DELTA CENTRAL COLLEGE OF MANAGEMENT AND

SCIENCE (DECCOMS)
UGHELLI, DELTA STATE.

in affiliation with,
TEMPLE GATE POLYTECHNIC
ABA, ABIA STATE.

LECTURE NOTES

ON
CONSTRUCTION COMPILER
(COM 413)

BY

MR. PAUL APELEOKHA

 CHAPTER ONE

BASICS OF COMPILATION PROCESS

The compilation process is a fundamental step in transforming human-readable source

code into executable machine code. It involves several stages, each performing specific
tasks to ensure the correctness and efficiency of the resulting program. Here are the
basic steps involved in the compilation process:

Lexical Analysis (Scanning): In this stage, the source code is scanned character by
character to identify individual tokens such as keywords, identifiers, literals, operators,
and punctuation marks. The tokens are then organized into a stream for further
processing.

Differences among compiler, assembler, interpreter and other language translators

Compiler: A compiler is a language translator that converts the entire source code
written in a high-level programming language into equivalent machine code or
executable form. It performs various stages of translation, such as lexical analysis,
syntax analysis, semantic analysis, code generation, and optimization. The resulting
compiled code is typically saved as an executable file that can be directly executed by
the target machine.

Assembler: An assembler is a language translator that converts assembly language code

into machine code. Assembly language is a low-level programming language that uses
mnemonic codes to represent machine instructions. The assembler translates these
mnemonic codes into their binary equivalents, which can be directly executed by the
computer's processor. Assemblers are specific to the architecture or processor for which
they are designed.

Interpreter: An interpreter is a language translator that directly executes the source

code line by line, without producing a separate executable file. It reads each line of the
source code, translates it into machine code or bytecode, and executes it immediately.
Interpreters often perform dynamic type checking and allow for interactive
development and debugging. They are typically slower than compiled code, as the
translation and execution happen in real-time during program execution.

Just-In-Time (JIT) Compiler: A JIT compiler combines elements of both compilers and
interpreters. It translates the source code into machine code on the fly, similar to an
interpreter, but the translated code is cached and reused for subsequent executions,
providing the performance benefits of compiled code. JIT compilers are commonly used
in virtual machines and runtime environments to improve the execution speed of
interpreted languages.

Transpiler: A transpiler, or source-to-source compiler, is a language translator that

converts the source code from one programming language to another. It translates the
code at a high level, preserving the logic and functionality, but targeting a different
programming language. Transpilers are often used to convert code from a newer
language version to an older version, or to translate code between languages that share
similar features or syntax.

Each of these language translators has its own advantages and use cases. Compilers
produce highly optimized and efficient code, while assemblers deal with low-level
machine instructions. Interpreters provide flexibility and ease of development, while JIT
compilers balance performance and flexibility. Transpilers enable code migration or
compatibility between different languages. The choice of which translator to use
depends on factors such as programming language, performance requirements,
development process, and target platform.

Concepts of formal grammar and languages

Formal grammar and formal languages are fundamental concepts in computer science
and linguistics. Let's understand each concept:
Formal Grammar: Formal grammar is a set of rules that defines the syntax and structure
of a formal language. It provides a systematic way of specifying how valid sentences or
expressions can be constructed within a given language. Formal grammars are often
used in programming languages, natural language processing, and formal language
theory.

Formal grammars consist of four components:

Terminal Symbols: Terminal symbols, also known as terminals or lexemes, represent the
basic units of a language. They are the actual words, symbols, or tokens that appear in
the language. For example, in a programming language, terminal symbols could be
keywords, identifiers, operators, and literals.

Non-terminal Symbols: Non-terminal symbols, also called non-terminals, represent

groups or categories of symbols in a language. They are placeholders that can be
replaced by a sequence of terminals and non-terminals according to the grammar rules.
Non-terminals are typically represented by uppercase letters or symbols. For example,
in a programming language, non-terminal symbols could be statements, expressions, or
functions.

Production Rules: Production rules, also known as rewrite rules or production

productions, define how symbols can be replaced or rewritten. A production rule
consists of a non-terminal symbol on the left-hand side (LHS) and a sequence of
terminals and non-terminals on the right-hand side (RHS). It specifies the transformation
or expansion of symbols during the derivation of valid sentences. For example, a
production rule in a grammar for arithmetic expressions could be "expression ->
expression + expression".

Start Symbol: The start symbol is a special non-terminal symbol that represents the
initial symbol from which valid sentences or expressions can be derived. It serves as the
starting point of the grammar. For example, in a programming language, the start
symbol could be the program itself.

Formal Language: A formal language is a set of strings or sequences of symbols defined

by a formal grammar. It represents a collection of valid expressions or sentences that
adhere to the syntax and structure specified by the grammar. Formal languages are
used to describe programming languages, regular expressions, natural languages, and
more.

