Basic Calculus

Quarter 3: Limits, Continuity, and Derivatives

THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: THEOREMS AND EXAMPLES

The Limit of a Function

Consider a function f of a single variable x. Consider a constant c which the variable x
will approach (c may or may not be in the domain of f). The limit, to be denoted by L, is the
unique real value that f(x) will approach as x approaches c. In symbols, we write this process as:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐
This is read as, ‘‘The limit of f(x) as x approaches c is L.”

FINDING THE LIMIT USING TABLE OF VALUES

EXAMPLE 1: Consider the limit, lim 1 + 3𝑥.
𝑥→2

Solution. One way to find the limit of a function is to approach c on both sides by constructing
a table of values.

𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)

1 4 3 10

1.89 6.67 2.5 8.5

1.99 6.97 2.1 7.3

1.999 6.997 2.01 7.03

1.9999 6.9997 2.001 7.003

1.99999 6.99997 2.0001 7.0003

Observe that the value of f(x) approaches 7 as x approaches 2.

Therefore,
lim 1 + 3𝑥 = 7.
𝑥→2

In this case, lim 1 + 3𝑥 = 𝑓(2). But this won’t always hold true.
𝑥→2

2
𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 4
EXAMPLE 2: Consider another limit, lim 𝑥−1
.
𝑥→1
0
Solution. Notice that when we directly substitute 1, the result will be 0
or indeterminate. And
this doesn’t mean that the limit doesn’t exist.

​ Start by constructing a table of values.

𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)

0.5 – 3.5 1.5 – 2.5

0.8 – 3.2 1.1 – 2.9

0.9 – 3.1 1.01 – 2.99

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Basic Calculus
Quarter 3: Limits, Continuity, and Derivatives

0.99 – 3.01 1.001 – 2.999

0.999 – 3.001 1.0001 – 2.9999

0.9999 – 3.0001 1.00001 – 2.99999

Observe that the value of f(x) approaches – 3 as x approaches 1.

Therefore,
2
𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 4
lim 𝑥−1
=− 3
𝑥→1
This is one of the cases where there is no function value at c but has a limit at c.

2
EXAMPLE 3: Investigate lim (𝑥 + 1).
𝑥 → −1

Solution. Start by constructing a table of values.

𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)

– 1.5 3.25 – 0.5 1.25

– 1.2 2.44 – 0.7 1.49

– 1.1 2.21 – 0.9 1.81

– 1.01 2.0201 – 0.99 1.9801

– 1.001 2.002001 – 0.999 1.998001

– 1.0001 2.00020001 – 0.9999 1.99980001

Observe that the value of f(x)approaches 2 as x approaches – 1.

Therefore,
2
lim (𝑥 + 1) = 2
𝑥 → −1

EXAMPLE 4: Find the limit of lim |𝑥|.

𝑥→0

Solution. Start by constructing a table of values.

𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)

– 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

– 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

– 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

– 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

– 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001

– 0.00001 0.00001 0.00001 0.00001

Observe that the value of f(x) approaches 0 as x approaches 0.

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Basic Calculus
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Therefore,
lim |𝑥| = 0
𝑥→0

𝑥 + 1, 𝑥<4
EXAMPLE 5: Consider the limit, lim 𝑓(𝑥), where 𝑓(𝑥) = { 2 .
(𝑥 − 4) + 3, 𝑥 ≥ 4
𝑥→4

Solution. Start by constructing a table of values.

𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)

3 4 5 4

3.5 4.5 4.5 3.25

3.9 4.9 4.1 3.01

3.99 4.99 4.01 3.0001

3.999 4.999 4.001 3.000001

3.9999 4.9999 4.0001 3.00000001

Observe that f(x) approaches 5 as x approaches 4 from the left side and that f(x)
approaches 3 when x approaches 4 from the right side.

Therefore,
lim 𝑓(𝑥) DNE
𝑥→4

Since the function f(x) approaches two different values when x approaches on one side or
the other, and since a limit cannot have two values, therefore, the limit does not exist.

ONE-SIDED LIMITS
If x approaches c from the left, then we write lim 𝑓(𝑥).
−
𝑥→𝑐
If x approaches c from the right, then we write lim 𝑓(𝑥).
+
𝑥→𝑐

Let:​ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑀, and lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑁.

− +
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

​ If 𝑀 = 𝑁 = 𝐿,​ ​ ​ If 𝑀 ≠ 𝑁,

​ then lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿​ ​ ​ then lim 𝑓(𝑥) DNE

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

These limits, lim 𝑓(𝑥) and lim 𝑓(𝑥), are referred to as one-sided limits, since we
− +
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
only consider values on one side of c.

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Basic Calculus
Quarter 3: Limits, Continuity, and Derivatives

GRAPHICAL APPROACH IN FINDING THE LIMIT

EXAMPLE 1: Investigate lim (1 + 3𝑥) by graphical means.
𝑥→2

Solution. First, we need to graph the function f(x).

Notice that 1 + 3𝑥 is a linear function and,

therefore, we only need two points to draw the graph of
the function.

When you have successfully graphed

𝑓(𝑥) = 1 + 3𝑥, you can notice that as we approach 2 on
both sides, f(x) approaches 7.

Therefore,
lim (1 + 3𝑥) = 7
𝑥→2

2
𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 4
EXAMPLE 2: Find lim 𝑥−1
by graphical means.
𝑥→1
2
𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 4 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 4)
Solution. Notice how we can simplify the rational function, 𝑥−1
, into 𝑥−1
and to
be further simplified into 𝑥 − 4.
​ We can use 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 4 to graph the
rational function. And we can use that graph to find
the limit of that rational function.

However, when we try to graph using the

original rational function, the graph would have no
solution at x = 1 since the original function has a
domain consisting of all real numbers except 1.

​ Notice that as we approach 1 on both sides,

f(x) approaches – 3.

Therefore,
2
𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 4
lim 𝑥−1
=− 3
𝑥→1

The Limit of a Function at c Versus the Value of a Function at c

EXAMPLE 1: Consider the limit lim (1 + 3𝑥).
𝑥→2

Solution. We know that:

lim (1 + 3𝑥) = 7​ ​ and​ ​ 𝑓(2) = 7
𝑥→2

In this case, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐) but it won’t always be the case.
𝑥→𝑐

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Basic Calculus
Quarter 3: Limits, Continuity, and Derivatives
2
𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 4
EXAMPLE 2: Consider another limit, lim 𝑥−1
.
𝑥→1

Solution. We know that

2
𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 4 0
lim 𝑥−1
=− 3 ​ and​ 𝑓(1) = 0
​ or​ 𝑓(1) DNE
𝑥→1

In this case, there is a limit as x approaches 1 but no function value at x = 1. Hence, we

can’t always substitute c for x in finding the limit.

