
two.

 A disaster recovery service/programme provides for example

 Office space
 Computer facilities
 Phones
 Desks, at an emergency BACKUP site.

 A completely up to date copy of the company Database may be permanently

maintained at this site with all transactions being transmitted to this remote site
updating the database, copying etc.
 The data should be backed up/stored to one or more media to ensure recovery in
case of disaster.

19
 The back up procedures and media should be tested periodically to assess their
effectiveness.

Definitions of disaster plan on the Web:

 The documented policies and procedures intended to either prevent damage,

minimize damage, or recover from damage to record materials.

Definitions of disaster recovery plan on the Web:

 The document that defines the resources, actions, tasks and data required to
manage the business recovery process in the event of a business interruption. The
plan is designed to assist in restoring the business process within the stated
disaster recovery goals.
 Part of an overall contingency plan. The plan for a process whereby an enterprise
would restore any loss of data in the event of fire, vandalism, natural disaster, or
system failure.

MAJOR THREATS TO INFORMATION SYSTEMS/COMPUTERS

Explain 5 major threats to information systems; for each threat describe its impact and
preventative measure you would adopt to prevent it. [15].

THREAT IMPACT CONTROL

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Hardware failure  You are grounded  Have spares in the
 You cannot access the warehouse.
system  Do regular servicing
 Data is incorrectly/  Have a disaster plan
incompletely processed  Run hardware
diagnostics frequently

Electrical faults  Loss of data  Have standby

 Disk crushes generators
 Damage to hardware  Install UPS
[uninterrupted power
supply]
 Install Surge
suppressors/
protectors
Software failures  Operations are  Buy software from
grounded reputable vendors.
 Do regular back ups
 Software diagnostics
Natural disasters/ physical  Absolute destruction  Relocate backups to
threats other areas free from
disasters
Viruses  Deletion & corruption of  Install a reliable anti-
files virus software
 Reformatting of  Never download
documents unknown e-mail
 System may fail to work attachments
 Scan unknown
diskettes
Hackers  Security is breached  Change passwords
 Security is bypassed regularly
 Destruction of files  Employ a security
 Data is stolen guard
 Install a firewall
 Prevent unauthorized
access to computer
facilities.

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Definitions of computer abuse on the Web:

 The willful or negligent unauthorized activity that affects the availability,

confidentiality, or integrity of computer resources. Computer abuse includes fraud,
embezzlement, theft, malicious damage, unauthorized use, denial of service, and
misappropriation

Definitions of hacking on the Web:

 Unauthorized use, or attempts to circumvent or bypass the security mechanisms of

an information system or network. Hacking means illegally accessing other
people's computer systems for destroying, disrupting or carrying out illegal activities
on the network or computer systems.

DATA INTEGRITY/RELIABILITY
 Refers to the correctness AND The accuracy of data after being transmitted or
processed
 Data in the computer system may become incorrect, corrupted or of poor quality in
many different ways & at any stage during data processing.

 Consequences of system failure:

 Loss of business due downtime
 Delays
 Air traffic control system could well have catastrophic results

COMPUTER CRIME/FRAUD
 Hacking i.e.
Hackers are users of computer systems that gain unauthorized access into a
computer system.
Cracking of ineffective security systems so as to gain unauthorized access to
commercially sensitive or confidential personal files
 Computer Fraud/Crime
 Criminal actions accomplished through the use of computer systems,
especially with the intent to defraud, destroy, damage, or make unauthorized
use of computer resources.
 E.g. improper transfer of funds from one account to another

TYPES OF COMPUTER CRIME/FRAUD

a) Intellectual Crime – cracking into a computer system for the purpose of
transferring or obtaining funds is a typical e.g.

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 b) Destruction of property – destroying a computer property
c) Theft – Software piracy which is unauthorized copying of software.
Hardware & software being taken away without the knowledge/consent of its
owners.
d) Fraud achieved by the manipulation of computer records.
e) * Spamming wherever outlawed completely or where regulations controlling
it are violated.
f) * Deliberate circumvention of computer security systems.
g) * Unauthorized access to or modification of
o programs (see software cracking and hacking).
o data.
h) * Intellectual property theft, including software piracy.
i) * Industrial espionage by means of access to or theft of computer materials.
j) * Identity theft where this is accomplished by use of fraudulent computer
transactions.
k) * Writing or spreading computer viruses or worms.
l) * Salami slicing is the practice of stealing money repeatedly in extremely
small quantities.
m) * Denial-of-service attack, where company websites are flooded with service
requests and their website is overloaded and either slowed or crashes
completely.
n) * Making and digitally distributing child pornography

MEASURES TO COUNTER OR COMBAT COMPUTER CRIME [COMPUTER

SECURITY]
 Careful vetting of employees
 Separation of duties
 Use of passwords
 Security manager software-to monitor attempts to access the system
whether successful or not.
 Educating staff
 Prevention of unauthorized access to the computer operations room
 Data Encryption/Decryption

COMPUTER VIRUS
What is it?
 An executable computer program written intentionally to alter the way a
computer operates without permission, to do harm to the computer.
 Program viruses e.g. cascade, pacman 1508, override.

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  Boot viruses e.g. pasta, pentagon, Michelangelo
 Internet Viruses e.g. Trojan horse, Stealth

What Viruses Do? /Signs & symptoms of an infected computer.

 Reduced memory or disk space
 Files are overwritten or damaged
 Hard drive may be erased
 Data is modified /corrupted.
 Change files & date stamp
 Drive lights blink without reason
 Longer times are experienced when loading programs
 Slower system operation.
How computers are infected with Viruses?
 Use of infected floppy diskettes on uninfected computers
 Downloading unknown files, when your computer is connected to the
Internet.
 Opening an E-mail attachment
 Accepting program installations from the internet
 Use of network files/direct connection/through networks.
 Copying Game programs e.g. Pac man
 Software piracy [buying software from unauthorized agents]
Antivirus tools/packages/software
1) Dr Solomon’s Antiviral Package
2) Norton Antivirus Package
3) A.V.G
4) Microsoft Antiviral Package
5) McAfee Antiviral Package.
6) F-PROT anti-virus package
7) Protector Plus 2000 for Windows ver 7.2.H03
8) Anti Trojan Elite ver 3.7.5
9) Panda Antivirus platinum 7 ver 7.06
10) AntiSpy ver 4.4.2
11) avast! 4 Professional Edition ver 4.6.652
12) DrWeb® Anti-Virus, Home Edition ver 4.30a
13) Dr.Web Anti-Virus for Workstations ver 4.30.a
14) File Sharing Sentinel ver 1.0.1
15) Real Password Protector 2005 ver 2.0
16) Code(Red) Hunter v1.5 ver v1.5
17) Digital Patrol ver 5.00.12

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Scanner – examine every file on a specific disk drive, looking/searching for known virus
“signatures”. A “signature” is a string of software code that identifies a virus program. Every
virus has a unique signature

Precautions/Safety guides against viruses

 Install a reliable antiviral package
 Avoid Software piracy thus buy software from authorized dealers.
 Never download unknown files from the internet
 Boot the system from virus free disks
 Using write protect tabs on floppy disks
 Scan every floppy diskette for viruses before use. Unknown floppy diskettes
should not be used

HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES

 Defined
 A programming language that utilizes macro instructions and statements that
closely resembles human language or mathematical notation to describe the
problem to be solved or the procedure to be used.
 Compiler language
 Examples
 Pascal, JAVA, VISUAL BASIC,
 COBOL
 BASIC
 FORTRAN
 ALGOL
 Advantages
 Programs are much easier to write/read because they are next to English
 It is a portable language
 Errors are removed before translation to Machine code [during compiling].
 Programs are problem oriented [written for specific problems].
 Disadvantages
 Programs tend to be wordy hence they take long to compile
 Slower in execution
 Requires more memory as implication on hardware.
 Language translator programs
 A Translator is a program that translates a source program/code into an
equivalent object code [machine code] before the program is executed by
the computer.
 Compiler

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  Translates a complete program written in HLL into machine
code before it is executed.
 Produces a translated document.
 E.g. COBOL compiler.
 Assembler
 Translates a source program written in assembly language
into machine code.
 Interpreter
 A computer program that translates one statement at a time
[source code] and generates the machine code for that statement
only & executes it there & there before moving to the next
line/statement.
 Interpreter translates line per line and does not produce a
translated document.
 E.g. Pascal Interpreter, BASIC Interpreter.

Compare & contrast Interpreter & Compiler

 Compiler- fast execution of program.
 Interpreter- Slowed down execution of program.
 Compiler- compiler time overhead.
 Interpreter- No compiler time overhead
 Compiler- Stand alone executables
 Interpreter- Dependency on interpreter
 Compiler- Compiler is complex [time, space]
 Interpreter- Relative simplicity of interpreter
List the advantages & disadvantages of interpreters & compilers.
 A compiled program will always run faster than an interpreted one
 Object code generated by compilers may be saved on disk & run
as many times as required without being compiled.
 A compiler gives more helpful error messages.
 Compiler gives the line number where the error has occurred.
 An interpreter will find the error at the first instance whereas the
compiler will list all errors after compiling.
 A compiler will check the syntax of the entire program whereas
the interpreter only checks the syntax of statements that are
executed during that particular run of a program.
 Interpreters are very convenient for program development, since
making modifications does not mean the whole program has to be
reloaded & recompiled which takes considerable time.
 Interpreter is cheaper than compiler & is simpler to use

26
  Many interpreters will allow a program to run up to a point where
an error occurs, let the programmer fix the error & then continue
to run the program from that point.
 With an interpreter debugging is easier since the code is executed
line by line.
 Line by line interpretation can be slow
 Interpreter can test your code as you write it
 With an Interpreter there is no need to create object code & link
programs.
5. LOW LEVEL LANGUAGES
 Defined
Use representations of binary digits arranged in a sequence of instructions
determined by the logic the program is supposed to execute.
Also known as assembly language
Low level means the language can better communicate with the system.
 Examples
Assembly language
Machine language
 Advantages
They are powerful languages
 Disadvantages
Much harder to code for programmers
It is not portable, it is machine dependent.

GENERIC SOFTWARE AND THE ORGANISATION OF DATA

Define Software
Are basically programs, which are in a computer system?
Computer programs and procedures concerned with the operation of a computer system.

Definitions of software on the Web:

27
  Written coded commands that tell a computer what tasks to perform. For example,
Word, PhotoShop, Picture Easy, and Photo Deluxe are software programs.

 Coded instructions (programs) that make a computer do useful work.

TYPES OF SOFTWARE

 SYSTEM SOFTWARE
Programs that control and support operations of a computer system.
System software includes a variety of programs such Operating Systems, DBMS,
Communication control programs. Service and utility programs, and programming
language translators.

Definitions of system software

A term for a complicated set of programs that act together to allow a computer, and other
programs, to function. Different from an page layout application that the user may have,
system software is what allows the page layout application to interact with the monitor
display, the RAM, the hard drive and the rest of the computer.

 OPERATING SYSTEM
The main control of a computer system.
It is a system of programs that controls & coordinates the execution of computer programs
and may provide scheduling, debugging, input/output control, system accounting,
compilation, storage assignment, data management and related services.

Definitions of operating system on the Web:

 The software that the rest of the software depends on to make the computer
functional. On most PCs this is Windows or the Macintosh OS. Unix and Linux are
other operating systems often found in scientific and technical environments.

 A computer program that controls the components of a computer system and

facilitates the operation of applications. Windows Me, Windows XP, Linux, and
MacOS are common operating systems.

 APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Programs that specify the information processing activities required for the completion of
specific tasks of computer users. E.g. Electronic Spreadsheet and word processing
programs or inventory or payroll programs.