Formal languages can be categorized into different types based on their generative
power and complexity. Some commonly studied formal language classes include regular
languages, context-free languages, context-sensitive languages, and recursively
enumerable languages. These classifications are based on the types of formal grammars
that can generate them and the computational resources required to recognize or
generate strings in those languages.

Formal grammar and formal languages provide a precise and systematic way of studying
and understanding the syntax and structure of languages. They are used in the design of
programming languages, compilers, parsers, and other language processing tools, as
well as in the analysis of natural languages and the study of formal language theory.

Role of Lexical Analyzer (Scanner)

The role of a lexical analyzer, also known as a scanner, is to analyze the source code of a
program and break it down into a sequence of tokens. It is the initial stage of the
compilation process and serves as the interface between the source code and the rest
of the compiler.

The lexical analyzer performs the following tasks:

Tokenization: The lexical analyzer reads the characters of the source code one by one
and groups them into meaningful units called tokens. Tokens are the basic building
blocks of a programming language and represent keywords, identifiers, literals,
operators, punctuation symbols, and other language-specific constructs. The lexical
analyzer uses regular expressions or finite automata to define patterns for recognizing
different types of tokens.

Skipping Irrelevant Characters:

The lexical analyzer skips irrelevant characters such as whitespace, comments, and
formatting symbols that do not contribute to the meaning of the program. These
characters are typically ignored or discarded during the tokenization process.

Symbol Table Management:

The lexical analyzer maintains a symbol table or symbol dictionary, which is a data
structure that keeps track of identifiers (variables, functions, etc.) encountered during
the tokenization process. It stores information such as the name, data type, scope, and
memory location of each identifier. The symbol table is used by subsequent compiler
phases for semantic analysis and code generation.

Error Handling: The lexical analyzer detects and handles lexical errors, such as illegal
characters or tokens that do not conform to the language's syntax rules. When an error
is encountered, the lexical analyzer may generate an error message or token indicating
the presence of a lexical error. This information is then passed to the error-recovery
mechanisms of the compiler for further processing.

Generating Tokens: After analyzing the source code, the lexical analyzer generates
tokens as output. Each token typically consists of a token type and an optional attribute
value. The token type represents the category or classification of the token (e.g.,
keyword, identifier, operator), while the attribute value provides additional information
associated with the token (e.g., the specific identifier name, the literal value).
The tokens produced by the lexical analyzer are passed to the next phase of the
compiler, which is usually the syntax analysis (parsing) stage. The syntax analyzer uses
the sequence of tokens to build a parse tree or an abstract syntax tree (AST) that
represents the syntactic structure of the program. The tokens serve as input for the
syntactic analysis, helping to determine the program's overall structure and verifying its
compliance with the language's grammar rules.

In summary, the role of a lexical analyzer is crucial in the compilation process, as it

performs the initial analysis of the source code, tokenizes it, manages the symbol table,
handles lexical errors, and generates tokens that serve as input for subsequent
compilation phases.

Role of parsers or recognizers in a compiler

Parsers, also known as recognizers, play a vital role in the compilation process of a
programming language. Their primary function is to analyze the syntactic structure of
the source code and determine whether it adheres to the grammar rules of the
language. Let's understand the role of parsers in a compiler:

Syntactic Analysis: Parsers perform syntactic analysis or parsing of the source code.
They analyze the sequence of tokens generated by the lexical analyzer and check
whether it conforms to the grammar rules of the language. This involves constructing a
parse tree or an abstract syntax tree (AST) that represents the hierarchical structure of
the program. The parse tree or AST captures the relationships and dependencies
between the various components of the program, such as statements, expressions, and
declarations.

Grammar Enforcement: Parsers enforce the grammar rules of the programming

language. They verify that the arrangement and combination of tokens comply with the
syntax specified by the language's grammar. If a syntactic error is detected, such as a
missing semicolon or an incorrect expression, the parser generates an error message or
reports the presence of a syntax error.

Language Ambiguity Resolution: Parsers handle language ambiguities that arise from
the presence of multiple valid interpretations or parse trees for a given input.
Ambiguities can occur when the grammar rules allow for different parse trees for the
same input. Parsers employ various techniques, such as operator precedence rules,
associability rules, and grammar modifications, to resolve these ambiguities and
determine the intended interpretation of the code.

Language Extension and Evolution: Parsers enable the extension and evolution of
programming languages. By modifying the grammar rules, parsers can accommodate
new language features, syntax enhancements, or language extensions. This allows
languages to evolve over time and support new programming paradigms or
requirements.

Error Recovery: Parsers incorporate error recovery mechanisms to handle syntax errors
in the source code. When encountering a syntax error, parsers attempt to resume
parsing and continue analyzing the remaining code. They may employ strategies such as
inserting or deleting tokens to synchronize the parser with the source code and recover
from errors. Error recovery helps provide meaningful error messages to programmers
and allows them to continue working on their code despite syntactic mistakes.