𝑥 + 1, 𝑥<4
EXAMPLE 3: Consider yet another limit, lim 𝑓(𝑥), where 𝑓(𝑥) = { 2 .
(𝑥 − 4) + 3, 𝑥≥4
𝑥→4

Solution. We know that

lim 𝑓(𝑥) DNE​ and ​ 𝑓(4) = 3
𝑥→4
​
In this case, no limit exists as x approaches 4 but
there is a function value at x = 4. This is because there is
no common y-value that the function approaches as x
approaches 4, as shown on the left, instead there is a gap
since we used a different sub-function depending on the
value of x.

Illustration of Limit Theorems

THE LIMIT OF A CONSTANT
The limit of a constant is itself. If k is any constant, then
lim 𝑘 = 𝑘
𝑥→𝑐

EXAMPLES:
1.​ lim 5 = 5
𝑥→3
1 1
2.​ lim − 2
=− 2
𝑥→0

THE LIMIT OF x
The limit of x as x approaches c is equal to c. This may be thought of as the substitution
law because x is simply substituted by c.
lim 𝑥 = 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐

EXAMPLES:
1.​ lim 𝑥 = 5
𝑥→5
1
2.​ lim 𝑥 =− 2
𝑥→− 2
1

For the remaining theorems, we will assume that the limits of f and g both exist as x
approaches c and that they are M and N, respectively. In other words,

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Basic Calculus
Quarter 3: Limits, Continuity, and Derivatives

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑀 and ​ lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑁.

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

CONSTANT MULTIPLE THEOREM

This theorem states that the limit of a multiple of a function is simply that multiple of the
limit of the function.
lim 𝑘 · 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘 · lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘 · 𝑀
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

EXAMPLE 1: Given that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4.

𝑥→𝑐

1.​ Find lim 8𝑓(𝑥).

𝑥→𝑐

Solution.
​ lim 8𝑓(𝑥) = 8 · lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
​ ​ ​ = 8(4)
​ ​ ​ = 32

ADDITION THEOREM
​ This theorem states that the limit of a sum of functions is the sum of the
limits of the individual functions. Subtraction is also included in this law, that is, the limit
of a difference of functions is the difference of their limits.
lim [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀 ± 𝑁
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

EXAMPLE 1: Let lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 3.

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

1.​ Find lim [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)].

𝑥→𝑐

Solution.
​ ​ lim [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ = 4+ 3
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ = 7
2.​ Find lim [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)].
𝑥→𝑐

Solution.
lim [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) − lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
​ ​ ​ = 4− 3
​ ​ ​ = 1

MULTIPLICATION THEOREM
This is similar to the Addition Theorem, with multiplication replacing addition as the
operation involved. Thus, the limit of a product of functions is equal to the product of their
limits.
lim 𝑓(𝑥) · 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) · lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿 · 𝑀
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

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Basic Calculus
Quarter 3: Limits, Continuity, and Derivatives

EXAMPLE 1: Let lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 3.

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

1.​ Find lim [𝑓(𝑥) · 𝑔(𝑥)].

𝑥→𝑐

Solution.
lim [𝑓(𝑥) · 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) · lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
​ ​ ​ ​ = 4· 3
​ ​ ​ ​ = 12

DIVISION THEOREM
This theorem states that the limit of a quotient of functions is equal to the quotient of the
limits of the individual functions, provided the denominator limit is not equal to 0.
lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑐 𝐿
lim 𝑔(𝑥)
= lim 𝑔(𝑥)
= 𝑀
, ​provided 𝑀 ≠ 0.
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

EXAMPLE 1: Let lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 10 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 2.

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
𝑓(𝑥)
1.​ Find lim 𝑔(𝑥)
.
𝑥→𝑐

Solution.
lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑐
lim 𝑔(𝑥)
= lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

10
​ ​ ​ ​ = 2
​ ​ ​ = 5

EXAMPLE 2: Let lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 3.

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
𝑓(𝑥)
1.​ Find lim 𝑔(𝑥)
.
𝑥→𝑐

Solution.
lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑐
lim 𝑔(𝑥)
= lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

0
​ ​ = 3
​ ​ = 0

POWER THEOREM
This theorem states that the limit of an integer power p of a function is just that power of
the limit of the function. If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿, then
𝑥→𝑐
𝑝 𝑝 𝑝
lim (𝑓(𝑥)) = ( lim 𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝐿 .
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

EXAMPLE 1: Let lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 2.

𝑥→𝑐

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Basic Calculus
Quarter 3: Limits, Continuity, and Derivatives

3
1.​ Find lim [𝑓(𝑥)] .
𝑥→𝑐

Solution.
3 3
​ lim [𝑓(𝑥)] = [ lim 𝑓(𝑥)]
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
3
​ ​ ​ = (2)
​ ​ ​ = 8

−2
2.​ Find lim [𝑓(𝑥)] .
𝑥→𝑐

Solution.
−2 −2
​ lim [𝑓(𝑥)] = [ lim 𝑓(𝑥)]
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
−2
​ ​ ​ = (2)
1
​ ​ ​ = 2
(2)
1
​ ​ ​ = 4

RADICAL/ROOT THEOREM
This theorem states that if n is a positive integer, the limit of the nth root of a function is
just the nth root of the limit of the function, provided the nth root of the limit is a real number.
Thus, it is important to keep in mind that if n is even, the limit of the function must be positive. If
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿, then
𝑥→𝑐
𝑛 𝑛
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿.
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

EXAMPLE 1: Let lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 9.

𝑥→𝑐

1.​ find lim 𝑓(𝑥).

𝑥→𝑐

Solution.
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

​ ​ = 9
​ ​ = 3

EXAMPLE 2: Let lim 𝑓(𝑥) =− 4.

𝑥→𝑐

1.​ Find lim 𝑓(𝑥).

𝑥→𝑐

Solution.
​ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

​ ​ ​ = − 4​ the limit contains the imaginary unit i.

Therefore,
lim 𝑓(𝑥) DNE.
𝑥→𝑐

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Basic Calculus
Quarter 3: Limits, Continuity, and Derivatives

Limits of Polynomial, Rational, and Radical Functions

Theorem 1. Theorem 1 encompasses every limit theorem that has been discussed up to this
point, which are the limit of a constant, the limit of x, and among others.