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 o Software that is designed and written for a specific personal,
organizational, or processing task, such as graphics software.
 These programs accomplish the specialized tasks of the user, while operating
system software allows the computer to work. A computer-aided dispatch system is
application software, as is each word processing program.
OPERATING SYSTEM
 Definition
 Are programs that create an environment, which enables us to use computers?
 Is an integrated system of program that manages the operations of the CPU,
controls the input/output and storage resources and activities of the computer
system, and provides various support services as the computer executes the
application programs?
 Is a set of software routines that communicate between application programs and
the hardware?
 All communications go through the operating system.
 E.g. when a user issues a command to print, the O/S receives the command
& processes it according to priorities with the use of interrupts.
 Once the processor is free to execute the command, the O/S sends the
message to the processor & receives the output, which is then directed to
the printer.
 Examples:
 NOVELL,VMS, OS/400, AIX, and z/OS, Windows Me, Windows XP, 95,
98,NT 2000, MS Dos, UNIX, Linux, and MacOS are common operating
systems.

 Functions:
 Controls and coordinates the computer system
 Scheduling and loading of jobs to provide continuous processing. So that no parts
of the computer system are idle for any significant period of time.
 It is a platform for application programs
 Provides user interface
 Acts as an interface between hardware and application programs
 Provides error correctional routines
 Control over selection and operation of input-output devices & file handling.
 Records details of processing for control analysis
 File management, control the creation, deletion, saving and access of files
 Resource management manages processor time, memory space, disk space and
peripheral devices.
 Reports errors when they occur.

29
  Task management. Manage the accomplishment of the computing tasks of end
users. It may involve multitasking capability where several computing tasks can
occur at the same time.
 Minimizes the amount of human intervention required during processing.

SYSTEM SOFTWARE- consists of programs that manage and support a computer system
and its information processing activities. These programs serve as a vital software interface
between computer system hardware and the application programs of end users.

3 functional categories
 System management programs

 Programs that manage the hardware, software, and data resources of

the computer system during its execution of the various information
processing jobs of users.
 The most important system management programs are operating
systems and operating environments, followed by
telecommunications monitors & Database Management Systems.

 System support programs

 Programs that support the operations and management of a
computer system by providing a variety of support services.
 Major support programs are system utilities, performance monitors, &
security monitors.

 System development programs

 Programs that help users develop information system
programs and procedures and prepare user programs for
computer processing.
 Major development programs are language translators,
programming tools and CASE [computer-aided software
engineering] packages.

APPLICATION PACKAGES/SOFTWARE
 Are programs that are or were developed to solve specific user problems?
 Word processors and spreadsheets fall into this category.
 Software application packages can be custom built or they can be bought off the
shelf.

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 # APPLICATION SOFTWARE EXAMPLE
1 Word processor Ms word, Word perfect, Word star, [1]
Ms works word processor
2 Spreadsheet Ms Excel, Lotus 1-2-3 [1]
3 Database Ms Access, Dbaseiv, Oracle [1]
4 Payroll Pay plus or Pay well
5 Accounting Pastel, Tetra 2000 [1]
6 Presentation Ms PowerPoint, Lotus freelance [1]
graphs
7 Desktop Publishing Ms publisher, Aldus [1]
8 Multimedia Internet explorer or Netscape
9 Communication Ms Outlook, Ms Exchange [1]
10 Design AutoCAD, CAM [1]

List 5 factors to consider when buying application software. [10].

 Portability, can it be installed on one type of hardware or a variety

 It should be on a media compatible with your computer i.e. if you purchase
software on CD media your computer should have compact disk drive.
 Should include enough documentation such as installation instructions,
system requirements e.g. Pentium 4, reference manual, registration
information, supplier details and user manual.
 Standard software, which is well supported locally i.e. used by most people in
that area
 Is the application upgradeable and does it support future upgrades.
 Is the application from a reputable supplier e.g. Microsoft.
 Do you have enough resources on your PC to install it e.g. it may require
32MB ram, 20GB HDD

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FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN BUYING SOFTWARE/APPLICATION PACKAGES

What factors should I consider when purchasing software?

When evaluating software for potential purchase, consider these questions:

 Does the version of the product that I am considering run on my personal computer
system? Is it compatible with my platform (PC, Macintosh, Sun, and so on)? with the
processor used in my computer (486, Pentium, Motorola 6040, PowerPC, and so on)? and
with the operating system that I am running (DOS, Windows, NeXT Step, UNIX)?
 Is the product compatible with other programs, such as extensions and device drivers, that
I have on my personal computer system?
 Does the product do all that I want it to do? Is it simple enough to use immediately but
powerful enough to provide the capabilities that I will want as my familiarity with the
program increases?
 Is the product an up-to-date, current version or release?
 Does the product have a clear, step-by-step tutorial? Is the product easy to learn?
 Is the product accompanied by clear, easy-to-follow instructions, or documentation?
 Does the manufacturer provide technical assistance? Is a toll-free technical assistance
number included in the software documentation? Does the manufacturer have a bulletin
board or Internet address for technical assistance questions? Does the manufacturer
charge for technical assistance? for product revisions or upgrades?
 Can I find instruction, or training, in the use of the product?
 Is the product from a respected, well known manufacturer?
 Does the program have any known problems, or bugs, and will these affect my use of the
program?
 Does the product come with a warranty, and what are the conditions of that warranty?
 Does the product cost more or less than comparable products on the market?

Benefits of application software to the user.

 Installation should be easy, quick and should be provided by the
vendor/supplier.
 Good documentation is usually provided with the application for reference
purposes.
 Onsite assistance from the supplier or vendor
 Provision of cheaper future upgrades upon acquisition of an application
provided you have completed the registration information.
 Value for money

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CLASSIFICATION OF SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS
1. Commercial / generic Packages
 Commercial software is computer software sold for profit; such software
represented, until recently, the vast majority of all software used.
 These are bought from a vendor.
 Also known as off the shelf packages e.g. MS Office, Pastel.
 Also known as work enhancement applications
 Generic or Off the shelf software has the advantage of cost effectiveness
due to larger market & the ability to incorporate available technology in the
shortest possible time.
These increase the productivity & efficiency in the work place
 Word Processing packages
 Spreadsheet packages
 Database /Information retrieval Packages
 Graphics packages
 Data communications Software
2. Homemade / Customized packages
 Customized software is software designed around a company or other
organization's processes to make those processes more efficient.
 It is distinct from market software [commercial or generic], which approaches
problems in a general way so that the product can be sold to more than one
customer.
 Has been written by the vendor specifically for a user’s needs. Also known as in-
house packages, tailor-made packages.
 E.g. most payroll packages, billing software, product design applications
 Is that application that has been written for a specific user’s needs by a software
vendor.
 It is non-standard software.
Disadvantages
 Being customized, the non-standard software may not be used by any other
organization.
 It has huge support costs after implementation.
 Dependency syndrome with the supplier. There is heavy reliance on the developers
of the software for its continued existence & maintenance
 Future support may be difficult if the supplying company goes under, shuts down, or
liquidate or if its development staff leaves.
 May not be upgradeable and may not run if moved to a new hardware platform.
 You are tied to a supplier of which you may not be willing to have a maintenance
contract with.

33
  Written or Custom-built software performs a defined function and is expensive to
build.
 Custom built is expensive to maintain
 Custom built software has reduced lifespan due to high speed of technological
advancement in the field of computers.
3. Managerial applications
Help to make management decisions
 Decision support systems
 Database Management Systems Report Writing Tools
MAKE NOTES ON:
 How application packages solve problems?
 Typical problems which can be solved by application packages
 Customization of packages using macros

 UTILITY SOFTWARE/ PROGRAMS – They are referred to as service programs for

they provide a useful service to the user by facilitating routine service.
 Also known as System support programs.

 computer programs that help to manage, recover, and back up files.

 Utility software or software utilities are the software bits that function like full
application software but at a smaller "scale" or for a particular purpose. Utility
software have long been integrated in most major operating systems. Windows
Explorer in the MS Windows operating systems is one of the utility software.

Support the operation, management, and users of a computer system by providing
a variety of support services.

 Performs routine support functions for users of a computer system.

 Used for general purpose E.g. Editor Program, Sort program, Copy program, Merge
program etc.
 A component of Operating Systems.

INTEGRATED SOFTWARE APPLICATION PACKAGES

 In integrated software, you will be able to work on a spreadsheet to perform
calculations, store addresses and phone numbers in a database and be able to link
information from the spreadsheet & the database when you work with the word
processor in the integrated package.

34
  Object Linking Embedding [OLE] is a standard that, Allows applications to be linked
together.
 OLE-DB allows applications to import virtually any form of data into the database.

Definitions of integrated software on the Web:

 A group of applications designed to work together and share data easily.

 Software that combines the features of several different applications in a single

program (eg, word processing, database, spreadsheet, graphics, and
communications)..

Advantages of integrated applications

 Easy to use
 Generally costs much less
 Require or needs less RAM
 Ability to pass data from one module to another.
 Takes up much less hard disk space
 Better organization of information. Data is stored in the database, calculations in an
electronic spreadsheet & images in a graphical application package
Disadvantages
 Limited portability. The same applications must exist on every computer that you
wish to open the document.
 Offer fewer features and less versatility than stand alone versions or software.
 Functional limitation. Its rigid you cannot change it to suit your specific needs.
EXAMPLES OF INTEGRATED SOFTWARE
 Microsoft Office 97
 Microsoft Works
 Claris Works
 Lotus SmartSuite 97

SOFTWARE PACKAGE
 A computer program supplied by computer manufacturers, independent software
companies, or other computer users.
 Also known as canned programs, proprietary software or packaged programs.
 A software package is a special method for the distribution and installation of
software on computer systems.
Proprietary software/Applications

 Is software offered for sale or license where the vendor controls the source code?

35
  Much of the software users are accustomed to is known as proprietary software.
With proprietary software users are not allowed to see the source code. Nor are
they able to modify the code for their own use or to distribute to others. In some
cases certain customers are allowed to view the source code - sometimes for an
additional fee - but even then they are not able to alter and re-distribute the
software. Examples of proprietary software include Microsoft's Office suite.
 Proprietary software is a term used to describe software in which the user does not
control what it does or cannot study or edit the code, in contrast to free software.

Non-proprietary software

 Non-proprietary software is, in its widest possible sense, software that has no
proprietary restrictions attached to it, particularly the restriction about the access to
the source code. Non-proprietary software is the opposite of proprietary software,
which is software where the source code has not been made available, or it is
protected by restrictive licensing clauses.

SOFTWARE PIRACY
 Unauthorized copying of software.
 unauthorized use or reproduction of copyrighted patented material.
 unauthorized copying of software
 The production of illegal copies of software.
 By far, the biggest legal problem affecting the computer industry today is software
piracy, which is the illegal copying or use of programs. Piracy is a huge problem
mainly because it is so easy to do. In most cases, it is no more difficult to steal a
program than it is to tape a music CD that you have borrowed from a friend.
Software pirates give up the right to receive upgrades and technical support, but
they gain the use of the program without paying for it.
Implications of Software piracy
 Loss of business to software companies.
 Lack of technical support, no connection with supplier upgrades.
 Software incompatibility, may require a key, which you might not have, as a
result you can’t install it.
 Virus Spread
 Lawsuits for copyright, which may be very costly in terms of reputation and
money.

Definitions of data processing on the Web:

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  Taking the raw data gathered by interviewers, finding and correcting any errors,
tabulating it and creating spreadsheets similar types of documents so that response
patterns can be read and interpreted.

 The systematic performance of operations upon data, eg, handling, merging,

sorting, computing. Synonymous with information processing.