Intermediate Representation Generation: Parsers generate an intermediate

representation of the program's syntax, such as a parse tree or AST. This intermediate
representation serves as a structured and simplified representation of the program,
which can be further processed by subsequent compiler phases, such as semantic
analysis, optimization, and code generation. Parsers are a crucial component of a
compiler as they validate the syntactic correctness of the source code and build a
structured representation of its syntax.
 CHAPTER TWO

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF TOP DOWN PARSERS

Top-down parsing is a parsing technique that starts from the top of the parse tree and
works its way down to the leaves, matching the input against the grammar rules. It
follows a set of basic principles to construct a parse tree from the input:

Recursive Descent: Top-down parsers use a recursive descent approach, where each
non-terminal symbol in the grammar corresponds to a recursive procedure or function
in the parser implementation. The parser starts with the start symbol of the grammar
and recursively expands non-terminals until the input is consumed or a syntax error is
encountered.

Predictive Parsing: Top-down parsers are predictive in nature, meaning that they decide
which production rule to apply based on the current input symbol. They use look ahead
symbols, typically one or more tokens, to determine the appropriate production rule to
apply. Look ahead symbols help the parser make decisions and choose the right path in
the grammar to follow.

LL(k) Parsing: Top-down parsers are often referred to as LL(k) parsers, where LL stands
for "left-to-right, leftmost derivation" and k represents the number of look ahead
symbols considered. LL(k) parsers are called so because they read the input from left to
right, constructing a leftmost derivation, and use k look ahead symbols to make parsing
decisions. Common examples of LL(k) parsing algorithms include LL(1), LL(2), etc., where
the number in parentheses denotes the number of look ahead symbols.

Grammar Factoring and Left Recursion Removal:

To make the grammar suitable for top-down parsing, certain transformations may be
applied. Grammar factoring is the process of breaking down production rules with
common prefixes into multiple rules, reducing the need for backtracking. Left recursion
removal is another transformation technique used to eliminate left-recursive rules from
the grammar, which can cause infinite recursion in a recursive descent parser.

Backtracking and Error Recovery:

Top-down parsers employ backtracking when a choice made during parsing results in a
syntax error. If the parser encounters a dead end, it backtracks to a previous decision
point and explores alternative paths in the grammar until a successful match is found or
all options are exhausted. Backtracking allows the parser to handle ambiguous
grammars or incorrect inputs. Error recovery mechanisms are also employed to handle
syntax errors gracefully and continue parsing after encountering an error.

Recursive Procedure-Call Stack:

As the top-down parser recursively expands non-terminals, it utilizes a procedure-call

stack to keep track of the parsing context. Each recursive procedure call corresponds to
the expansion of a non-terminal symbol, and the stack maintains the necessary
information to backtrack and resume parsing when needed.

Top-down parsers provide a straightforward and intuitive approach to parsing, allowing

the construction of a parse tree by starting from the top and recursively expanding non-
terminals. They are commonly used in LL(k) parsing algorithms and are suitable for
languages with relatively simple and unambiguous grammars. However, top-down
parsing can be inefficient for highly ambiguous grammars or languages with left-
recursive productions, requiring additional techniques such as memoization or look
ahead sets to improve parsing performance.

Basic principles of bottom up parsers

Bottom-up parsing is a parsing technique that starts from the input and builds the parse
tree from the leaves up to the root. It follows a set of basic principles to construct a
parse tree from the input:
Shift-Reduce Parsing:

Bottom-up parsers use a shift-reduce approach, where they shift input symbols onto a
stack and then perform reduction operations to replace a sequence of symbols on the
stack with a non-terminal symbol according to a production rule. The parser continues
this process until the entire input is reduced to the start symbol of the grammar.

LR Parsing:

Bottom-up parsers are often referred to as LR parsers, where LR stands for "left-to-right,
rightmost derivation". LR parsing reads the input from left to right, constructs a
rightmost derivation, and applies reduction operations when it recognizes a production
rule in reverse order. LR parsers are more powerful than top-down parsers and can
handle a broader class of grammars.

LR(0), SLR(1), LR(1), and LALR(1) Parsing:

Bottom-up parsers come in different variations based on the amount of look ahead
symbols they consider. LR(0) parsers have no look ahead symbols, SLR(1) parsers have a
single-symbol look ahead, LR(1) parsers have a one-token look ahead, and LALR(1)
parsers use a less powerful but more compact form of look ahead. These variations
affect the parsing power and efficiency of the parser.

State Transition Table:

Bottom-up parsers typically use a state transition table, also known as a parsing table, to
determine the actions to take based on the current state of the parser and the next
input symbol. The table contains entries that specify whether to shift the input symbol
onto the stack, perform a reduction operation, or indicate an error condition.