LIMITS OF ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

EXAMPLE 1: Evaluate lim (2𝑥 + 1).
𝑥→1

Solution.
​ lim (2𝑥 + 1) = lim 2𝑥 + lim 1​​ (Addition)
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1
​ ​ ​ ​ = 2 lim 𝑥 + lim 1​ (Constant Multiple)
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
​ ​ ​ ​ = 2 lim 𝑥 + 1​ ​ (Limit of a Constant)
𝑥→1
​ ​ ​ ​ = 2(1) + 1​ ​ ​ (Limit of x)
​ ​ ​ ​ = 3

3 2
EXAMPLE 2: Find the limit of lim (2𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 1).
𝑥 → −1

Solution.
3 2 3 2
lim (2𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 1) = lim 2𝑥 − lim 4𝑥 + lim 1
𝑥 → −1 𝑥 → −1 𝑥 → −1 𝑥 → −1
3 2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ = 2 lim 𝑥 − 4 lim 𝑥 + 1
𝑥 → −1 𝑥→𝑐
3 2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ = 2[ lim 𝑥] − 4[ lim 𝑥] + 1
𝑥 → −1 𝑥 → −1
3 2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ = 2(− 1) − 4(− 1) + 1
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ =− 5

𝑥
EXAMPLE 3: Evaluate lim 𝑥+1
.
𝑥→2

Solution.
lim 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥→2
​ ​ lim 𝑥+1
= lim (𝑥 + 1)
𝑥→2 𝑥→2

2
​ ​ ​ ​ = lim 𝑥 + lim 1
𝑥→2 𝑥→1

2
​ ​ ​ ​ = 2+1
2
​ ​ ​ ​ = 3

2
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 2)
EXAMPLE 4: Evaluate lim 2 .
𝑥→1 𝑥 +1

Solution.
2
2 lim [(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 2)]
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥→1
​ ​ lim 2 = 2
𝑥→1 𝑥 +1 lim (𝑥 + 1)
𝑥→1

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Basic Calculus
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2
lim (𝑥 − 3) · lim (𝑥 − 2)
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ = 2
lim 𝑥 + lim 1
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
2
[ lim 𝑥 − lim 3] · [ lim 𝑥 − lim 2]
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ = 2
[ lim 𝑥] + 1
𝑥→1
2
(1 − 3) · [( lim 𝑥) − 2]
𝑥→1
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ = 2
(1) + 1
2
(−2)((1) − 2)
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ = 2
(−2)(−1)
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ = 2
2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ = 2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ = 1

Theorem 2. Let f be a polynomial of the form

𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛−2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛 − 1𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛 − 2𝑥 + … + 𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑎0.

If c is a real number, then

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐).
𝑥→𝑐

Proof.
𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛−2
​ 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑎𝑛𝑐 + 𝑎𝑛 − 1𝑐 + 𝑎𝑛 − 2𝑐 + … + 𝑎1𝑐 + 𝑎0

𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛−2
(1)​ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛 − 1𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛 − 2𝑥 + … + 𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑎0
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛−2
(2)​ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑎𝑛𝑥 + lim 𝑎𝑛 − 1𝑥 + lim 𝑎𝑛 − 2𝑥 + … + lim 𝑎1𝑥 + lim 𝑎0
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛−2
(3) ​ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 lim 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛 − 1 lim 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛 − 2 lim 𝑥 + … + 𝑎1 lim 𝑥 + lim 𝑎0
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛−2
(4)​ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛[ lim 𝑥] + 𝑎𝑛 − 1[ lim 𝑥] + 𝑎𝑛 − 2[ lim 𝑥] + … + 𝑎1 lim 𝑥 + lim 𝑎0
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛−2
(5)​ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛𝑐 + 𝑎𝑛 − 1𝑐 + 𝑎𝑛 − 2𝑐 + … + 𝑎1𝑐 + 𝑎0
𝑥→𝑐

​ ∴ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐)​ ​ Q.E.D.

𝑥→𝑐

3 2
EXAMPLE 5: Evaluate lim (2𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 1).
𝑥 → −1

Solution.
3 2 3 2
​ lim (2𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 1) = 2(− 1) + 3(− 1) − 1
𝑥 → −1
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ = 0

𝑓(𝑥)
Theorem 3. Let h be a rational function of the form ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)
, where f and g are polynomial
functions.

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If c is a real number and 𝑔(𝑐) ≠ 0, then

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑐)
lim ℎ(𝑥) = lim 𝑔(𝑥)
= 𝑔(𝑐)
.
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

1 − 5𝑥
EXAMPLE 6: Evaluate lim 2 4 .
𝑥→1 1 + 3𝑥 + 4𝑥

Solution.
1 − 5𝑥 1 − 5(1)
​ lim 2 4 = 2 4
𝑥→1 1 + 3𝑥 + 4𝑥 1 + 3(1) + 4(1)
−4
​ ​ ​ ​ = 8

1
​ ​ ​ ​ =− 2

We will now evaluate limits of radical functions using limit theorems.

3 2
EXAMPLE 7: Evaluate lim 𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 6.
𝑥 → −2

Solution.
3 2 2
​ lim 𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 6 = 3
lim 𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 6
𝑥 → −2 𝑥 → −2
3 2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ = (− 2) + 3(− 2) − 6
3
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ = 4− 6− 6
3
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ = −8
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ =− 2

2𝑥 + 5
EXAMPLE 8: Evaluate lim 1 − 3𝑥
.
𝑥→2

Solution.
lim (2𝑥 + 5)
2𝑥 + 5 𝑥→2
​ lim 1 − 3𝑥
= lim (1 − 3𝑥)
𝑥→2 𝑥→2

2(2) + 5
​ ​ ​ = 1 − 3(2)
9
​ ​ ​ = −5
3
​ ​ ​ =− 5

INTUITIVE NOTION ON INFINITE LIMITS

𝑓(𝑥)
Condition. A rational function in the form 𝑔(𝑥)
, where f and g are polynomial functions with
𝑓(𝑐) ≠ 0 and 𝑔(𝑐) = 0.

1
EXAMPLE 1: Take lim 2 .
𝑥→0 𝑥

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Basic Calculus
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Solution.

The figure on the right is its graph.

​ Approach x = 0 on both sides and observe

that:
1 1
lim 2 = ∞​ and ​ lim 2 = ∞.
𝑥→0
− 𝑥 𝑥→0
+ 𝑥

​ Since both one-sided limits exist and are

equal,
1
lim 2 = ∞
𝑥→0 𝑥

1
EXAMPLE 2: lim 𝑥
.
𝑥→0

Solution.