DATA
 Relationship between Data and Information
 Data is raw information
 a collection of facts from which conclusions may be drawn; "statistical data"
INFORMATION
 Data that has been processed to add or create meaning and hopefully
knowledge for the person who receives it. Information is the output of
information systems.
 Organized data which is understood to have significance and meaning
 Methods of data collection {see Systems Analysis & Design}
 Questionnaires
 Observation
 Sampling
 Interviews
 Written documents & research

MAKE NOTES ON:

 Verification
o The act of reviewing, inspecting, testing, checking, auditing, or otherwise
establishing and documenting whether items, processes, services, or
documents conform to specified requirements.
o An effort to test the accuracy of the questionnaire response data. The concern is
uniquely with data accuracy and deals with neither the reliability nor the validity
of measures.
 Validation
o The process of evaluating software at the end of the software development
process to ensure compliance with software requirements. The techniques for
validation are testing, inspection and reviewing.
o Determination of the correctness of the products of software development with
respect to the user needs and requirements.

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 DATABASE
 Is a collection of files?
 An organized collection of interrelated files.
 Is a collection of related files that provides a way of finding information quickly and
easily from a chosen reference point?
 Is an integrated collection of logically related records or files?
 A database consolidates records previously stored in separate files into a common
pool of data records that provides data for many applications.
 Examples of databases are MS Access, MS Works Database, and DBaseIV.
 File-Is a collection of related records.
 Record-Is a collection of fields. It is a collection of fields arranged in a
predefined order.
 Field-Is a collection of single items. It is an implementation of the data
attribute. It is the smallest unit of data to be stored in a database.
 Primary key-Is a field whose value identifies one & only one record in a file.
 Secondary key-An alternative index for identifying an entity. Its value can
identify single entity occurrences of all entity occurrences. A subset of all
entity occurrences.
 Foreign key-Are pointers or links to occurrences of a different file. A foreign
key in one file must be a primary key in another file.
 Descriptors-Are any other fields that describe business entities.
advantages and any disadvantages of databases

# ADVANTAGES # DISADVANTAGES
1 Supports data sharing 1 Limitations of databases arise from
increased technological complexity
2 Ensures increased data security 2 Developing a large database and
installing a DBMS can be difficult
and expensive.
3 Ensures data independence 3 More hardware capability is
required, since storage

38
 requirements for the organization of
data, overhead control data, and
the DBMS is greater
4 Data integrity is guaranteed. The 4 Problems of data inconsistency can
functions in the DBMS can be used arise if a distributed database
to enforce the integrity rules with approach is used.
minimum programming in the
application programs.

5 Reduces or minimizes data 5 Longer processing times may result

redundancy from high volume transaction
processing applications since extra
layer software [the DBMS] exists
between application programs and
the Operating system.
6 Consistence of data is ensured 6 Security and integrity of data are
major concerns.
7 Support data integration. Since Centralized databases are
related data is stored in one single vulnerable to errors, fraud and
database, enforcing data integrity is failures.
much easier
8 Related data can be shared
across programs since the data is
stored in a centralized manner
9 Enforcing of standards in the
organization and structure of data
files is required and also easy in a
Database System, since it is one
single set of programs, which is
always interacting with data files
10 The application programmer need
not build the functions for handling
issues like concurrent access,
security, data integrity, etc. The
programmer only needs to
implement the application business
rules. This brings in application
development ease.

FILE PROCESSING

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  Is the process of updating the records in a file to accurately reflect changes
in the data?
 It can be a manual process where procedures are in place to update forms,
which are sent to the respective person responsible for the update.
 It can also be a computerized process where information is first stored in
transaction files until the master file is updated.
File processing methods:
 Batch Processing
 Transactions are collected and processed in batches [groups].
 Transaction processing in which transactions are gathered and stored
for later execution.
 E.g. a supermarket chain operates 5 outlets. At the end of the day all
information on sales [transaction file] is collected, & the main records
[master file] are updated with the sales for that day.
 Performs a group of tasks all at once, while requiring little [or no]
interaction with the user.
 It is a great time saver because the computer can perform repetitive
functions quickly & consistently.
 Real-time Processing
 The master records are updated as and when the transactions occur.
 A form of transaction processing in which each transaction is
executed as soon as complete data becomes available for the
transaction.
 A supermarket chain would be linked by a network to a main
computer.
 Each time a sale is made the stock information is updated and the
sale information is also updated.
 It is expensive and complicated.
 Record and file locks are implemented to avoid problems with real-
time processing.
 Centralized processing
 An information system where all critical data and programs are stored
on one main computer, usually a mainframe. Unlike the task-sharing
concept of a client/server system, the central computer retains all the
brains and brawn.
 A computing environment in which all processing takes place on a
mainframe or central computer.
 Puts all processing and control authority within one computer to
which all other computing devices respond.
 Distributed Processing

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  The ability to have several computers working together in a network,
where each processor runs different activities for a user, as required.
 Computers connected together by a communications network. Data
processing occurs on each of the computers, unlike a centralized
processing system in which terminals are connected to a host
computer that performs all of the data processing.
 Use of computers at various locations, typically interconnected via
communication links for the purpose of data access and/or transfer.
 A computer system in which processing is performed by several
separate computers linked by a communications network. The term
often refers to any computer system supported by a network, but
more properly refers to a system in which each computer is chosen to
handle a specific workload, and the network supports the system as a
whole.
 Offline processing
 When your computer performs an operation when it is not connected
to any other computers, it is working offline.
 Means that your computer is not currently connected to an Internet
server.
 Not connected (to a network). Not available to the network
 Online processing
 A general term for when one computer is interacting directly and
simultaneously with another computer. Many sources of information
are available online.
 Available for immediate use.
 The master file is updated with the transactions through some form of
communication link.
 All real-time processing involves online processing.
 Not all online processing needs to be real-time.
 Require interaction of the user.

 Master file is the main information source in any type of

organization.
 File processing is the update of the master file [actual
records] through manual or computerized methods.
FILE ORGANIZATION METHODS & ACCESS
 File Organization-Is the arrangement of data records on storage media
 It determines the manner in which individual records can be accessed or
retrieved

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Definitions of cycle time on the Web:

 The time usually expressed in seconds for a controller to complete one on/off cycle.

Definitions of access time on the Web:

 The average time interval between a storage peripheral (usually a disk drive or
semiconductor memory) receiving a request to read or write a certain location and
returning the value read or completing the write.
The amount of time it takes a computer to locate an area of memory for data
storage or retrieval.

 The time required to retrieve data from a storage device and transmit it to a
specified location.

Definitions of random access on the Web:

 Storage systems where data may be stored and accessed in any order,
independent of the ordinal position of the data when it was originally recorded. This
is the opposite of linear (3) access, or linear recording media such as magnetic
tape, which necessarily preserves the sequential relation of the data as it is
recorded, and depends on this sequential relation for accurate playback. See non-
linear recording.

 Able to read any location directly; without having to read sequentially to the location.

Definitions of sequential access on the Web:

 Data must be read in the order it appears. This method applies to tape, and to a
lesser degree to disks.
Reading data from a file whose records are organized on the basis of their
successive physical positions. To reach a specific record, all records previous to
that record must be read, in order. Magnetic computer tapes are sequential access
storage device.

 Refers to reading or writing data records in sequential order, that is, one record after
the other. To read record 10, for example, you would first need to read records 1
through 9. This differs from random access, in which you can read and write records

42
 in any order.

FILE ORGANIZATION

 Serial file organization

 Records are placed one after another.
 It gives maximum utilization of space but there is no room left for
inserting other records.
 Examples of files stored using serial organization are: archive files,
output files, security files.
 It does not cater for direct access to records.
 Is the only file organization method used on magnetic tapes?
 Sequential file organization
 Records are arranged in a predetermined sequence, determined by
the primary key.
 Records are stored using a specific key to arrange ascending,
descending, alphabetic order etc.
 Appropriate for files, which are stored on tape or disk.
 Appropriate for master files, sorted transaction files in a batch-
processing environment.
 Not generally used for online systems that demand fast response.
 Mainly used for batch processing applications
 Suitable method to use when there is little need for file enquiry.
 Simple method of writing to a file [easy to use].
 Most effective method if records are going to be processed in the
order that they are read.
 It can be used for variable length records as well as fixed length
records.
 Wastes space as some space is reserved for other records to be
inserted in order to preserve the order or organization.
 E.g. Customer records could be organized sequentially according to
customer number [primary key] or customer name [secondary key].
 Sequential records can be stored adjacent to one another or they can
be arranged sequentially with a linked list.
 Direct/Random/Relative file organization
 Files are stored randomly or haphazardly and an address or key field
is used as reference.
 Records are physically located at an address that is calculated from
its primary key field.

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  The calculation of the address from the key field is called hashing.
 Records are scattered on the storage disk instead of being arranged
next to one another or linked via a pointer field.
 Records can be retrieved rapidly
 Used on magnetic disks e.g. Floppy disks & hard disks.
 Types of files: transaction files, master files.
 Direct access [information is readily available].
 Method is costly in terms of device used and space.
 Indexed file organization
 Records are stored in sequence but in addition an index is provide to
enable individual records to be located directly after reading the
index.
 Records are pointed to by indexes.
 Used with disks only not with magnetic tapes.
 A method of storing data records in a file sequentially, But in addition
some sectors of the disk are reserved for an index-key field to locate
data records in this organization.
 Wastes space
 The index may be ignored & the data is read sequentially.
 The file may be accessed sequentially but using the index to skip
over unwanted records, this is called selective sequential access.
 The index may be read into memory & used to obtain data randomly.

Definitions of indexed sequential access method on the Web:

 Is a combination or compromise between indexed blocks of data arranged

sequentially within each block.

 ISAM stands for Indexed Sequential Access Method, a method for storing data for
fast retrieval. ISAM was originally developed by IBM and today forms the basic data
store of almost all databases, both relational and otherwise.

COMPUTER MEMORY

The computer has two types of memory chips within the system unit, known as
RAM and ROM.

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RAM (Random Access Memory)
Also referred to as Main Memory, Primary Memory or Working Memory is memory
that is accessed by the CPU as it processes information. The CPU also places
results of processing on the memory chip. The memory has the following
characteristics.
1) can be read from
2) can be changed and can be rewritten
3) used for short-term storage of data i.e. it is temporary storage,
4) is volatile (data lost when power is turned off).
Static RAM
 It is a volatile memory
 Data is stored; it remains there indefinitely unless if the power is lost or new
data is written.

Dynamic RAM
 Is one which data is stored on capacitors, which require periodic recharging
[refreshing] to retain data?

*if you wish to upgrade your PC, you would buy additional memory chips to increase
the power of your computer (computer performance).

ROM (Read Only Memory)

This memory chip has essential programs that start up the computer hardwired on
the microchip during the manufacture of the computer. It forms what is known as
FIRMWARE, being a halfway between hardware and software. The characteristics
of this memory are that:-
1) can be read from,
2) cannot be changed
3) is permanent
4) non-volatile (data not lost when power is turned off).
 ROM
 Stores instructions & data which do not change
 It is written once during manufacture
 It is for holding software such as MS-DOS.Windows 95, 98.XP.
 It is programmed by the manufacturer and cannot be altered by the user
 It is static & non volatile
 It stores control routines for personal computers

45
VARIATIONS OF ROM

Allow users to store and in some cases to change data stored in ROM
 PROM [Programmable ROM] is not programmed during manufacture but
can be programmed by the user. It is programmed according to the needs of
the user organization. If you make a mistake the ROM once programmed will
became permanent to the effect that any errors will never be corrected thus
the user will throw away any chip if errors are made.
 EPROM [Erasable Programmable ROM] can be programmed and erased
as many times. This time you don’t have to worry about errors too much
because there is room for correction. The programming is done
electronically. Stored data can be lost by exposing it to Ultra Violet light over
a period of minutes.
1) EEPROM [Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM] can be read, erased,
rewritten, without removing from the computer. The erasing & rewriting
process is very slow compared with reading, which limits their use.
These can be erased & programmed with electrical pulses. Can be
erased in a few Milliseconds

MEMORY CAPACITY

Everything entering into the computer is converted into digital (number) form, and is
stored in that form. When one needs to view the information, it is converted into
human sensible text, graphics, audio or video by the operating system. A binary
digit is known as a bit being either a ‘0’(zero) or a ‘1’(one). It is the smallest item
that can be stored in a computer’s memory.