Handle and Reduction:

Bottom-up parsers identify a handle, which is a substring of the stack that matches the
right-hand side of a production rule. When a handle is found, a reduction operation is
performed, where the handle is replaced by the corresponding non-terminal symbol of
the production rule.

Look ahead Symbols and Conflict Resolution:

Bottom-up parsers use looks ahead symbols to decide between shifting and reducing
actions. The look ahead symbol indicates what the next input symbol is and helps the
parser determine the appropriate action. If conflicts arise, such as shift-reduce or
reduce-reduce conflicts, conflict resolution techniques are employed to resolve them
and disambiguate the grammar.

Error Handling:

Bottom-up parsers handle syntax errors by detecting when the current input symbol
does not match any valid shift or reduction action. Error recovery mechanisms, such as
error productions or error symbols, are used to recover from errors and continue
parsing.

Bottom-up parsers are powerful and widely used in practice because they can handle a
wide range of grammars and generate efficient parsers. LR parsing algorithms, such as
LR(0), SLR(1), LR(1), and LALR(1), are commonly used in the construction of bottom-up
parsers. However, building and understanding bottom-up parsers can be more complex
than top-down parsers due to the shift-reduce nature and the use of parsing tables.

Role of Semantic Analyzer

The role of a Semantic Analyzer is to perform a deeper analysis of the source code in a
programming language and check for semantic correctness. It is a crucial component of
a compiler and follows the lexical analysis and syntactic analysis stages. The Semantic
Analyzer examines the meaning and context of the code, ensuring that it adheres to the
language's semantic rules and constraints. Here are the key roles and responsibilities of
a Semantic Analyzer:

Type Checking:

One of the primary tasks of a Semantic Analyzer is to perform type checking. It verifies
that the operations and expressions in the program are applied to the correct data types
and are consistent with the language's type system. It ensures that variables, function
parameters, and return values are used appropriately and that any implicit or explicit
type conversions are valid.

Symbol Table Management:

The Semantic Analyzer manages a symbol table, which is a data structure that maintains
information about identifiers (variables, functions, classes, etc.) encountered in the
program. It checks the validity of identifiers, resolves their scope, and performs name
binding. The symbol table is used for various purposes, including type resolution,
variable allocation, and code generation.

Declaration Checking:

The Semantic Analyzer checks for correct variable and function declarations. It ensures
that variables are declared before they are used, that functions are declared with the
correct number and types of parameters, and that there are no duplicate or conflicting
declarations. It also verifies the consistency of declarations across multiple source files
or modules.

Control Flow Analysis:

The Semantic Analyzer analyzes the control flow of the program, including loops,
conditionals, and function calls. It checks for issues such as unreachable code, missing
return statements, or improper use of control flow constructs. It ensures that the
program's control flow is well-formed and adheres to the language's rules.
Error Detection and Reporting:

The Semantic Analyzer detects and reports semantic errors in the code. These errors
may include type mismatches, undeclared variables or functions, incompatible
assignments, or violations of language-specific constraints. It provides meaningful error
messages or warnings to help programmers identify and resolve these issues.

Intermediate Code Generation:

In some compilers, the Semantic Analyzer is responsible for generating intermediate

code, which is an intermediate representation of the source code that can be further
optimized and translated into machine code or another target representation. The
intermediate code captures the semantics of the program and serves as input for
subsequent compiler phases.

The Semantic Analyzer plays a critical role in ensuring the semantic correctness of the
source code and identifying potential issues that cannot be captured by the lexical and
syntactic analysis stages alone. By performing type checking, symbol table management,
declaration checking, control flow analysis, error detection, and intermediate code
generation, the Semantic Analyzer contributes to the overall accuracy and quality of the
compiled program.

Role intermediate code generation and the principles involved.

The role of intermediate code generation in the compilation process is to produce an

intermediate representation of the source code that captures the semantics of the
program. This intermediate code acts as a bridge between the high-level source code
and the target code, making it easier to perform subsequent optimization and
translation stages. The principles involved in intermediate code generation include:

Abstraction of Source Code:

The intermediate code serves as an abstraction of the source code, capturing the
essential semantic information while hiding the low-level details. It represents the
program's logic and behavior in a more structured and manageable form.

Platform Independence:

Intermediate code is designed to be platform-independent. It should abstract away the

specifics of the target machine architecture and focus on expressing the program's
functionality in a portable manner. This allows the intermediate code to be optimized
and translated into different target languages or architectures.

Representation and Expressiveness:

The intermediate code should have a concise and expressive representation that
accurately represents the semantics of the source code. It should capture the control
flow, data flow, variable usage, function calls, and other relevant aspects of the
program's behavior.

Simplification and Transformation:

During intermediate code generation, the compiler may simplify the source code and
perform various transformations to optimize the program. This can include constant
folding, common sub expression elimination, dead code elimination, and other
optimization techniques. These transformations aim to improve the efficiency and
performance of the resulting code.