​​ Approach x = 0 on both sides, and observe

that:
1 1
lim 𝑥
=− ∞​ and​ lim 𝑥
= ∞.
− +
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

​​ Since both one-sided limits exist but are not

equal, then
1
lim 𝑥
DNE
𝑥→0

ADDITIONAL TECHNIQUES IN FINDING LIMITS

𝑓(𝑥)
Condition. A rational function in the form 𝑔(𝑥)
, where f and g are polynomial functions with
𝑓(𝑐) = 0 and 𝑔(𝑐) = 0.

2
𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 12
EXAMPLE 1: Evaluate lim 2 .
𝑥→2 𝑥 − 2𝑥

0
Solution. If we directly substitute 2, then it will result to 0
or indeterminate.

​ To get around that, we will use factoring.

2
𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 12 (𝑥 + 6)(𝑥 − 2)
lim 2 = lim 𝑥(𝑥 − 2)
𝑥→2 𝑥 − 2𝑥 𝑥→2
𝑥+6
​ ​ ​ = lim 𝑥
𝑥→2
2+6
​ ​ ​ = 2
​ ​ ​ = 4

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2
2(− 3 + ℎ) − 18
EXAMPLE 2: Evaluate lim ℎ
.
ℎ→0
0
Solution. If we directly substitute, and again, we will get 0
or indeterminate.

​ Factoring can’t be used as well.

​ However, we can expand the terms.

2 2
2(− 3 + ℎ) − 18 2(9 − 6ℎ + ℎ ) − 18
lim ℎ
= lim ℎ
ℎ→0 ℎ→0
2
18 − 12ℎ + 2ℎ − 18
​ ​ ​ = lim ℎ
ℎ→0
2
−12ℎ + 2ℎ
​ ​ ​ = lim ℎ
ℎ→0
​ ​ ​ = lim − 12 + 2ℎ
ℎ→0
​ ​ ​ =− 12 + 2(0)
​ ​ ​ =− 12

𝑡 − 3𝑡 + 4
EXAMPLE 3: Evaluate lim 4−𝑡
.
𝑡→4

Solution. Again, when we directly substitute it will be indeterminate.

​ Initially, factoring and expanding terms cannot be used in this case.

​ However, we can use the techniques for radicals such as multiplying by its conjugate.

𝑡 − 3𝑡 + 4 𝑡 − 3𝑡 + 4 𝑡 + 3𝑡 + 4
lim 4−𝑡
= lim 4−𝑡
·
𝑡 + 3𝑡 + 4
𝑡→4 𝑡→4
2 2
𝑡 − ( 3𝑡 + 4)
​ ​ ​ = lim
(4 − 𝑡)(𝑡 + 3𝑡 + 4)
𝑡→4
2
𝑡 − 3𝑡 − 4
​ ​ ​ = lim
(4 − 𝑡)(𝑡 + 3𝑡 + 4)
𝑡→4
(𝑡 − 4)(𝑡 + 1)
​ ​ ​ = lim
(4 − 𝑡)(𝑡 + 3𝑡 + 4)
𝑡→4
𝑡+1
​ ​ ​ = lim −
𝑡 + 3𝑡 + 4
𝑡→4
(4) + 1
​ ​ ​ =
(4) + 3(4) + 4
5
​ ​ ​ =
4 + 16
5
​ ​ ​ = 8

2
𝑦 +5 𝑦<−2
EXAMPLE 4: Given the function 𝑔(𝑦) = { 1 − 3𝑦 𝑦≥−2
.
1.​ Find lim 𝑔(𝑦).
𝑦→6

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Solution. Since 6 is not on the point where we shift from one function to another, based on the
given conditions of the piecewise function, then we can directly substitute.

lim 𝑔(𝑦) = lim (1 − 3𝑦)

𝑦→6 𝑦→6
​ ​ = 1 − 3(6)
​ ​ =− 17

2.​ Find lim 𝑔(𝑦).

𝑦→−2

Solution. Since – 2 is the value of y where the given condition indicates the use of another
sub-function, we cannot directly substitute.

First, we must approach – 2 on both sides to ensure whether there is a limit or not by
using one sided limits.

2
(from the left)​​ lim 𝑔(𝑦) = lim (𝑦 + 5)
− −
𝑦 → −2 𝑦 → −2
2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ = (− 2) + 5
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ = 9

(from the right)​ lim 𝑔(𝑦) = lim (1 − 3𝑦)

+ +
𝑦→−2 𝑦 → −2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ = 1 − 3(− 2)
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ = 7

Since both limits exist but are not equal, in symbols,

lim 𝑔(𝑦) ≠ lim 𝑔(𝑦)

− +
𝑦→−2 𝑦→−2
​ then,
lim 𝑔(𝑦) DNE.
𝑦→−2

LIMIT OF A FUNCTION AT INFINITY

​ To clear some confusion, this concept isn’t the same as infinite limits.

​ The limit of a function at infinity refers to the value that the function approaches as x
approaches positive or negative infinity. In symbols,

lim 𝑓(𝑥)​ ​ and ​ ​ lim 𝑓(𝑥).

− +
𝑥 → +∞ 𝑥 → −∞

​ Notice that one-sided limits are used to represent the limit of a function at infinity.

​ This is because you can’t approach infinity beyond infinity.

​ To expound further, you can only approach positive infinity from the left and negative
infinity from the right.

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Principle 1.
a.​ If r is a positive rational number and n is any real number, then
𝑛
lim 𝑟 = 0.
𝑥→∞ 𝑥

b.​ If r is a positive rational number, n is any real number, and xr is defined for x < 0, then
𝑛
lim 𝑟 = 0.
𝑥 → −∞ 𝑥

4 2
EXAMPLE 1:​Evaluate lim (2𝑥 − 𝑥 − 8𝑥).
𝑥→∞

Solution. Using direct substitution:

4 2 4 2
​ lim (2𝑥 − 𝑥 − 8𝑥) = 2(∞) − (∞) − 8(∞)
𝑥→∞
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ = ∞ − ∞ − ∞​ indeterminate.

To solve for its limit, we introduce yet another principle.