Memory capacity is measured in bytes, a byte being a set of eight(8) bits and the byte
often represents a single character. Measurement units used for computer memory are:-

BIT 1 binary digit (Either a 0 or a 1)

BYTE Eight bits.
NIBBLE Half byte/4 bits
KILOBYTE (KB) 1024 bytes
MEGABYTE (MB) Million bytes
GIGABYTE (GB) Billion bytes

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TERABYTE Trillion bytes

COMPUTER INTERFACE
 Refers to the type of interaction between two elements.
 Is part of the operating system that allows you to communicate with it or the
computer so that you can load programs, access files, and accomplish other tasks?
 When a person interacts with a computer he uses a User Interface, which can be a
screen, keyboard, mouse, scanners or other input devices.

Definitions of interface on the Web:

 the interaction between the computer and the user or the control of the flow of data
between a computer and its peripherals.
 Method or piece of equipment for interconnecting units or systems which may not
be directly compatible.
 a connection between hardware devices, applications, or different sections of a
computer network.

 Basically the interface can be

 Command driven- include operating systems and database languages

that provide users with flashes of text and in which users would generally
type in their command to perform an action.
 Menu driven
 GUI- point and click
 WIMP interface

 Menu driven
 A characteristic of most interactive processing systems that provide menu
displays and operator prompting to assist a video terminal operator in
performing a particular job.
 Unix is a menu driven interface

Definition of menu driven on the Web:

 An interface that offers the user a simple menu from which to choose an option.

 Command driven- Using DOS environment

 MS DOS is a command driven interface.

47
  You need to remember commands to navigate/operate MS-DOS
 Command driven interface is User-unfriendly.

 instruction: (computer science) a line of code written as part of a computer program

 In computing, a command is a directive to a computer program acting as an

interpreter of some kind, in order to perform a specific task. Most commonly a co
 The name of a program and any arguments you specify to that program to cause its
behavior to change. You might see the term command used instead of the term
utility for simple commands, where only the program name to execute is given.
 A set of specialized actions on Variables. At present only READ and WRITE
commands are implemented. READ loads data from a file or a database into a
Variable and WRITE transfers query results from a Variable to an output file.
Commands start with an exclamation (!).

 Graphical User Interface [GUI]

 Uses icons, bars, buttons, boxes, and other images.
 A software interface that relies on icons, bars, buttons, boxes and other
images to initiate computer based tasks for users.
 GUIs rely on pointing devices like the electronic mouse to make selections
that help you get things done.
 Easy to use in other words it is user friendly.
 Windows 95, 98, XP are all a Graphical User Interfaces.

Definitions of GUI on the Web:

 An acronym for Graphical User Interface, this term refers to a software front-end
meant to provide an attractive and easy to use interface between a computer user
and application.
 A program interface that takes advantage of the computer's graphics capabilities to
make the program easier to use. Well-designed graphical user interfaces can free
the user from learning complex command languages. On the other hand, many
users find that they work more effectively with a command-driven interface,
especially if they already know the command language.

 WIMP interface

Definitions of wimp on the Web:

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  Windows, Icons, Menus and Pointer - a method by which a user can interact with a
computer without having to learn lots of special words - it provides a much more
intuitive 'view' of the computer and its facilities than non-WIMP operating systems
provide

 "Windows, /images/, Menus and Pointer", or "Windows, /images/, Mouse and Pull-
down menus" This is a graphical interface which makes access to computers much
more straightforward and intuitive than the main alternative, the command-line
interface. The WIMP interface has been used on Apple Macintosh computers since
they were invented, and are coming into use on PCs through Microsoft Windows
and on Unix and other workstations through the X Window system.

NETWORKING

ADVANTAGES OF GROUP WORKING & SHARING RESOURCES OVER A NETWORK.

1. It turns isolated computers into integrated systems, providing an environment where

resources are shared and capacity problems reduced.
2. Resource sharing is the primary benefit of networking. It allows users on different
machines to share modems, printers, tape drives and disk space, for example,
users can send network messages requesting to use a central printer, allowing
everyone to share that resource.
3. It allows growth. If more computing resources become a need, a new computer can
be installed, added to the network, and immediately accessed by other machines
and users.
4. High reliability. If applications share data, the data can be replicated across several
machines. If one machine goes down, another can take its place and provide the
data to the applications.
5. Users realize the benefit of sharing information. Data files can be shared between
machines on the network, allowing users to see invoices, results of surveys,
company newsletters, and other information.
6. Low cost. Single device shared by several machines reduce the need to buy many
peripheral devices. Resource sharing also serves money . an installation can have
several low-cost work stations accessing a single file-server. That puts a lot of

49
 processing power on the user’s desk without the expense of large mainframe
systems.

DISADVANTAGES

1. Security concerns. Some user can gain unauthorized access to private data.
2. Increased administration. There will be need for a systems administrator to tune the
network, monitor the network, administer database files, and ensure network
integrity (ensure the network runs smoothly)
3. Network failure. As applications increase their use of a network, network failures
become catastrophic.
4. Virus attack. A networked system is vulnerable to destructive network messages.
For example, a message that sparks damaging activity (like erasing files) may enter
the system via the network.

Of all the disadvantages, the greatest drawback is security concerns, therefore, network
security is a priority in the development of network applications.

COMMUNICATION USING ELECTRONIC MAIL

E-mail is the exchange of messages between users of computers connected to a common

network.

THE INTERNET & THE WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW).

The World Wide Web Is software that runs on the internet which includes all
documentation that is shared and accessed on the internet.
The Internet is the network of networks being a worldwide collection of computers that
communicate with one another over cables, satellites and optical fibers. It is literally the
whole hardware mass. The Internet is the network used to transport information.
A Web page is a document designed to be accessed and read over the WWW. It must
have an address in a recognized format.

What are the advantages of the Internet? Discuss

50
These are far too broad and extending to all realms in life. For instance:-

1) Access to a wide range of information from any location worldwide where there
is internet access. i.e. airlines, resorts, books, authors.
2) Research on any topic i.e. a professor, current affairs.
3) Online Shopping i.e. for cars, specific dress.
4) Online ordering and carrying out other business transactions e.g.. Ordering a
cheque book, advertising a product.
5) Online conferencing – communicating across international boundaries.
6) Ability to access e-mail from any location worldwide.
7) Reading newspapers online.

All the above are achieved by simply typing the title of the text or web address and full
details are made available on the screen together with links to additional information. A link
is a clickable image or text over which a mouse click will link you to another page. A mouse
click over the link will bring that object to your computer from the remote computer. On the
internet one can access text documents, images, video and sound.

The Web uses three standards namely:

1 URLs (Uniform Resource Locators) – which are web page addresses
2 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) – the language used to design web pages
3 HTML (Hypertext Markup Language)

To send e-mail access the Internet, both the sender and receiver need:
WHAT IS NEEDED FOR INTERNET AND E-MAIL SERVICES

1) A computer connected to a network,

2) The windows operating system installed
3) The communication and or browser software such as Ms-Exchange or Ms-
Outlook, Internet explorer, Netscape navigator
4) A modem
5) Telephone line
6) Subscription to an ISP (Internet Service Provider).

NETWORK SYSTEMS
 Is one in which processing is carried out independently in more than one
location, but with shared & controlled access to some common facilities,
which normally include file storage & information resources?

51
Definitions of hub on the Web:

 A common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs are commonly used to
connect segments of a LAN. A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives
at one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all
packets. A passive hub serves simply as a conduit for the data, enabling it to go
from one device (or segment) to another. ...

o Node – a terminal point in a communications network.

o Workstation – A computer terminal or micro- or minicomputer system
designed to support the work of one person.

Star network
 Is a network in which nodes are connected to a central component as its
hub?
 The central component can be a switching device like a switch or PABX
[private automatic branch exchange], a computer [minicomputer to which
workstations or PCs are connected] or just a wiring center that is a common
termination point for the nodes, called a hub.
 A HUB is a component that serves as a common termination point for
multiple nodes and that can relay [store & forward] signals along the
appropriate paths.

Definitions of star network on the Web:

 A network in which all terminals are connected through a single point, such as a star
coupler.

 A network topology in the form of a star. At the center of the star is a wiring hub or
concentrator, and the nodes or workstations are arranged around the central point
representing the points of the star.

Advantages of star topology

 It is easy to add or remove nodes

 Because each node has its own link to the central node, the star is more reliable
than other topologies.
 Full utilization of resources i.e. printer, sharing of processor

52
  Direct connection of terminals to the main processor, means that if one terminal
breaks down it wont affect other terminals.
Disadvantages of star topology
 All traffic between two nodes passes through the central node. If the central
component breaks down, the whole network is down.
 The number of ports of the central component limits the number of connected
nodes.
 A star topology requires a lot of cabling since all data path connections must be to
the central node.
 There is no direct communication between or among workstations
 Sharing of processor delays in the processing of jobs.

Bus/Linear network

 Describes a network in which each node is connected to a common line.

 This is also sometimes called a horizontal, multidrop or multi point network.
 Though it is preferable to use the last terms for connections with a
mainframe/mini computer as in the following diagram.
 In a bus messages travel in both directions and do not go through the
individual nodes but every node can hear each message as it goes past.
 When the signal/message reaches an end of the bus, a terminator absorbs
it, to keep it from traveling back again along the bus line, to avoid
interference with other messages already in the line.
 The data/signals/messages are transmitted in packets along the bus.
 Each packet is send with a receiver identification code that is an address of
destination and all computers on the network are permanently on the alert for
any messages coming to them.

Definitions of bus network on the Web:

 A single-cable LAN, in which all computers on the network are connected in series
to a single cable. On a bus network, each computer hears all of the transmissions
going down the line, and selects only those that are addressed to its location. This
is the simplest and most common LAN technology.

Advantages of Bus Network/topology

 When a node breaks down, the network does not break down.
 A bus uses relatively less cables compared to other topologies
 Direct communication due to direct connection.

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  Fast processing since there is no Host computer
 Once a cable has been laid down any new equipment can easily be
connected to the network by a simple tapping into the cable.
Disadvantages of Bus Network/topology
 In a bus topology it is not always easy to add a node. [E.g. installation of extra tap in
thick Ethernet].
 Diagnosis/trouble shooting can be difficult.
 Expensive to run [several processors] – Detectors.
 Communication between components of the network traveling in opposite direction
along the bus can collide causing loss of transmitted information.
 Because of this collision a detection system has to be present to control the re-
transmission of lost information thereby making it a more expensive option

Ring network

 A ring network has nodes connected in a circular way.

 Each node has two neighboring nodes
 Data flow is unidirectional.
 A message is forwarded in one direction until it reaches the destination with
intermediate nodes acting as relay [store & forward] units.
 The destination node copies the message and passes the message again to
the ring.
 This message then continues to circulate around the ring back to the source.

Definitions of ring network on the Web:

 A network topology in the form of a closed loop or circle. Each node in the network
is connected to the next, and messages move in one direction around the system.
When a message arrives at a node, the node examines the address information in
the message. If the address matches the node's address, the message is accepted;
otherwise the node regenerates the signal and places the message back on the
network for the next node in the system. ...

Advantages of ring network

 The message return provides the source with a form of
acknowledgement. The node removes its own message from the
ring.
 Little cabling needed compared to Star.
 Each node acts as relay unit.

54
  Packet collisions do not occur because information is traveling in one
direction.
 Relatively cheap to install.
 Efficient and accurate means of communication.
 There is no dependency on the host computer or file server as each
node controls transmission to and from itself.
Disadvantages of ring network
 Adding or removing nodes disrupts the network.
 If one of the nodes breaks down, the whole network will be down.
 If the network cable breaks the whole network is affected

LAN

 Local Area Network.