Modularity and Organization:

Intermediate code should be organized in a modular and hierarchical manner. It should

support the decomposition of the program into meaningful units, such as functions,
classes, and modules. This facilitates separate compilation, linking, and reuse of code.

Target Code Agnosticism:

The intermediate code should not contain any assumptions or dependencies on a
specific target language or architecture. It should be flexible enough to be translated
into different target languages or machine instructions. This allows the compiler to
generate code for various platforms without altering the intermediate representation.

Compatibility with Optimization:

The structure of the intermediate code should facilitate subsequent optimization stages.
It should enable analysis and transformations that can be applied to improve the
performance, size, or other characteristics of the generated code.

Overall, intermediate code generation serves as a critical step in the compilation

process, providing a bridge between the high-level source code and the target code. It
abstracts the semantics of the program, facilitates optimization, supports platform
independence, and enables efficient translation into the target language or architecture.

Purpose of code optimization

The purpose of code optimization in the context of compiler design is to improve the
efficiency, performance, and quality of the generated code. Code optimization
techniques aim to transform the code in such a way that it executes faster, uses fewer
system resources, occupies less memory, and exhibits better overall behavior. The main
purposes of code optimization include:

Enhancing Execution Speed:

Code optimization aims to make the generated code execute faster by reducing
redundant computations, eliminating unnecessary instructions, and minimizing the use
of system resources. By optimizing the code, the compiler can generate more efficient
machine instructions that result in faster program execution.

Reducing Memory Usage:

Code optimization techniques help in reducing the memory footprint of the generated
code. This involves optimizing data structures, eliminating unnecessary memory
allocations, and minimizing memory accesses. By reducing memory usage, programs can
run more efficiently, especially in resource-constrained environments.

Minimizing I/O Operations:

Code optimization can minimize I/O operations, such as disk reads and writes or
network communication. By rearranging code or optimizing data access patterns, the
compiler can reduce the number of I/O operations required, leading to faster program
execution and improved responsiveness.

Improving Power Efficiency:

Code optimization can contribute to improved power efficiency by reducing the number
of instructions executed, minimizing unnecessary computations, and optimizing data
transfer operations. This can be crucial in energy-constrained environments such as
mobile devices or battery-powered systems.

Enhancing Code Maintainability:

Code optimization can also improve code maintainability by making the code more
readable, modular, and structured. Optimization techniques often involve simplifying
complex expressions, removing redundant code, and promoting code reuse. This result
in cleaner and more maintainable code that is easier to understand, debug, and modify.

Target-Specific Optimization:

Code optimization can take advantage of specific features and characteristics of the
target architecture or platform. By considering the architectural constraints, instruction
set architecture, and memory hierarchy, the compiler can generate code that is
specifically tailored for the target platform, leading to improved performance and
efficiency.
Overall, code optimization plays a vital role in the compilation process by transforming
the code to produce more efficient, faster, and higher-quality executable programs. It
enables the generation of optimized code that utilizes system resources effectively,
reduces execution time, conserves memory, and improves the overall performance of
the software.
 CHAPTER THREE

ROLE OF A RUNTIME STORAGE MANAGEMENT IN COMPILATION PROCESS.

The role of runtime storage management in the compilation process is to dynamically

allocate and manage memory during the execution of a program. It is responsible for
organizing and tracking memory resources required by the program at runtime,
including variables, data structures, objects, and dynamically allocated memory. Here
are the key roles and responsibilities of runtime storage management:

Memory Allocation:

Runtime storage management handles the allocation of memory for variables, objects,
and data structures at runtime. It dynamically assigns memory blocks to store values
based on the program's execution flow. This includes allocating memory for variables
with automatic storage duration (such as local variables) and dynamic memory
allocation (such as with the 'new' operator in languages like C++ or 'malloc' function in
C).

Memory De-allocation:

Runtime storage management also handles the de-allocation of memory when it is no

longer needed. This involves releasing memory resources that were previously allocated
but are no longer in use. Memory de-allocation prevents memory leaks and ensures that
resources are freed for reuse by the program or the operating system.

Garbage Collection:

In languages that employ garbage collection, runtime storage management is

responsible for automatically reclaiming memory occupied by objects that are no longer
reachable or in use. Garbage collection algorithms identify and collect unused memory,
freeing it for future allocations. This relieves the programmer from manual memory
management and helps prevent memory leaks and dangling pointers.
Memory Fragmentation:

Runtime storage management helps manage memory fragmentation, which can occur
when memory is allocated and de-allocated over time. It employs strategies to minimize
fragmentation, such as compacting memory blocks, defragmentation techniques, or
memory pool management. These techniques optimize memory usage and reduce the
negative impact of fragmentation on the program's performance.

Memory Safety and Security:

Runtime storage management plays a role in ensuring memory safety and security. It
helps prevent buffer overflows, memory corruption, and other vulnerabilities by
enforcing memory boundaries and access permissions. It ensures that memory accesses
are within the allocated regions and guards against unauthorized access or modification
of memory.