𝑛 𝑛−1 2
Principle 2. For any polynomial, 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛−1𝑥 +…+ 𝑎2𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎0.
1
𝑛 𝑛−1 2
In determining its limit, lim (𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛−1𝑥 +…+ 𝑎2𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎0), the value of
𝑥→∞ 1
𝑛−1 2
𝑎𝑛−1𝑥 +…+ 𝑎2𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎0 as x approaches infinity will be negligible.
1

Therefore,
𝑛 𝑛−1 2 𝑛
lim (𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛−1𝑥 +…+ 𝑎2𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎0) = lim 𝑎𝑛𝑥 .
𝑥→∞ 1 𝑥→∞

Correct Solution to Example 1. By using principle 2:

​
4
lim (2𝑥 − 𝑥 − 8𝑥)
𝑥→∞
2
= lim 𝑥 2 −
𝑥→∞
4
( 𝑥
1
2 −
𝑥
8
3 )
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ = lim 𝑥 · lim 2 −
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞
4
( 𝑥
1
2 −
8
3
𝑥 )
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ = ∞ ·2
4 2
​ lim (2𝑥 − 𝑥 − 8𝑥) = ∞​ ​ Q.E.D.
𝑥→∞

4 2
2𝑥 − 𝑥 + 8𝑥
EXAMPLE 2:​Evaluate lim 4 .
𝑥→∞ − 5𝑥 + 7

Solution. By direct substitution:

4 2 4 2
2𝑥 − 𝑥 + 8𝑥 2(∞) − (∞) + 8(∞)
​ lim 4 = 4
𝑥→∞ − 5𝑥 + 7 − 5(∞) + 7
∞−∞+∞
​ ​ ​ ​ = −∞+7
∞
​ ​ ​ ​ = −∞
​​ indeterminate.

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Correct Solution to Example 2. By using principle 2:

​ lim
4 2
2𝑥 − 𝑥 + 8𝑥
= lim
4
(
𝑥 2−
1
2
𝑥
+
8
𝑥
3 )
𝑥→∞
4
− 5𝑥 + 7 𝑥→∞
4
𝑥 −5+( 𝑥
7
4 )
1 8
2− 2 + 3

​ ​ ​ ​ = lim 𝑥
7
𝑥

−5+
𝑥→∞ 𝑥
4

2−0+0
​ ​ ​ ​ = −5+0
4 2
2𝑥 − 𝑥 + 8𝑥 2
​ lim 4 =− 5
​​ Q.E.D.
𝑥→∞ − 5𝑥 + 7

“Everybody is a genius. But if you judge a fish by its ability

to climb a tree, it will live its whole life believing it is stupid.”

— Not Albert Einstein

​ ​ ​ ​ ​

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Basic Calculus
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THE LIMIT OF SOME TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS

AND SOME INDETERMINATE FORMS

Limits of Exponential, Logarithmic, and Trigonometric Functions

EVALUATING LIMITS OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS
For any constant c which is a real number, then
𝑥 𝑐
lim 𝑒 = 𝑒 .
𝑥→𝑐
And for any constant b which is a positive real number and b cannot be 1, then
𝑥 𝑐
lim 𝑏 = 𝑏 .
𝑥→𝑐
𝑥
EXAMPLE 1:​ Evaluate lim 3 .
𝑥→2
𝑥 (2) 𝑥
Solution.​ lim 3 = 3 = 9​ ​ Therefore, lim 3 = 9​ ​ Q.E.D.
𝑥→2 𝑥→2

𝑥+5
EXAMPLE 2:​ Evaluate lim 3(2) .
𝑥 → −1
𝑥+5 −1 + 5 4
Solution.​ lim 3(2) = 3(2) = 3(2) = 3(16) = 48
𝑥 → −1
𝑥+5
​ ​ Therefore, lim 3(2) = 48​ ​ Q.E.D.
𝑥 → −1

1 3𝑥 + 7
EXAMPLE 3:​ Evaluate lim 2
𝑒 .
𝑥 → −2
1 3𝑥 + 7 1 3(−2) + 7 1 −6 + 7 1 1 𝑒
Solution.​ lim 2
𝑒 = 2
𝑒 = 2
𝑒 = 2
𝑒 = 2
𝑥 → −2
1 3𝑥 + 7 𝑒
​ ​ Therefore, lim 2
𝑒 = 2
​ ​ Q.E.D.
𝑥 → −2

EVALUATING LIMITS OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

​ Let b be a positive, non-zero real number such that b is not 1. Then,
lim logb 𝑥 = logb 𝑐,
𝑥→𝑐
provided that c is a positive, non-zero real number.

EXAMPLE 1:​ Evaluate lim log2 𝑥.

𝑥→8
Solution.​ lim log2 𝑥 = log2 8 = 3​ Therefore, lim log2 𝑥 = 3​ ​ Q.E.D.
𝑥→8 𝑥→8

EXAMPLE 2:​ Evaluate lim ln (5𝑥 − 9).

𝑥→2
Solution.​ lim ln (5𝑥 − 9) = ln (5(2) − 9) = ln (10 − 9) = ln 1 = 0
𝑥→2
Therefore, lim ln (5𝑥 − 9) = 0​ ​ Q.E.D.
𝑥→2

EXAMPLE 3:​ Evaluate lim ln (5𝑥 − 9).

𝑥→1

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Solution.​ lim ln (5𝑥 − 9) = ln (5(1) − 9) = ln (5 − 9) = ln – 4 → DNE

𝑥→1
​ ​ Therefore, lim ln (5𝑥 − 9) DNE​ ​ Q.E.D.
𝑥→1

2
EXAMPLE 4:​ Evaluate lim [log 2𝑥 + log (𝑥 + 5) − log (𝑥 − 2)].
𝑥→5
Solution.
2
​ lim [log 2𝑥 + log (𝑥 + 5) − log (𝑥 − 2)]
𝑥→5
2
= log 2(5) + log ((5) + 5) − log ((5) − 2)
= log 10 + log (25 + 5) − log 3
= log 10 + log 30 − log 3
= log (10)(30) − log 3​ ​ ​ product rule of logarithms.
300
= log 3
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ quotient rule of logarithms.
= log 100
= 2

2
Therefore, lim [log 2𝑥 + log (𝑥 + 5) − log (𝑥 − 2)] = 2​ ​ Q.E.D.
𝑥→5

EVALUATING LIMITS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

​ Let c be contained in the domain of the function whose limit is being evaluated.
Then,
1.​ lim sin 𝑥 = sin 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐
2.​ lim cos 𝑥 = cos 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐
3.​ lim tan 𝑥 = tan 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐
4.​ lim csc 𝑥 = csc 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐
5.​ lim sec 𝑥 = sec 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐
6.​ lim cot 𝑥 = cot 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐

EXAMPLE 1:​ Evaluate lim cot 4𝑥.

𝑥→
π
6

Solution.​ lim cot 4𝑥 = cot 4

𝑥→ 6
π
( ) = cot
π
6
2π
3

Recall: The unit circle.