 Are privately owned network within a single building or even on a single floor.
 LANs are widely used to connect personal computers and workstations in
company offices and factories to share resources e.g. printers and
exchange information.
 Common LAN topologies are Bus, Ring and Star.
 Resources are shared e.g. as above
 Software is shared
 Enhances communication between workstations
 File sharing

Definitions of Local Area Network on the Web:

 A computer network limited to the immediate area, usually the same building or floor
of a building.

 (1) A computer network located on a user's premises within a communication

across the LAN boundary may be subject to some form of regulation. (2) A network
in which a set of devices are connected to one another for communication and that
can be connected to a larger network.
 Communications network connecting computers by wire, cable, or fiber optics link.
Usually serves parts of an organization located close to one another, generally in
the same building or within 2 miles of one another. Allows users to share software,
hardware and data.

WAN

55
  Wide Area Network.
 A WAN spans a large geographical area often a country or continent.
 Also called long-haul network.
 Transmission lines for a WAN can be leased or can be private lines. I.e.
leased telephone lines, fibre optics, coaxial cables, microwave radio links,
satellite connections etc.

Definitions of Wide Area Network on the Web:

 A wide area network (WAN) is a geographically dispersed telecommunications

network. The term distinguishes a broader telecommunication structure from a local
area network. A wide area network may be privately owned or rented, but the term
usually connotes the inclusion of public (shared user) networks. An intermediate
form of network in terms of geography is a metropolitan area network (MAN).

HEALTH AND SAFETY

HEALTH PROBLEMS THAT MAY BE RELATED TO COMPUTER USE AND POSSIBLE

SOLUTIONS

Low Back pain

 Usually due to using the wrong type of chair, these have been four legged chairs
found in any office for visitors, executive chairs where the back is not separate from
the seat and therefore cannot be adjusted to offer any lumbar support.
 If the user has not taken any time to adjust the chair.
 Sitting on the edge of the chair and leaning forward can also cause problems and
this often happens when there are arms on the chair which are not adjustable in
height or when the user is short in stature, the arms on the chair will not move low
enough to allow the user to get close enough to the desk.
 Sitting with the legs crossed causes uneven weight on each buttock and strain on
back muscles.

I have seen a lot of problems caused by arms on chairs that cannot be raised or
lowered and recommend that all chairs are purchased without arms for this reason.

Poor desk configuration

56
If the screen is placed off to one side, the keyboard should still be positioned centrally to
avoid twisting the torso, often if the screen is off to one side, the user will support one
elbow on the desk putting strain in the muscles of the back.

If odd pieces of furniture are used to make up a workstation ensure that they are the same
height. It is best to draw your proposed desk layout before moving furniture.

Having a set of drawers that prevent sideways movement

The L shaped desk layout allows more space and freedom of movement if writing and
keyboard activity is required but when two desks are butted onto each other, one set of
drawers can restrict movement. The set of drawers restricting movement can be removed
with a screwdriver.

Ideally desks should be purchased without drawers and then modular drawer units can be
placed in convenient locations.

Room temperature

If a room is too cold muscles can go into spasm and injury is more likely.

Dehydration

Many office workers drink too much tea and coffee, which has a diuretic action so water is
the best choice. Remember that offices with several computers can make the air feel very
dry.

Overstretching

Items used most frequently should be positioned within easy reach

If the hard drive/midi tower is housed under the desk, muscles can be pulled when bending
over to switch the computer on.

Pain in the neck

 Pain in the neck is often caused by too much up and down or side-to-side
movement of the neck, a solution is to use a document holder at the same height as
the screen or attached to the screen so that it is only necessary to transfer the gaze.

(These can be purchased from Gaynor in the computer shop for approx £4.00 and
are much cheaper than in the Lyreco catalogue. You will need to complete a

57
 purchase order form for this product. (Approval for the use of purchase order
forms has been sought from Mike Montgomery.)

 Sitting with the telephone receiver in you neck.

 Using bifocals because the neck is bent backwards to focus on the screen. These
people should speak to their Optician about using a special pair of glasses for
computer use or have their bifocal section on the glasses made wider.

 If the screen is too high. The head should be in the neutral position with the gaze at
a slightly downward angle when viewing the screen.

Not taking posture breaks

Posture breaks are important to prevent overuse of one group of muscles, break up
periods of keying and mouse work regularly. (See information sheet on posture breaks and
wrist exercises)

Pressure on the wrists from a sharp edge on a desk

Some desks have a sharp edge, which can cause pressure on the wrists. If users are
trained typists, they usually do not rest their wrists whilst keying but most self taught
keyboard users do, this causes pressure and increased risk of injury if the user is also
working with their wrists bent. A gel wrist rest can be used to provide a soft cushion for
resting the wrists in between periods of keying or mouse activity. Gel mouse mats are also
available.

Painful wrists or fingers

 Painful wrists or fingers often occur when the chair is not adjusted to the correct
height to allow a perfect L shape between the shoulder, elbow and wrist, if the
wrists are bent up or down then the fingers are not horizontal to the keys or the
mouse, the clicking finger is not horizontal to the control mechanism and the wrist is
left unsupported.

 Striking the keys too hard or excessive mouse use can also cause painful fingers or
by not keeping the mouse close enough to the body. Ideally a mouse should be
used directly in front of the shoulder and as close to the body as possible.

Dirty mice are not efficient and require more clicking therefore increasing your risk
of overuse syndrome.

58
Research has shown that intensive use of the mouse is more likely to cause
symptoms of overuse syndrome than keyboard activity; you should consider
keyboard shortcuts (These can be viewed on a separate page.)

Alternative mice

There are various alternative mice that relieve and prevent symptoms of overuse:

 Optical mice are more efficient because they do not get dirty balls!
 Cordless optical mice allow more freedom
 Tracker balls offer an alternative movement but one could argue that you are just
exchanging one repetitive movement for another and transferring the strain from the
fingers to the thumb.
 Joystick mice often have thumb controls.
 Beware of mice that are advertised as being ergonomic because they may not be.
Some mice totally fill the hand and can be uncomfortable for users with small
hands.
 Touch pads can be used in either hand and are ideal for people with one-handed
symptoms because they can be used in either hand; the same amount of dexterity
is not required for operation.
 The whale mouse is ideal for mouse intensive work and can open out to fit any
hand.

There are numerous options on the market but it is better to try before you buy.

You may want to contact other members of staff on the intranet at UWB to see if someone
has a different type of mouse for you to try or you can contact the OHSU to see if there is a
mouse for you to borrow for a short period so that you can evaluate it’s effects on your
symptoms

Pain in the buttocks

Pain in the buttocks radiating down the thigh can be caused by a chair seat that is too long
and causing pressure behind the knees or from inadequate lumbar support.

Pain in the shoulders

 Pain in the shoulders can be caused by having arms on the chair that cannot be
adjusted this causes the user to sit with the arms sticking out.
 Sitting at the desk with one elbow supported on the desk and the other held lower or
twisting the torso to look at the monitor will also cause pain.

59
Pain in the knees

 Pain in the knees can be caused by the fact that when the chair has been adjusted
to the correct height to allow the fingers to be horizontal to the keys, the feet are left
unsupported, the solution is to purchase a footrest the small step type called (twin
plus in the Lyreco catalogue are best because they do not take up much space
under the desk, they can be adjusted according to the height of the person using
them.)

If transcription is carried out it is better to have a large surface area on the footrest
and the ability to keep this level to support the footswitch.

 Pain in the knees can also be caused by a seat that is too long resulting in pressure
behind the knees.

Eye strain

 Eyestrain can be caused by glare from the monitor or from overhead lights. Ideally
the desk should be placed between lights and not directly under them. If this is not
possible you may be able to switch the overhead light off and use an angle poise
lamp.
 Glare from windows without blinds or with incorrectly fitted blinds.
 Where there are casement window at the top and blinds cannot be used there is
often glare from the sun on the screen. Some vertical blinds are not efficient and
additional blackout roller blinds would improve efficiency and keep the room cool. If
blinds cannot be fitted it may be possible to fit a tinted transparent film to the
window.

Other solutions:

 See the Optician about middle distance correction

 Ask about a slight tinted coating to your glasses
 Contact IT if there is any flicker on your screen
 If your monitor is old and small (14inch CGA, VGA) it will have poor resolution and
should be replaced with a 17inch SVGA or XGA.
 Clean your screen
 Adjust your contrast or brightness
 Make sure that you are not too far away from the screen (correct viewing distance is
18-20 inches)
 Remove the antiglare device. (These can cause problems focusing because you
have to look thought it to see your screen.)

60
  Introduce regular task rotation to break up periods of keying.

Choosing the right chair

Tudor Jones in the Estates department will order chairs for you and will be able to advise
on models that are appropriate for computer use, by using this service you will also benefit
from considerable cost savings.

If you use a computer you should order a chair that has a height adjustable back and
preferably without arms as these often cause poor posture. If you really cannot live without
arms on your chair they should be totally height adjustable (They do cost extra).

When you receive your new chair you should read the booklet that is usually attached so
that you understand how all the mechanisms work. There is usually a handle or knob to
raise and lower the height of the seat and another to enable a rocking action.

It is important to use the rocking action, as this will reduce static loading.

There will be a mechanism for raising and lowering the height of the backrest to ensure
adequate lumbar support. (Sometimes you need to release a tension knob at the back of
the chair to allow for movement of the backrest.

Are computers damaging your health?

Use this 7 point checklist to find out . .

Working for hours on end with a computer is now a fact of life. Whether it's an aspect of
your work or whether you use computers just for fun, there are certain risks involved with
prolonged computer use. This simple 7 point checklist will help you recognize and avoid
the most common problems:
C ontact stress
O rganisation
M onotony
P osture
U ncomfortable environment
T etchiness
E xercise

 Contact Stress
Contact stress refers to the pressure that is put on different parts of the body whilst
in a relatively fixed position. Wrist and hand problems are common with computers.
For example, 'floating' your hand over the mouse for long periods leads to strain on

61
 the ligaments in the back of the hand and the wrist. The sensation is not unlike
gripping a pen for long periods. Leaning wrists against hard surfaces such as the
edge of the desk leads to similar problems.
 Over time, health problems may occur as a result of high repetition of hand
movements, forceful typing, or having bent wrists whilst using the key board. Carpal
tunnel syndrome is a painful condition that affects the wrists and hands following
pressure to the median nerve. Numbness may also be experienced in one or both
hands and even the simplest of tasks involving the hands becomes a painful and
sometimes impossible activity. Attention to posture, light keyboard actions and
mouse movement and simple regular exercise (see Exercise) can help to prevent
problems. If problems do arise it is important to stop and seek medical assistance.
In extreme cases surgery may be required to relieve symptoms, but rest, coupled
with remedial exercise, is the most likely medical intervention.
 Organization
Organizing your work can help prevent computer-related health problems. Think
about the nature and pattern of your work. If you have to undertake repetitive tasks
with the computer try, where possible, to vary these with other activities. Coffee
and lunch breaks are there for a reason. Don't be tempted to sit at the computer
during breaks; much better to get your circulation going and step out for some fresh
air. Think carefully before accepting overtime or agreeing to take on extra work, or
forcing the pace to try and finish the work you have. The more work you accept the
more it may be assumed you can cope. There are times you may need to assert
your rights in order to keep a balance in your life.
 Monotony
Any task that involves staring at a computer screen, no matter how exciting or
interesting, leads to physical fatigue. So whilst you may be quite happy to press on
with work your body may have other ideas. The most common physical complaints
are eye strain and problems with vision (blurring and itching being typical).
Headaches are also a product of prolonged staring at a screen. Remember to look
away from the screen when you don't need to use it. Check that the light levels are
comfortable and that you are not dealing with screen-reflected glare from windows
or lighting. Some people find glare-reducing screens useful. If you experience
repeated headaches you should visit your doctor.
 Posture
Bad posture is enemy number one. Posture includes the factors previously
discussed under Contact Stress. Check your posture now! You should be able to
reach the keyboard and mouse whilst bending your elbows at 90 degrees, with your
shoulders relaxed. If you are stretching, this could cause problems. Your back
should be straight and the top of the monitor should be just below eye level. If your
monitor is to the left or right of your keyboard you are putting strain on your neck.