Performance Optimization:

Runtime storage management techniques, such as memory pooling, caching, and

memory reuse, can optimize program performance. By efficiently managing memory
resources, runtime storage management reduces overhead associated with memory
allocation and de-allocation operations, leading to improved program performance.

Memory Profiling and Monitoring: Runtime storage management may provide facilities
for memory profiling and monitoring. It enables the tracking and analysis of memory
usage patterns, memory leaks, and resource utilization. This information can be useful
for identifying performance bottlenecks, optimizing memory usage, and diagnosing
memory-related issues.

Runtime storage management is an essential component of the compilation process as

it ensures efficient and effective memory usage during program execution. By
dynamically allocating and managing memory resources, it enables programs to run
smoothly, optimize performance, prevent memory-related errors, and provide a safe
and secure execution environment.

Role of a code generation and the principles involved.

The role of code generation in the compilation process is to produce executable code or
a target representation (such as byte code or assembly language) from the intermediate
representation of the source code. The code generation phase is responsible for
translating the optimized intermediate code into a form that can be directly executed by
the target platform. Here are the key roles and principles involved in code generation:

Translation of Intermediate Code:

The code generation phase translates the intermediate code, which represents the
program's semantics, into target-specific instructions or code. It maps the high-level
constructs and operations in the source code to the corresponding instructions
supported by the target architecture or platform.

Instruction Selection:

During code generation, the compiler selects appropriate instructions from the target
instruction set architecture (ISA) to implement the operations specified by the
intermediate code. The goal is to choose instructions that efficiently perform the
desired computation while taking advantage of the target platform's features and
capabilities.

Register Allocation:

Code generation involves assigning variables and intermediate results to registers or

memory locations. Register allocation aims to minimize the number of memory accesses
by utilizing processor registers effectively. This includes techniques such as register
spilling, where variables are temporarily stored in memory when there are not enough
available registers.
Addressing Modes:

Code generation handles different addressing modes supported by the target

architecture. This includes direct addressing, indirect addressing, indexed addressing,
and other modes that determine how memory operands are accessed. The code
generator selects appropriate addressing modes based on the requirements of the
intermediate code and the capabilities of the target platform.

Code Optimization:

Code generation may include additional optimization techniques specific to the target
platform. These optimizations focus on improving the generated code's performance,
size, or other characteristics. This can involve instruction scheduling, loop unrolling,
branch optimization, and other transformations that enhance the efficiency of the
resulting code.

Handling Control Flow: Code generation is responsible for implementing control flow
structures such as conditionals (if-else statements), loops, and function calls. It
generates the appropriate instructions or sequences of instructions to perform the
desired control flow behavior specified by the source code.

Code Modularity and Reusability: The code generation phase supports modularity and
code reusability by properly generating code for functions, procedures, or modules. It
ensures that code segments can be separately compiled, linked, and reused across
multiple programs or modules.

Target-Specific Considerations: Code generation takes into account the characteristics

and constraints of the target platform, including the instruction set architecture,
memory hierarchy, addressing modes, and calling conventions. The generated code is
tailored to leverage the platform's features and optimize performance.
The principles involved in code generation revolve around producing correct, efficient,
and target-specific code. This includes translating intermediate code, selecting
appropriate instructions, optimizing the code, managing memory and register
allocation, handling control flow, and adhering to target-specific considerations. The
code generator plays a crucial role in transforming the abstract representation of the
program into executable code that can be run on the target platform.

Symbol table management techniques and their role in the compilation process.

Symbol table management techniques play a crucial role in the compilation process as
they are responsible for storing and managing information about symbols (identifiers)
encountered during the compilation of a program. Symbols can include variables,
functions, classes, constants, and other named entities within the program. Here are
some commonly used symbol table management techniques and their roles:

Linear List: A linear list is a simple symbol table management technique where symbols
are stored in a linear list or array structure. Each symbol entry contains information such
as its name, type, scope, and memory location. Linear lists are easy to implement and
suitable for small-scale programs. However, searching for symbols in large symbol tables
can be inefficient as it requires a linear search.

Hash Table: A hash table is a widely used symbol table management technique that
provides efficient symbol lookup and retrieval. It uses a hash function to map symbol
names to specific table positions (hash buckets). Symbols with the same hash value are
stored in the same bucket, and collisions (multiple symbols with the same hash value)
are resolved using techniques such as chaining or open addressing. Hash tables offer
constant-time average-case access to symbols and are suitable for large-scale programs.

Binary Search Tree (BST): A binary search tree is a symbol table management technique
that organizes symbols in a binary tree structure based on their names. Symbols are
stored in tree nodes, and the tree is constructed in a way that allows for efficient search
and retrieval. The left sub-tree of a node contains symbols with smaller names, and the
right sub-tree contains symbols with larger names. BSTs provide efficient lookup
operations with an average-case time complexity of O (log n) but may degenerate to a
linear search in the worst-case scenario.