2π π π
The reference angle of 3
is 3
. The angle 3
has the

xy-coordinates on the unit circle ( 1

2
, 2
3
) and the angle 2π
3
is on
the second quadrant, therefore it has the xy-coordinates of

(− 1
2
, 2
3
). Since the x-coordinate is the cosine of the angle and
the y-coordinate is the sine of the angle, then the cotangent of the
angle must be the quotient of x and y.

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2π 1
2π 𝑐𝑜𝑠 − 1 3 3
​ cot 3
= 3
2π = 3
2
=− · =− 3
𝑠𝑖𝑛 3
3 3
2

3
Therefore, lim cot 4𝑥 =− 3
​ ​ Q.E.D.
𝑥→ 6
π

EXAMPLE 2:​ Evaluate lim sec (3𝑥 + π).

𝑥→
π
2
π 3π 5π
Solution.​ lim sec (3𝑥 + π) = sec (3( 2 ) + π) = sec ( 2
+ π) = sec 2
𝑥→ 2
π

5π
​ The angle 2
exceeds one rotation, therefore we must find the smallest positive
5π π π π
coterminal of that angle. Notice how 2
resembles 2
, it is five 2
’s. Since four 2
’s make a full
π 5π π
rotation and we have an extra 2
left, then 2
must be same angle as 2
.

Recall: The unit circle.

π
​ The angle 2
has xy-coordinates (0, 1). Since we’re evaluating secant, we need to use the
π
reciprocal of the x-coordinate or the reciprocal of the cosine of 2
.

5π π 1 1
​ sec 2
= sec 2
= π = 0
→ undefined.
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2

Therefore, lim sec (3𝑥 + π) DNE.​ ​ Q.E.D.

𝑥→ 2
π

Some Special Limits

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
SPECIAL LIMIT 1:​ lim 𝑥
.
𝑥→0
𝑠𝑖𝑛 0 0
By direct substitution.​​ 0
= 0
→ indeterminate.

Solution. Start by constructing a table of values.

𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)

– 0.1 0.998 0.1 0.998

– 0.01 0.9998 0.01 0.9998

– 0.001 0.9999998 0.001 0.9999998

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
Since both one-sided limits exist and are equal, then lim 𝑥
= 1.
𝑥→0
𝑥
The same is also true with its reciprocal, lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
= 1.
𝑥→0
Generally,
𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑓(𝑥)) 𝑓(𝑥)
lim 𝑓(𝑥)
= 1 and lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑓(𝑥))
, given that 𝑓(𝑐) = 0.​ Q.E.D.
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→0

1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
SPECIAL LIMIT 2:​ lim 𝑥
.
𝑥→0
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 1−1 0
By direct substitution.​​ 0
= 0
= 0
→ indeterminate.

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Solution. Start by constructing a table of values.

𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)

– 0.1 – 0.04995 0.1 0.04995

– 0.01 – 0.00499995 0.01 0.00499995

– 0.001 – 0.00049999995 0.001 0.00049999995

1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
Since both one-sided limits exist and are equal, then lim 𝑥
= 0.
𝑥→0
𝑥
However, the limit of its reciprocal, lim 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
, does not exist.
𝑥→0
Generally,
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑓(𝑥))
​ lim 𝑓(𝑥)
= 1, given that 𝑓(𝑐) = 0.​ Q.E.D.
𝑥→0

𝑥
𝑒 −1
SPECIAL LIMIT 3:​ lim 𝑥
.
𝑥→0
0
𝑒 −1 1−1 0
By direct substitution.​​ 0
= 0
= 0
→ indeterminate.

Solution. Start by constructing a table of values.

𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)

– 0.1 0.957 0.1 1.057

– 0.01 0.995 0.01 1.0057

– 0.001 0.9995 0.001 1.00057

𝑥
𝑒 −1
Since both one-sided limits exist and are equal, then lim 𝑥
= 1.
𝑥→0
𝑥
The same is also true for its reciprocal, lim 𝑥 = 1.
𝑥→0 𝑒 −1

Generally,
(𝑓(𝑥))
𝑒 −1 𝑓(𝑥)
​ lim 𝑓(𝑥)
= 1 and lim (𝑓(𝑥)) = 1, given that 𝑓(𝑐) = 0.​ ​ Q.E.D.
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑒 −1

𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑥
EXAMPLE 1:​ Evaluate lim 3𝑥
.
𝑥→0
𝑠𝑖𝑛 4(0) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 0 0
By direct substitution.​​ 3(0)
= 0
= 0
→ indeterminate.

Solution. We can use the special limit 1 to evaluate the limit of the given example, but first it has
to have the same form as the special limit 1.
𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑥 4
​ lim 3𝑥
= lim 3𝑥
· 4
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑥 4
​ ​ ​ = lim 4𝑥
· 3
​ ​ commutative property of multiplication.
𝑥→0
4 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑥
​ ​ ​ = 3
· lim 4𝑥
​ ​ constant multiple theorem.
𝑥→0

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4
​ ​ ​ = 3
(1)​ ​ ​ special limit 1.
𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑥 4
​ lim 3𝑥
= 3
𝑥→0

𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥 + 1)
EXAMPLE 2:​ Evaluate lim 2 .
𝑥 → −1 𝑥 −1

𝑠𝑖𝑛 (−1 + 1) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 0 0

By direct substitution.​​ 2 = 1−1
= 0
→ indeterminate.
(−1) − 1
Solution. We can transform the given into the special limit 1.
𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥 + 1) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥 + 1)
​ lim 2 = lim (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)
​​ difference of two squares.
𝑥 → −1 𝑥 −1 𝑥 → −1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥 + 1) 1
​ ​ ​ ​ = lim 𝑥+1
· 𝑥−1
𝑥 → −1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥 + 1) 1
​ ​ ​ ​ = lim 𝑥+1
· lim 𝑥−1
​ multiplication theorem.
𝑥 → −1 𝑥 → −1
1
​ ​ ​ ​ = (1) −1 − 1
​ ​ ​ ​ special limit 1.
𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥 + 1) 1
​ lim 2 =− 2
𝑥 → −1 𝑥 −1

𝑥 − 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥
EXAMPLE 3:​ Evaluate lim 6𝑥
.
𝑥→0
Solution. We can transform the given into the special limit 2.
𝑥 − 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 𝑥 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥
​ lim 6𝑥
= lim 6𝑥
− 6𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
1 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥
​ ​ ​ ​ = lim 6
− 6𝑥
𝑥→0
1 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 1
​ ​ ​ ​ = lim 6
− lim 2𝑥
· 3
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
1 1 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥
​ ​ ​ ​ = 6
− 3
· lim 2𝑥
​ ​ special limit 2.
𝑥→0
1 1
​ ​ ​ ​ = 6
− 3
(0)
𝑥 − 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 1
​ lim 6𝑥
= 6
𝑥→0

𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝑥
CHALLENGE: Evaluate lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛 8𝑥
.
𝑥→0
Solution. We can use the first special limit.
𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝑥 1
​ lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛 8𝑥
= lim 1
· 𝑠𝑖𝑛 8𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝑥 1 40𝑥
​ ​ ​ = lim 1
· 𝑠𝑖𝑛 8𝑥 · 40𝑥 ​
𝑥→0
multiply by a term equivalent to one which factors out to 8x and 5x.
𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝑥 40𝑥
= lim 40𝑥
· 𝑠𝑖𝑛 8𝑥
𝑥→0
𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝑥 40𝑥
= lim 40𝑥
· lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛 8𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

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𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝑥 1 8𝑥 5
= lim 5𝑥
· 8
· lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛 8𝑥
· 1
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
5 𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝑥 8𝑥
= 8
· lim 5𝑥
· lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛 8𝑥
​ ​ special limit 1.
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
5
= 8
(1)(1)
𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝑥 5
​ lim 8𝑥
= 8
𝑥→0

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Basic Calculus
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CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS

Continuity at a Point
EXAMPLE 1:​ Is 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 1 continuous on at 𝑥 = 1?
Solution. One way to determine whether a function is continuous or not is by graphing it.

​ As you can observe on the graph, no breaks, holes,

nor jumps occur at 𝑥 = 1.

​ Therefore, we can conclude that the function

𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 1 is continuous at 𝑥 = 1.

​ In this case, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(1).

𝑥→1

2
3𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 1
EXAMPLE 2:​ Is 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−1
continuous on at 𝑥 = 1?
Solution. Since it is a rational function with the numerator having a higher degree than the
denominator, we can simplify it to make it easier to graph.
2
3𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 1 (3𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 1)
​ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−1
= 𝑥−1
= 3𝑥 − 1
The function simplifies into a linear function which we can easily graph.

Since 1 is not included in the domain of the original

function, then it is expected that the function will be
discontinuous at 𝑥 = 1.

In this particular scenario, lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists and

𝑥→2
𝑓(1) DNE.

1
EXAMPLE 3:​ Is ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥
continuous at 𝑥 = 0?
Solution. Observe its graph.
​
​ Since 0 is not included in the domain of the
function, it is expected that it will be discontinuous at
𝑥 = 0.

​ In this case, both lim ℎ(𝑥) and ℎ(0) DNE.

𝑥→0

Definition. A function is said to be continuous if its graph has no holes or breaks, and you can
trace it without lifting your pen. Additionally, a continuous function is defined for any real
number.

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EXAMPLES OF DISCONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

2
|𝑥| (𝑥 − 1) + 1, 𝑥≤2
The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
.​ ​ ​ The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = { 2𝑥 − 3, 𝑥>2
.

Conditions. The following conditions must be satisfied for 𝑓(𝑥) to be continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑐.

1.​ 𝑓(𝑐) exists.
2.​ lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists.
𝑥→𝑐
3.​ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐).
𝑥→𝑐

2
𝑥 −𝑥−2
EXAMPLE 4:​ Determine whether 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−2
is continuous or not at 𝑥 = 0.
Solution.
​ Condition 1. 𝑓(𝑐) exists.
2
(0) − (0) − 2 −2
𝑓(0) = (0) − 2
= −2
= 1. Check!

Condition 2. lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists.

𝑥→𝑐
2 2
𝑥 −𝑥−2 (0) − (0) − 2 −2
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑥−2
= (0) − 2
= −2
= 1. Check!
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

Condition 3. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐).

𝑥→𝑐
Since 𝑓(0) = 1 and lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 1, then lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0). Check!
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

2
𝑥 −𝑥−2
Therefore, we can conclude that the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−2
is continuous at 𝑥 = 0.

EXAMPLE 5:​ Is the function continuous at 𝑥 = 3?

Solution.
​ Condition 1. 𝑓(𝑐) exists.
When 𝑥 = 3, 𝑓(𝑥) = 0. Then 𝑓(3) = 0. Check!

​ Condition 2. lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists.

𝑥→𝑐
​ ​ Since we are dealing with a piecewise function, we will use one-sided limits.
2
​ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑥 − 6𝑥​ ​ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 5𝑥 + 3
− − + +
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3

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2
​ ​ = (3) − 6(3)​ ​ ​ ​ = 5(3) + 3
​ ​ = 9 − 18​ ​ ​ ​ = 15 + 3
​ lim 𝑓(𝑥) =− 9​ ​ ​ ​ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 18
− +
𝑥→3 𝑥→3

​ Since lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim 𝑓(𝑥), then lim 𝑓(𝑥) DNE. Oopsies!
− +
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3

Therefore, we can conclude that the function is discontinuous at

𝑥 = 3.

Continuity on an Interval
Definition. A function is said to be continuous on an interval if and only if you can trace the
graph of the function without lifting your pen on the given interval.

TYPES OF INTERVALS
Finite Intervals
1.​ Open Interval
a.​ (𝑎, 𝑏):​ ​ 𝑎<𝑥 <𝑏
2.​ Closed Interval
a.​ [𝑎, 𝑏]:​ ​ 𝑎≤𝑥 ≤𝑏
3.​ Combination
a.​ (𝑎, 𝑏]:​ ​ 𝑎<𝑥 ≤𝑏
b.​ [𝑎, 𝑏):​ ​ 𝑎≤𝑥 <𝑏

Infinite Intervals
1.​ Open Left-Bounded
a.​ (𝑎, ∞):​​ 𝑎<𝑥
2.​ Closed Left-Bounded
a.​ [𝑎, ∞):​​ 𝑎≤𝑥
3.​ Open Right-Bounded
a.​ (− ∞, 𝑏):​ 𝑥 < 𝑏​
4.​ Closed Right-Bounded
a.​ (− ∞, 𝑏]:​ 𝑥≤𝑏
5.​ Unbounded
a.​ (− ∞, ∞):​ 𝑥∈ℝ

2
3𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 1
EXAMPLE 1:​ Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−1
.
1.​ Is it continuous on the interval (5, 8)?
​ Yes, it is continuous. Since the interval (5, 8) fall within the domain of the
function.

2.​ How about for the interval (− 3, 9)?