62
 Long periods of time at the computer often leads to pain in the lumbar region of the
back. Neck and shoulder problems also result from poor seating and the poor
organization of equipment on the desk (stretching for the telephone or files etc).
 Uncomfortable Environment
Some of the issues previously mentioned contribute to an uncomfortable work
environment. Poor lighting levels or screening, poor air circulation, noise and
equipment issues all contribute to an uncomfortable work setting. The attitude of
colleagues affects the atmosphere of work. A good combination of environmental
and relationship factors are necessary to help avoid stress

WORD PROCESSING TERMINOLOGY

Most computers today come with a word processing program which allows the user to
write text documents like letters, business correspondence, and even books. The first step
in learning how to use a word processor is to understand the terminology that is unique to
word processing programs. Here are a few basic terms that will help.

Typeface
A typeface defines the shape of the characters. Some common typefaces are Times New
Roman, Arial, and Courier. If you look closely, you will see that the letters in each of these
are shaped differently, some narrower, some rounder.
Font
A font is collection of letters and numbers in a particular typeface. The font includes the
typeface plus other qualities, such as size, pitch, and spacing. For instance, within the
Times Roman family, there are many fonts to choose from, including different sizes, italic,
and bold. If you are working in a word processing program, the font might be Times New
Roman, 10 point, bold. Changing the font can completely change the look and feel of a
Web page or document.
Format
In a word processing program, you can format any text that you create. Formatting
involves specifying the font, alignment, margins, and other properties. The format is the
layout of a document. The format determines how the document will appear on the screen
and how it will look when printed.
Alignment
The alignment refers to the way lines of text are arranged relative to the edges of a block of
text. For example, the text can be flush with the left side of the document (left aligned),
flush with the right side of the document (right aligned), or centered horizontally on the

63
document (centered). There is also an alignment option called justified. In text that is
justified both the right and left sides of the text will appear to line up evenly.
Tab
The tab function in a word processor works much like the tab function on a typewriter. Tab
stops can be set in the ruler at the top of the page. When the tab key is pressed, the cursor
will move to the next tab location. This allows the user to indent paragraphs and lists.
Margins
Margins are the blank space to the left and right sides and at the top and bottom of a page.
The size of the margins can be increased or decreased. In Microsoft Word, this is done by
choosing File-Page Setup and changing the numbers on the Margin tab.
Header/Footer
The header is one or more lines of text that appear at the top of every page of a document.
The header often includes information like names and titles. The footer consists of one or
more lines of text that appear at the bottom of every page of a document. The footer often
includes the page number.
Line Spacing
Line Spacing refers to the number of blank spaces between lines of type. The most
common line spacings are single-spaced and double-spaced, but the line spacing in a
word processor can be set to almost any amount of line spacing.
Word Wrap
Word wrap is a word processing feature that permits information to be keyed on
successive lines without having to tap the return/enter key at the key of each line.
Table
A collection of data arranged in rows and columns. Tables are commonly used in word
processing programs. They are also used in spreadsheets and database programs.
Spell/Grammar Check
Word processing programs contain a spell check program which can verify the correct
spelling of words in a document. In some programs you will click on a menu choice or an
icon to start the spell checking. Some programs will automatically check your spelling as
you go, inserting a squiggly red line under words that may be misspelled. Grammar
checking works in much the same way with the program inserting a squiggly green line
under words that may be grammatically incorrect. Remember the spell check and grammar
checking are not foolproof. A word may pass both checks and still be incorrect.
Indent
An indent is one or more spaces that are used to move the text to the right of the left
margin.
Ruler
In a word processor, you can use the ruler to set the indent, margin and tab markers and
this can allow complex formatting options. Never use the space bar and return key to align
text.

64
Template
Templates establish the initial document setting and formats. A word processing program
like Microsoft Word uses the "normal" template as the basis for all documents. A user can
modify the "normal" document, and/or may create other templates to use.
Bullets & Numbering
A word processing program can automatically add bullets and/or numbers to the text.
Print Preview
This is a very useful feature. Click on the menu choice or icon for a Print Preview and you
will be shown an image of exactly what the printed output will look like.

Spelling checker

 A companion application that you use with a word-processing application to check

for misspelled words.
 A word processing function which searches for and corrects misspellings by
comparing a document's words with those in a built-in spelling dictionary.
 spell-checker: an electronic dictionary in a word processor that can be used to catch
misspelled words
 In computing terms, a spell checker or spelling checker is a design feature or a
software program designed to verify the spelling of words in a document, helping a
user to ensure correct spelling. A spell checker may be implemented as a stand-
alone application capable of operating on an block of text; however, spelling
checkers are more often implemented as a feature of a larger document-related
application, such as a word processor or an email client.

Macros

 In the context of programming by demonstration, this usually refers to any

procedure created by recording the user's actions as they are carried out. Unlike the
conventional computer-science definition, the use here does not necessarily have
any implications about how the procedure is executed (whether it is expanded in-
line using textual substitution or called as a function).
 A macro in computer science is an abstraction, whereby a certain textual pattern is
replaced according to a defined set of rules. The interpreter or compiler
automatically replaces the pattern when it is encountered. In compiled languages,
macro-expansion always happens at compile-time. The tool which performs the
expansion is sometimes called a macro-expander. ...

Header
Text that appears at the top of every page of a document when it is printed.

65
Footer

 Located at the bottom of the page, it usually contains information about the page
author or the sponsor. You may also find copyright information and the date the
page was last updated.
 Text that appears at the bottom of every page in a document.
 One or more lines of text appearing at the bottom of every page.
 A design element that prints at the bottom of a page, often showing the publication's
name and page number.
 The text and images at the bottom of a web document that provide information on
author/institutional sponsor, revision date, copyright, comments form, and
navigational links. Sometimes these links are buttons. The footer is often set off
from the rest of the text on the page by a horizontal rule. Footers are not the
opposite of headers in web documents. See Header

Mail merge

 the process by which information (eg names and addresses) from a database or
other list and inserted into a standard document or letter to produce multiple
personalised copies.
 A mass-mail facility that takes names, addresses, and (sometimes) pertinent facts
about recipients and merges the information into a form letter or another such basic
document.
 The transfer of data from one computer file to address and/or personalize mailing
items in another.

SPREADSHEET TERMINOLOGY

Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet program written and distributed by Microsoft for

computers using the Microsoft Windows operating system and for Apple Macintosh
computers. It features an intuitive interface and capable calculation and graphing tools
which, along with aggressive marketing, have made Excel one of the most popular
microcomputer applications to date. ...

Workbook

 A spreadsheet document that contains one or more worksheets, a Microsoft Excel

document.

66
  A collection of related worksheets contained within a single file. (in spreadsheet
applications).
 The workbook is the main document used in software programs like Excel. A
workbook consists of individual worksheets, like an accountant's workbook, each of
which can contain data. Basically, a workbook is a very sophisticated ledger.

Worksheet

 A single spreadsheet that contains rows and columns of data. In Excel, a worksheet
will have a little white tab at the bottom of the screen. A worksheet is treated like a
database table.
 An electronic spreadsheet containing 256 columns by 16,384 rows. (in spreadsheet
applications).
 A work area comprised of rows and columns, also known as a spreadsheet.

x-axis label

 A label describing the x-axis of a chart. (in spreadsheet applications

Cell An intersection of a row and column, the smallest element in which you can
enter data.
Column A vertical selection of cells identified by one or more letters, starting with A at
the left side of the spreadsheet.
Row A horizontal selection of cells identified by a number, starting with 1 at the top
of the spreadsheet.
Named A user-defined selection of contiguous cells.
Selection
Formula An equation that performs an operation on cell data and displays the result.
For example, to add the contents of cells A1 and A2, and display the results in
A3, cell A3 would contain =A1+A2, a simple formula.
Function A pre-defined formula that allows you to quickly perform a more difficult
operation on cell data, such as finding the average of a range of numbers.
Functions always take arguments, or additional information that enables the
computation to occur. For example, the argument to the AVG, or average,
function is the range of cells to be averaged: =AVG(A1..C10) averages all cells
between A1 (in the upper left) and C10 (in the lower right).

67
Cell reference

 The column number and the row letter of a cell.

 The address or name of a specific cell. Cell references may be used in formulas
and are relative or absolute. (Spreadsheet application).
 A cell name used in a formula.

Cell pointer

 A highlighted rectangle around a cell that indicates the active cell. (Spreadsheet
application)

Relative cell reference

 Used to indicate a relative position in a worksheet. This allows you to copy and
move formulas from one area to another of the same dimensions. Excel, for
example, automatically changes the column and row numbers to reflect the new
position. (in spreadsheet applications).
 Cell references in formulas that change when Excel copies them to another
location.

Absolute cell reference on the Web:

 A cell reference in which a dollar sign ($) precedes both the column and row
portions of the cell reference.

Mixed cell reference

 Cell reference in which either the column or the row is never adjusted if the formula
containing it is copied to another location.

Cell address

 Usually the intersection of a cell's row and column.

 Unique location identified by intersecting column and row coordinates.
(Spreadsheet application)

What if analysis

 The process of playing with numbers to see how they interact in a spreadsheet.

Freeze panes

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  Freezing panes prevents the data in the panes from scrolling as you move to
different areas in the worksheet.

Goal seek on the Web:

 Goal Seek is a tool that is used to find the value needed in one cell to attain a result
you want in another cell.

Formula

 A set of instructions that you enter in a cell to perform numeric calculations

(adding, multiplying, averaging, etc.); for example, +A1+B1. (in spreadsheet
applications)
 Instructs the spreadsheet to perform a calculation using the contents of a
specific cell or range of cells

Filter

 A program that processes individual, personal preferences in an attempt to deliver

relevant information to a particular end user.

Solver

 Solver is a tool used to perform what-if analyses to determine the effect of changing
s in tow or more cells on another cell.

Recalculation

 The act of calculating again (usually to eliminate errors or to include additional

data); "recalculation yielded a much larger value"

Excel Terms

A cell address in a formula that does not change when copied

Absolute cell reference:
to another cell. An absolute reference has the form $A$1.

The selected cell in a worksheet. The active cell is surrounded

Active cell:
by a heavy border and is identified by the cell address.

69
 Shows the beginning and ending balances and the amount of
Amortization schedule: payment that applies to the principal and interest for each
year over the life of the loan.

A function used to perform multiple tests on the content of

AND function: cells in a spreadsheet and display a value or text based on
whether the overall test is true or false.

The information that a function uses to produce a new value

or perform an action. For example, a new value is displayed
Argument: when the SUM function adds the argument (A6:A12). An
argument consists of numbers, references, text, operators, or
error values.

A method of ordering a group of items from lowest to highest,

Ascending:
such as from A to Z.

Values in cells you can change to determine new values for

Assumptions:
formulas.

Refers to the practice of proving the correctness of a

Auditing:
worksheet.

Displays all records that meet the criteria as a subset of the

AutoFilter:
database.

A feature used to format a range of cells with a predefined set

AutoFormat:
of attributes.

Sums the numbers in the specified range and then divides the
AVERAGE function:
sum by the number of non-zero cells in the range.

An unique address given to a cell; the coordinates of the

Cell reference:
intersection of a column and a row.

Cell: Basic unit of a worksheet into which you enter data.

A graphic representation of worksheet data. Values from

Chart: worksheet cells are displayed as bars, lines, or other shapes.
Common chart types are pie, bar, line, and area.

70
 The lettered gray area at the top of each column that identifies
Column heading:
the letter of the column, such as column B.

A note that explains, identifies, or comments on the

Comment:
information in a specific cell or range of cells.

One or more conditions that include the field names and

Comparison criteria:
entries in the corresponding boxes in a data form.

Made up of two values and a relational operator, is true or

Condition:
false for each cell in the range.