Balanced Search Trees: Balanced search trees, such as AVL trees or Red-Black trees, are
variations of binary search trees that maintain a balance condition to ensure efficient
search and retrieval even in the worst-case scenario. These trees employ self-balancing
mechanisms, such as rotation and color changes, to keep the tree height balanced.
Balanced search trees offer efficient symbol lookup with a worst-case time complexity of
O (log n) and are suitable for managing symbol tables with frequent insertions and
deletions.

Symbol Table Scopes and Nesting: Symbol table management techniques also involve
handling symbol scopes and nesting. A symbol scope represents a specific region in the
program where symbols are valid and accessible. Symbol tables maintain information
about symbol scopes, their nesting hierarchy, and the visibility of symbols within
different scopes. This allows the compiler to correctly resolve symbols and enforce
scoping rules during compilation.

The role of symbol table management techniques is to provide efficient storage and
retrieval of symbol information during the compilation process. They enable the
compiler to perform tasks such as symbol resolution, type checking, scope checking, and
code generation accurately. Symbol tables also help in detecting errors, such as
undeclared variables or conflicting symbol definitions. Efficient symbol table
management is essential for the overall correctness and efficiency of the compilation
process.

Error handler
An error handler, also known as an error routine or exception handler, is a part of a
software system that deals with errors or exceptions that occur during program
execution. The role of an error handler is to detect, handle, and recover from errors or
exceptional conditions encountered during the execution of a program. Here are the key
responsibilities and functions of an error handler:

Error Detection: The error handler is responsible for detecting errors or exceptional
conditions that may arise during program execution. This can be done through various
mechanisms, such as error codes, exceptions, or error flags set by the underlying system
or programming language.

Error Reporting: Once an error is detected, the error handler is responsible for reporting
the error to the appropriate entities, such as the user, the system administrator, or
other components of the software system. Error reporting may involve displaying error
messages, logging error details, generating error reports, or triggering notifications.

Error Handling: The error handler performs actions to handle or recover from the error
condition. This can include various strategies, such as gracefully terminating the
program, attempting to recover from the error and continue execution, rolling back
transactions, restoring the system to a stable state, or initiating error correction
procedures.

Exception Handling: In languages that support exceptions, the error handler handles
raised exceptions and directs the flow of execution to an appropriate exception handling
routine. This involves catching and processing exceptions, performing necessary cleanup
operations, and taking actions to recover from the exceptional condition.

Error Logging and Debugging: The error handler may log detailed information about
errors for debugging and troubleshooting purposes. This can include recording the error
message, the context in which the error occurred, relevant stack traces, variable values,
and other diagnostic information. Error logs can be invaluable in identifying and fixing
software bugs.

User-Friendly Error Messages: An error handler is responsible for providing clear and
meaningful error messages to users or clients. User-friendly error messages help users
understand the nature of the error, suggest possible solutions, and guide them through
the error resolution process.

Error Recovery: Depending on the nature of the error, the error handler may attempt to
recover from the error condition and restore the system to a functional state. This can
involve retrying failed operations, applying alternative strategies, initiating
compensating actions, or requesting user intervention to resolve the error.

Error Escalation: In some cases, the error handler may determine that it cannot handle
the error locally. In such situations, the error handler may escalate the error to higher-
level components or notify system administrators or support personnel for further
investigation and resolution.

Effective error handling is essential for robust software systems as it helps ensure that
errors are properly addressed, system integrity is maintained, and users are provided
with appropriate feedback and guidance. An error handler plays a critical role in
detecting, handling, and recovering from errors, improving the overall reliability and
usability of the software system.
 CHAPTER FOUR

BOOTSTRAPPING OF A COMPILER

Bootstrapping a compiler refers to the process of writing a compiler for a programming

language using the same language or a subset of it. In other words, the compiler is self-
hosted, meaning it can compile its own source code.

The bootstrapping process typically involves several stages:

Stage 1 Compiler:

Initially, a simple compiler, often called the stage 1 compiler, is written using a different
language or an existing compiler for another language. The stage 1 compiler is
responsible for translating the source code of the target language into an intermediate
representation or low-level code.

Intermediate Representation:

The stage 1 compiler generates an intermediate representation (IR) or low-level code,

which serves as an input for the next stage of the bootstrapping process. The IR can be
in the form of bytecode, assembly code, or an abstract syntax tree (AST).

Stage 2 Compiler:

Using the generated intermediate representation, a new compiler, known as the stage 2
compiler, is implemented in the target language itself. The stage 2 compiler is designed
to accept source code written in the target language and produce executable code.