​ No, it is discontinuous. Since the interval contains 1 which is not included in the
function’s domain.

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EXAMPLE 2:​ Consider another function, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥.

1.​ Is it continuous on the interval (5, 8)?
​ Yes, it is continuous. Since the domain of the function includes numbers greater
than or equal to zero.

2.​ How about for the interval (− 3, 9)?

​ No, it is not continuous. Since the interval contains values which are not
included in the function’s domain.

3.​ How about for the interval (0, 3)?

​ Yes, it is continuous. Since the interval (0, 3) falls within the domain.

2
(𝑥 − 1) + 1, 𝑥≤2
EXAMPLE 3:​ Consider yet another function, 𝑓(𝑥) = { , with the graph:
2𝑥 − 3, 𝑥>2
​
1.​ Is it continuous on the interval [1, 2]?
No, it is not continuous. Since there is a
hole at 𝑥 = 1.

2.​ How about for the interval (1, 2]?

​ Yes, it is continuous. Since 1 is not included
in the given interval.

3.​ How about for (1, 2)?

​ Yes, it is continuous.
4.​ How about for the interval (1, ∞)?
​ Yes, it is continuous.

5.​ How about for the interval [1, ∞)?

​ No, it is discontinuous.

6.​ And how about for (− ∞, 1)?

Yes, it is continuous.

Condition. A function is said to be continuous on a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] if:

1.​ It is continuous on the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏).
2.​ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎).
+
𝑥→𝑎
3.​ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑏).
−
𝑥→𝑏

2𝑥 − 1 𝑥<5
EXAMPLE 4:​ Determine if 𝑓(𝑥) = { 2 is continuous on [2, 5].
𝑥 𝑥≥5
Solution.
​ Condition 1. It is continuous on the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏).
​ Because we are considering the open interval (2, 5) we shall use the sub-function
for numbers lesser than 5, which is 2𝑥 − 1.

Since the sub-function 2𝑥 − 1 is a polynomial, then it is continuous everywhere. Check!

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​ Condition 2. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎).

+
𝑥→𝑎
​ Because we are approaching 2 from the right, we shall use the sub-function for
numbers lesser than 5, which is 2𝑥 − 1.

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 2𝑥 − 1​ ​ 𝑓(2) = 2(2) − 1

+ +
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
​ = 2(2) − 1​ ​ ​ 𝑓(2) = 3
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
+
𝑥→2

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 = 𝑓(2). Check!

+
𝑥→2

Condition 3. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑏).

−
𝑥→𝑏
​ Because we are approaching 5 from the left, we shall use the sub-function for
numbers lesser than 5, which is 2𝑥 − 1.

2
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 2𝑥 − 1​ ​ 𝑓(5) = (5)
− −
𝑥→5 𝑥→5
​ = 2(5) − 1​ ​ ​ 𝑓(5) = 25
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 9
−
𝑥→5

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 9 and 𝑓(5) = 25, then lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(5). Oopsies!
− −
𝑥→5 𝑥→5

2𝑥 − 1 𝑥<5
Therefore, we can conclude that the function 𝑓(𝑥) = { 2 is discontinuous on
𝑥 𝑥≥5
the closed interval [2, 5].

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MORE ON CONTINUITY

Different Types of Discontinuities

REMOVABLE DISCONTINUITY
Definition. A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to have a removable discontinuity at 𝑥 = 𝑐 if:
1.​ lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists.
𝑥→𝑐
2.​ Either 𝑓(𝑐) DNE or 𝑓(𝑐) ≠ lim 𝑓(𝑐).
𝑥→𝑐

𝑥+2 𝑥≠2
EXAMPLE:​ Observe the graph of function 𝑓(𝑥) = { .
2 𝑥=2

​​ This type of discontinuity is called a

“removable discontinuity” since we can
remove the discontinuity.
​​ For the graph on the left, we can
create a new function, 𝐹(𝑥), to “remove” the
discontinuity.
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥≠2
​​ 𝐹(𝑥) = { 4 𝑥=2
​​ Observe that the new function
contains the original function and the limit
of the function at 𝑥 = 𝑐.

ESSENTIAL DISCONTINUITY
Definition. A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to have an essential discontinuity at 𝑥 = 𝑐 if lim 𝑓(𝑥) DNE.
𝑥→𝑐

Case 1: If for a function 𝑓(𝑥), lim 𝑓(𝑥) DNE because lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim 𝑓(𝑥).
− +
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
𝑥+1 𝑥<4
EXAMPLE:​ Observe the graph of the function ℎ(𝑥) = { 2 .
(𝑥 − 4) + 3 𝑥≥4
​
​ If we attempt to evaluate the limit of
the function at 𝑥 = 4, we have to approach
the function on both sides.

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 5
−
𝑥→4
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
+
𝑥→4

Since both one-sided limits exist but

are not equal, then lim 𝑓(𝑥) DNE.
𝑥→4

This type of discontinuity is referred to as a jump discontinuity.

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Case 2: If a function 𝑓(𝑥) is such that lim 𝑓(𝑥) DNE because either:
𝑥→𝑐
1.​ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ and lim 𝑓(𝑥) =− ∞; or
− +
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
2.​ lim 𝑓(𝑥) =− ∞ and lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞.
− +
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

1
EXAMPLE:​ Observe the graph of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
.
​
1
lim 𝑥
=− ∞​
−
𝑥→0
1
lim 𝑥
= ∞
+
𝑥→0

Since both one-sided limits approach

negative and positive infinity, respectively,
1
then lim 𝑥
DNE.
𝑥→0

This kind of discontinuity is referred

to as an infinite discontinuity.

The Intermediate Value and the Extreme Value Theorems

Problems Involving Continuity

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Basic Calculus
Quarter 3: Limits, Continuity, and Derivatives

DERIVATIVE AS THE SLOPE OF A TANGENT LINE

The Tangent Line to the Graph of a Function at a Point

The Equation of the Tangent Line

The Definition of the Derivative

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Basic Calculus
Quarter 3: Limits, Continuity, and Derivatives

RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION

Differentiability Implies Continuity

The Differentiation Rules and Example Involving Algebraic, Exponential,

and Trigonometric Functions

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OPTIMIZATION

Optimization Using Calculus

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Basic Calculus
Quarter 3: Limits, Continuity, and Derivatives

HIGHER-ORDER DERIVATIVES AND THE CHAIN RULE

Higher-Order Derivatives of Functions

The Chain Rule

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IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

What is Implicit Differentiation?

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Basic Calculus
Quarter 3: Limits, Continuity, and Derivatives

RELATED RATES

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