Allows you to apply formatting that appears only when the

Conditional formatting:
value in a cell meets conditions that you specify.

Process of summarizing data found on multiple worksheets on

Consolidation:
one worksheet.

The conditions that control which records to display in a

Criteria: query; the words or values used to determine the data that
appears in a data list.

Displays a dollar sign to the left of the number, inserts a

Currency style format: comma every three positions to the left of the decimal point,
and displays numbers to the nearest cent (hundredths place).

Range of cells that shows the answers generated by formulas

Data table:
in which different values have been substituted.

Restricts the values that may be entered into a cell by the

Data validation:
worksheet user.

Date stamp: Shows the system date of which your computer keeps track.

Counts the number of numeric entries in a database field that

DCOUNT function:
pass a test.

Debugging: Process of finding and correcting errors in the worksheet.

Dependents: Cell that is referenced in another cell.

71
 A method of ordering a group of items from highest to lowest,
Descending:
such as from Z to A.

Dummy data: Used in place of actual data to verify formulas in the template.

A chart that exists on a worksheet instead of on a separate

Embedded chart:
chart sheet.

Exploded Pie chart: A Pie chart with one or more slices offset.

A set of criteria you can apply to records to show specific

tasks, records, or resources. The tasks, records, or resources
Filter:
that match your criteria are listed or highlighted so that you
can focus on just the information you want.

Format code: A series of format symbols that define how a format displays.

A sequence of values, cell references, names, functions, or

Formula: operators that produces a new value from existing values. A
formula always begins with an equal sign (=).

A built-in formula; a named and stored procedure that

Function:
performs a specific operation and returns a value.

Used if you know the result you want a formula to produce by

Goal seeking:
determining the value of a cell on which the formula depends.

Gridlines: The horizontal and vertical lines on the worksheet.

Used when the table direction is horizontal across the

HLOOKUP function:
worksheet.

A function that tests the content of the cell, performs a

IF function: calculation, and displays a value or text based on whether the
test is true or false.

Label: Row title or column title.

Legend: A box containing the name of each data series in a chart.

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MAX function: Displays the highest value in a range.

MIN function: Displays the lowest value in a range.

NOW function: Used to enter the system date in a cell in the worksheet.

An interactive chart that provides the user with ways to

PivotChart: graphically analyze data by varying the fields and categories
to present different views.

An interactive worksheet table that summarizes data using a

selected format and calculations. It is called a pivot table
PivotTable:
because you can rearrange the table structure around the
data.

Allows you to select cells for use in a formula by using the

Point mode:
mouse.

Precedents: Cells that are referenced in a formula.

Protected cells: Cells that you cannot change.

PV function: Returns the present value of an annuity.

Used to check which cells are being referenced in the formula

Range Finder:
assigned to the active cell.

Series of two or more adjacent cells in a column or row or a

Range:
rectangular group of cells.

Reference: A cell address used in a formula.

In formulas, a reference to the address of another cell in

Relative cell reference:
relation to a cell that contains a formula.

Allows you to record and save different sets of what-if

Scenario Manager:
assumptions (data values) called scenarios.

Solver Answer Report: Summarizes the problem that you have presented to solver.

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 Special workbook or worksheet you can create and then use
Template:
as a pattern to create new, similar workbooks or worksheets.

Trace Dependents Highlights the cells with formulas in the worksheet that
command: reference the active cell.

Trace Precedents Highlights the cells in the worksheet that are referenced by
command: the formula in the active cell.

Blue arrows that point from cell to cell and let you know what
Tracer arrows:
cells are referenced in a formula in a particular cell.

Refers to the practice of adjusting cells in a worksheet

Trial and error:
manually to try to find a solution to a problem.

Unprotected cells: Cells whose values you can change at any time.

Used when a gable direction is vertical or down the

VLOOKUP function:
worksheet.

A Microsoft Excel document in which you can store other

Workbook: documents. A workbook can include multiple worksheets and
chart sheets.

A set of rows, columns, and cells in which you store and

manipulate data. Several worksheets can appear in one
Worksheet:
workbook, and you can switch among them easily by clicking
their tabs with the mouse.

A line, usually horizontal, along the bottom of a chart. The x-

X-axis: axis shows the labels for the data series. Also called the
horizontal axis.

A line, usually vertical, along the left side of a chart. The y-

Y-axis:
axis shows the values for the data series.

a) COMPILER
 A computer program which translates a complete program written in high-level
language into machine language /code before it is executed.
 A compiler is a computer program that translates a computer program written in
one computer language (called the source language) into an equivalent program

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 written in another computer language (called the output, object, or target
language).
b) TRANSLATOR
 A program that translates a source program/ code into an equivalent object
code [machine code] before the program is executed by the computer.
 A program that translates one programming language into another

c) APPLICATION PROGRAM
 A software program running on top of the operating system [windows, Unix etc]
that has been created to perform a specific task for a user.
 A program that has been created to perform a specific task that is useful to the
user - unlike the operating system, which is a program that controls the PC.
Most people buy PC's so that they can run application programs. Ex: Word
Processor, Spreadsheet, Home Finance Package, and Drawing Package.

d) 4GL
 Fourth Generation Languages
 Allows the programmer to build a complete application without writing any
traditional programs.
 User specifies what is to be done but not how to do it.
 A 4GL (Fourth Generation Language) is a software tool that makes it easier to
generate ad hoc enquiries and reports, and may also be used to develop
applications. Some 4GL’s are designed for use by experienced programmers;
others are targeted at end users.
 A language in which the code generation is computer assisted.

(e) UTILITY PROGRAM

 A small program, or set of small programs, that supports the OS by providing
additional services that the OS does not provide. Some services they commonly
provide are: disk backup, disk optimization, file recovery, safe formatting, and
resource editing.
 These are service programs for they provide a useful service to the user by
facilitating routine services e.g. copying files.
 Support the operation, management, and users of a system by providing a
variety of support services.

(f) DATA SECURITY

 Refers to keeping data safe from various hazards or dangers.

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  This means doing everything possible to ensure that an information system
remains secure. This means protecting information from criminals, equipment
malfunction and natural disasters or fire. Security threats include unauthorized
access to data and damage to files by malicious programs such as some
viruses.

(g) SOFTWARE PIRACY

 Unauthorized copying of software
 Unauthorized use or reproduction of copyrighted patented software.
 By far, the biggest legal problem affecting the computer industry today is
software piracy, which is the illegal copying or use of programs. Piracy is a huge
problem mainly because it is so easy to do. In most cases, it is no more difficult
to steal a program than it is to tape a music CD that you have borrowed from a
friend. Software pirates give up the right to receive upgrades and technical
support, but they gain the use of the program without paying for it.

(h) DATA ENCRYPTION

 A procedure that renders the contents of a message or file unintelligible to
anyone not authorized to read it.
 The changing of information into an unreadable form to prevent anyone who
does not have a decryption "key" from reading the information. Data encryption
is used to protect sensitive information that travels over public channels such as
the Internet.
 Is encoding data so that they cannot be understood unless they are decoded;
used to protect data from unauthorized users?

(i) HACKER
 User of a computer system that gains unauthorized access into a computer
system.
 Unauthorized user who attempts to or gains access to an information system.
 Hacker' is the term given to someone who deliberately tries to circumvent
security procedures to gain unauthorized access to a computer network. The
original usage of the term referred to people who create state of the art or
cutting-edge computer programs, making computers perform tasks they may not
have originally been designed to perform.

(j) COMPUTER VIRUS

 An executable computer program written intentionally to alter the way a
computer operates without permission, to do harm to the computer.

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  A computer virus is a self-replicating program containing code that explicitly
copies itself and can "infect" other programs by modifying them or their
environment such that a call to an infected program implies a call to a (possibly
evolved) copy of the virus.
 Virus: a software program capable of reproducing itself and usually capable of
causing great harm to files or other programs on the same computer.

Part A
i. Worksheet an electronic spreadsheet containing 256 columns by 16 384 rows. A
single spreadsheet that contains rows and columns of data . A set of rows, columns
and cells in which you store and manipulate data
ii. Cell address usually the intersection of a row and a column. Is the location of a
cell on a worksheet and is defined by the column letter and the row number. E.g.
cell A1 is where column A and Row 1 intersect.
iii. Formula a set of instruction that you enter in a cell to perform numeric calculations
= A1+B1
iv. Cell Pointer (cursor) A highlighted rectangle around a cell that indicates the active
cell.
v. Cell an intersection of a row and column, the smallest element in which you can
enter data.

Part B
i. Footer text that appears at the bottom of every page in a document
ii. Text that appears at the top of every page of a document when it is printed.
iii. Spell Checker F1 word processing function which searches for and correct
misspellings by comparing a document’s words with those in built-in spelling
dictionary.
iv. Font is a style and size of type e.g Times New Roman, 12 point is a set of all the
characters available in one typeface and size, including uppercase and
lowercase letters, punctuation, and numerals.
v. Alignment the position of lines in a paragraph in relation to the document’s left
and right margins i.e. whether they are left-aligned, centered, right-aligned or
justified.

INPUT DEVICES
There are many input formats which enable us to gather up and collect information, and
enter data and instructions into the computer.

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Some common input devices

 QWERTY keyboard
 Mouse
 Tracker ball
 Joystick
 Light pen
 Sensors (see the Revision Bite on computer control)

Key-to-disk - An early stand-alone data entry machine that stored data on magnetic disk
for computer entry. The key-to-disk machine was the successor to the key-to-tape
machine, which was the first major breakthrough in data entry since the punch card.

Other input devices include:

Barcode reader

Barcodes are different groups of vertical bars that can be read by an optical scanner.
Barcodes are printed on nearly every product that you can buy. Shops use barcodes
because they are cheap to produce and very durable.

Concept keyboard
This is a flat board that contains a grid of buttons. Each button can be programmed to
follow instructions. An overlay sheet is placed on the grid with an explanation for each
button. They are used in primary schools with young children. Many modern fast food
restaurants have overlays with either a description or picture of the meals that are available
to make ordering easier.

Digital camera
A digital camera allows you to take pictures and to store a digital photographic image that
can be read by a computer. You can then transfer the images directly from your camera on
to your computer.

Graphics tablet

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This consists of a flat pad (the tablet) on which the user draws with a special pen. As the
user draws on the pad the image is created on the screen. Using a graphics tablet a
designer can produce very accurate on-screen drawings.

MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Reader)

Magnetic ink characters are the strange looking numbers that appear at the bottom of
cheques. These characters are used because they are very difficult to forge or damage.
Banks use MICR to read the numbers from the bottom of cheques to obtain data such as
account numbers and bank sort codes.

Magnetic strip (or stripe) reader

Magnetic strips are built into many plastic cards such as cheque guarantee cards, cash-
point cards and personal identity cards. The magnetic strip on the back of the card can
hold the personal details of the card owner and, with the necessary PIN, will allow access
to secure information e.g. bank account details. Data stored on the strip is scanned and
input into a computer system by a reader.

MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface)

A MIDI system allows you to attach a musical instrument to your computer, for example a
musical keyboard. You can then store a musical sequence on a computer and then have
the computer play it back to you.

OMR (Optical Mark Reader)

An OMR reads marks made by pencil on a printed form into the computer. OMR systems
are suited to reading pre-printed forms and check-boxes such as National Lottery number
selection sheets and multiple-choice exam papers.

Scanner

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Scanners are now a cheap and common way of getting images into a computer. They can
also be used with OCR (Optical Character Recognition) software to scan in text.

Touch screen
A touch screen is a special type of VDU, which has a grid of light beams or fine wires criss-
crossing the screen. When the screen is touched (usually to choose an on-screen option),
the computer senses where you have pressed. Due to the vast amount of information they
can store, touch screen operated computers are generally used in the provision of public
information and are found in places such as airports.

Video digitiser
A video digitiser takes an image from a video camera or television and converts it so that it
can be used by, and stored on, a computer. Video sequences captured using a video
digitiser are often used in multimedia presentations.