Self-compilation: Once the stage 2 compiler is implemented, it is used to compile its

own source code. This process involves feeding the source code of the stage 2 compiler
to the stage 2 compiler itself, resulting in an executable version of the stage 2 compiler.
Validation and Iteration: The generated stage 2 compiler is validated by compiling
various test programs and comparing the output with the expected results. Any issues
or discrepancies are identified and fixed to ensure the correctness and reliability of the
self-hosted compiler.

Enhancements and Optimizations: With the self-hosted compiler in place, further

enhancements and optimizations can be made to improve the performance, reliability,
and feature set of the compiler. This includes adding new language features, optimizing
the generated code, and refining the compilation process.

By bootstrapping a compiler, the language implementation becomes more self-

contained and independent from external tools or languages. It allows for easier
maintenance, portability, and evolution of the language. Additionally, bootstrapping
enables the development of new compilers or language implementations without
relying on pre-existing compilers or languages, promoting self-sufficiency and self-
reliance.

Compiler generation tools

There are several compiler generation tools available that assist in the development of
compilers. These tools provide frameworks, libraries, and utilities to automate various
tasks involved in compiler construction. Here are some popular compiler generation
tools:

Lex and Yacc: Lex and Yacc are a pair of tools commonly used for lexical analysis (Lex)
and parsing (Yacc) in compiler construction. Lex generates lexical analyzers (scanners)
based on regular expressions, while Yacc generates parsers based on a context-free
grammar. They are often used together to build the front-end of a compiler.

ANTLR: ANTLR (ANother Tool for Language Recognition) is a powerful parser generator
that supports multiple programming languages. It can generate parsers in various target
languages based on a grammar specification. ANTLR is known for its support of LL(*)
parsing, which allows for more expressive and efficient grammar specifications.

Bison: Bison is a popular parser generator tool that is compatible with Yacc. It generates
LALR(1) parsers based on a context-free grammar. Bison is widely used in Unix-based
systems and provides features for automatic error recovery and semantic actions.

LLVM: LLVM (Low Level Virtual Machine) is a compiler infrastructure that provides a set
of reusable components for building compilers. It includes tools for code generation,
optimization, and analysis. LLVM uses an intermediate representation (LLVM IR) that
allows for efficient translation to various target architectures.

GCC: GCC (GNU Compiler Collection) is a well-known compiler suite that supports
several programming languages, including C, C++, and Fortran. It provides a collection of
front-ends, back-ends, and libraries for compilation, optimization, and code generation.
GCC is widely used in open-source projects and offers extensive customization options.

JavaCC: JavaCC (Java Compiler Compiler) is a parser generator specifically designed for
the Java programming language. It generates Java-based parsers based on a BNF-like
grammar specification. JavaCC supports LL(k) parsing and provides features for semantic
actions and tree building.

JFlex and CUP: JFlex and CUP are a pair of tools commonly used for lexical analysis
(JFlex) and parsing (CUP) in Java-based compiler construction. JFlex generates lexical
analyzers based on regular expressions, while CUP generates LALR(1) parsers based on a
context-free grammar. They can be combined to build the front-end of a compiler in
Java. These compiler generation tools provide developers with abstractions and utilities
to handle complex tasks such as lexical analysis, parsing, syntax tree generation, and
code generation. They help streamline the compiler development process, reduce
manual effort, and ensure the correctness and efficiency of the resulting compiler.
Syntax Analysis (Parsing): The syntax analysis stage parses the token stream and verifies
whether the arrangement of tokens follows the grammar rules of the programming
language. This process builds a parse tree or an abstract syntax tree (AST) that
represents the syntactic structure of the program.

Semantic Analysis: Semantic analysis checks the semantics and meaning of the
program. It involves type checking, scope resolution, and ensuring that the program
adheres to the language's rules and constraints. This stage also performs various
optimizations and generates symbol tables or other data structures to store information
about variables, functions, and types.

Intermediate Code Generation: Intermediate code generation transforms the program's

source code or AST into an intermediate representation, such as three-address code or
bytecode. This intermediate code is often more machine-independent and allows for
further optimization and platform-specific code generation.

Code Optimization: Code optimization is an important step to improve the efficiency of

the generated code. Various techniques, such as constant folding, loop optimization,
and dead code elimination, are applied to reduce the program's execution time and
memory usage.

Code Generation: Code generation takes the optimized intermediate code and
translates it into machine-specific instructions or assembly language. This stage involves
allocating registers, managing memory, and generating the actual executable code.

Symbol Resolution: Symbol resolution resolves references to functions, variables, and

other symbols in the program. It connects the references to their corresponding
memory locations or addresses, ensuring that the program can access the necessary
data and execute the correct functions.
Linking and Loading: If the program consists of multiple source files or external libraries,
the linking stage combines these files and resolves references between them. The
resulting executable code is then loaded into memory and made ready for execution.

It's worth noting that the compilation process can vary slightly depending on the
programming language and the specific compiler being used. However, these basic steps
provide a general overview of the typical compilation process.