Voice recognition system

A microphone is used with a voice recognition system. This can be used with a word
processing program to enter text. It can also be used as part of security systems - only
certain digitally stored voices have access.

 Chorded keyboard  Keyboard, Typing

Text input devices  GKOS keyboard  Computer keyboard
 Keyer  Handwriting
 Telegraph key (~20 recognition
WPM Morse code)  Optical character
 Vibroplex (30–80 recognition
WPM Morse)  Speech recognition

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Pointing devices  Light pen  Computer mouse
 Light gun  Trackball
 Cyberglove  Touchpad
 Touch screen  Pointing stick
 Head pointer  Graphics tablet (or
 Eye gaze/eye digitizing tablet)
tracking  Stylus

Gaming devices  paddle  Joystick

 Power Pad  Gamepad (or
joypad)

Image, video input  Digital camcorder  Image scanner

devices  Webcam  3D scanner
 Digital video  Digital camera
recorder

Audio input devices  Microphone (see  Digital dictaphone

also speech
recognition)
 Digital audio
recorder

OUTPUT DEVICES

Output devices are things we use to get information OUT of a computer.

Here are some examples of output devices.

Monitor - A monitor is the screen on

which words, numbers, and
graphics can be seem. The monitor
is the most common output device.
Compact Disk - Some compact
disks can be used to put

81
 information on. This is called
burning information to a CD.
NOTE: A CD can also be an input
device.

Printer - A printer prints whatever is

on the monitor onto paper. Printers
can print words, numbers, or
pictures.

Speaker - A speaker gives you

sound output from your computer.
Some speakers are built into the
computer and some are separate.
Disk Drives - A disk drive is used to
record information from the
computer onto a floppy disk or CD.
Floppy Disk - A floppy disk is used
to record information on. The
information is stored on the floppy
disk and can be used later or used
on another computer.
Headphones - Headphones give
sound output from the computer.
They are similar to speakers, except
they are worn on the ears so only
one person can hear the output at a
time.
Output devices
Common output formats are printed-paper, saved disk file, sound, video and on-screen
documents. They are all of those things that let your computer 'talk' back to you and
present information. Examples of devices for these formats are:

Monitors or Visual Display Units (VDUs)

These are the most common output device and include desktop monitors and Liquid
Crystal Displays (LCDs).

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Printers

 Laser printers produce a very high quality output, are very quiet and very fast
although quite expensive to buy.
 Ink-jet printers are cheaper to buy, offering black and white or colour printing with
reduced levels of quality and speed.
 Dot-matrix printers are not so common today. They are comparatively noisy and
low quality but are cheap to run and ideal for draft copies.

Plotters
A plotter can be used to produce high quality, accurate, A3 size or bigger drawings. They
are usually used for Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided Manufacture
(CAM) applications such as printing out plans for houses or car parts.

Other devices

 Speakers
 LCD projectors

Output can also be in the form of instructions to a device such as a robot arm.

Hardware

 Hardware: (computer science) the mechanical, magnetic, electronic, and electrical

components making up a computer system
 Hardware comprises all of the physical parts of a computer, as distinguished from
the data it contains or operates on, and the software that provides instructions for
the hardware to accomplish tasks.The boundary between hardware and software is
slightly blurry—firmware is software that is "built-in" to the hardware, but such
firmware is usually the province of computer programmers and computer engineers
in any case and not an issue that computer users need to concern themselves with.
 Example include Input & Output devices mentioned above

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Operating system

 The software that the rest of the software depends on to make the computer
functional. On most PCs this is Windows or the Macintosh OS. Unix and Linux are
other operating systems often found in scientific and technical environments.

 An operating system (sometimes abbreviated as "OS") is the program that, after

being initially loaded into the computer by a boot program, manages all the other
programs in a computer. The other programs are called applications or application
programs. The application programs make use of the operating system by making
requests for services through a defined application program interface (API). ...

 A computer program that controls the components of a computer system and

facilitates the operation of applications. Windows Me, Windows XP, Linux, and
MacOS are common operating systems.

Storage devices

 In computing, a data storage device—as the name implies—is a device for storing
data. It usually refers to permanent (non-volatile) storage, that is, the data will
remain stored when power is removed from the device; unlike semiconductor RAM.
Recording can be done mechanically, magnetically, or optically.

Application Software

 These programs accomplish the specialized tasks of the user, while operating
system software allows the computer to work. A computer-aided dispatch system is
application software, as is each word processing program.
 Computer programs that are used to accomplish specific tasks not related to the
computer itself. Examples are word processors, spreadsheets, and accounting
systems.
 A software program running on top of the operating system (Windows, UNIX, Mac)
that has been created to perform a specific task for a user. Examples include word
processing software like Word/Word Perfect, spreadsheets like Excel or Lotus 123,
home finance packages like Quicken, etc.
 Programs that perform useful functions in the processing or manipulation of data;
includes database managers, word processors, text editors, spreadsheets, and
other programs that enable the useful production of data.

Antivirus Software

84
  A computer program designed to detect and respond to malicious software, such as
viruses and worms. Responses may include blocking user access to infected files,
cleaning infected files or systems, or informing the user that an infected program
was detected.
 Software tools that scan for known viruses and take action to disarm and/or remove
them. Such tools should be included as part of the computing systems environment
that the web services are delivered from.
 A computer program that provides protection from VIRUSES by making checks of
the integrity of the operating system. No antivirus software can offer total protection
against viruses.

State five advantages of using a word processor (e.g. MS Word) rather than a manual
typewriter in an office [10].
 Ability to correct mistakes
 Ability to view documents on screen before printing
 Ability to incorporate diagrams
 Ability to move parts of text to other sections of the document.
 Ability to save or store documents for future reference or use.
 Ability to alter or change document layout.
 Ability to print a lot of copies [ no retyping]
 Ability to insert tables
 Ability to format document [font, paragraphs, bullets etc]
o Other - Good reasoning [ 2 marks each for 5 & 1 mark each for more than 5]

2. a) What is an operating system? Give any three examples. [5].

 Is a collection of specialized programs designed to manage computer
resources and the overall operations of a computer.
 A computer program that controls the components of a computer system and
facilitates the operation of applications. VMS, OS/400, AIX, and z/OS,
Windows Me, Windows XP, 95, 98, 2000, MS Dos, UNIX, Linux, and MacOS
are common operating systems.
 A collection of software, which administers, maintains and provides access to
the resources of a computer system.
b) State any five functions of an operating system. [5].
 Controls and coordinates the computer system
 Scheduling and loading of jobs to provide continuous processing. So that no parts
of the computer system are idle for any significant period of time.
 It is a platform for application programs
 Provides user interface

85
  Acts as an interface between hardware and application programs
 Provides error correctional routines
 Control over selection and operation of input-output devices & file handling.
 Records details of processing for control analysis
 File management, control the creation, deletion, saving and access of files
 Resource management, manages processor time, memory space, disk space and
peripheral devices.
 Reports errors when they occur.

The main functions of an OS include:

In a multitasking operating system where multiple programs can be running at the

same time, the operating system determines which applications should run in what
order and how much time should be allowed for each application before giving another
application a turn.
It manages the sharing of internal memory among multiple applications.
It handles and monitors input and output to and from attached hardware devices, such
as hard disks, printers, and dial-up ports. [8]
It sends messages to each application or interactive user (or to a system operator)
about the status of operation and any errors that may have occurred.
It can offload the management of what are called batch jobs (for example, printing) so
that the initiating application is freed from this work.
On computers that can provide parallel processing, an operating system can manage
how to divide the program so that it runs on more than one processor at a time.
Scheduling the activities of the CPU and resources to achieve efficiency and prevention
of deadlock. [9]

What do you understand by the term “computer Virus”? [3].

 An executable computer program, written intentionally to alter the way a
computer operates without permission, to do harm to the computer.
 A dangerous computer program with the characteristic feature of being able to
generate copies of itself, and thereby spreading. Additionally most computer
viruses have a destructive payload that is activated under certain conditions.

86
  A software program capable of reproducing itself and usually capable of
causing great harm to files or other programs on the same computer; "a true
virus cannot spread to another computer without human assistance.

Give any three signs that a virus has infected your computer. [3].

Signs that your computer might have a virus could

 Include spontaneous startup of programs like email programs,

 Unexplained attempts by programs on your computer to access the Internet,
 Changes in file date stamps,
 Unusually slow program load or run times,
 Lots of unexplained disk activity, drive lights blink without reason.
 Failure of a program or your computer to start.
 Changing file names.
 Some are destructive and will change files and erase data,
 Some will erase your entire hard drive.
 Data is modified or corrupted
 Longer times are experienced in loading programs
 Reduced memory or disk space
 Files are overwritten or damaged.

State any two ways computers are infected with viruses. [2].
 Use of infected floppy diskettes on uninfected computers
 Downloading unknown files, from the Internet.
 Opening unknown e-mail attachments
 Accepting program installations from the Internet.
 Use of network files i.e. documents on LANs or WANs.
 Software piracy.

Give any one anti-virus package you know. [1].

 Norton Antivirus Package
 Dr Solomon
 MS antiviral
 McAfee Antiviral
 AVG antiviral

What does antivirus software do?

87
  There are a variety of antivirus software packages that operate in many different
ways, depending on how the vendor chose to implement their software. What they
have in common, though, is that they all look for patterns in the files or memory of
your computer that indicate the possible presence of a known virus. Antivirus
packages know what to look for through the use of virus profiles (sometimes called
"signatures") provided by the vendor. New viruses are discovered daily. ...

State one measure that can be taken to avoid virus attacks. [1].
 Install an anti virus software
 Avoid software piracy
 Never download unknown files from the Internet
 Never open an unknown e-mail attachment
 Boot the system from virus free disks
 Use the write protect tab on floppy disks
 Scan all unknown floppies before use
What is the difference between impact and non-impact printers? [2].
Impact Non impact
Makes noise when printing Quiet printers
Print head makes contact with the No contact creates an image
paper without striking a ribbon against the
paper. Creates images on a surface
without contacting it.
Strike ribbon against the paper Use a laser beam which form an
image onto paper using toner
Slow printer Fast printers
Use ribbons or ink Use toner
Has too many moving parts hence Has fewer moving parts hence they
unreliable are reliable.
Impact printers are relatively Very expensive computers
inexpensive, and the cost of printing is
also low because ink ribbons are
inexpensive.

Give two advantages of non-impact printers over impact printers. [2].

 Have high print quality
 They are fast and do not make noise
 They are reliable because they have less moving parts
 See above [non impact section]
Give three examples of impact printers & three examples of non-impact printers.
Impact printers Non impact printers

88
 Dot matrix Laser
Daisy wheel printers Inkjet
Line printers LED
Chain printers Thermal
Magnetic
Electrostatic
Xerographic

a) State the functions of the Control Unit & Arithmetic Logic Unit. [5].
Control unit functions A.L.U functions
Manages input-output to & from the Performs arithmetic operations
main memory
Interprets instructions in sequence Performs logical operations
Issue commands to all elements of the Performs computations on data.
computer
Directs sequence of operations Is where binary data is acted upon?
Directs traffic in the computer [make Stores intermediate and final results
decisions] of arithmetic operations
Interprets coded instructions
Initiates proper commands to other
parts of the computer.
Performs the functions of fetch,
decode, execute, and store.

State the difference between the main memory and the auxiliary storage.

Main memory Auxiliary or backup storage

Stores programs and data while Store data or programs for later use
computer is running for current use
Main memory is fast and limited in Slow and capacity vary
capacity
Cannot retain information when the Non volatile
computer is switched off - Volatile
Memory directly connected to the CPU Portable- can be transported from
- not portable one machine to another.
Primary storage Secondary storage
PROVIDES FAST ACCESS ACCESS IS SLOW
Temporary Permanent

89
Computer cannot do or work without Can do or work without

90