6 GHz isS1 decibels

gain of our antenna at information on the use of

Appendix A gives more

Power
EXAMPLE 4.1 Satellite Signal surtace radiates a power of 15 WA
earth's
distance of 36000 km from a point on the Find the flux density at the rerait
A satellite at a direction of the observer.
an antenna with a gain of 15 dB in the antenna at this point withan effective area of 1Sm!
earth station
point, andthe power received by an
Solution
Using Eq. (4.3)
PG, 15×50 =2.91 x 10-14
F=
4nR' 47x(4x107)
mis therefore
The power received with an effective collecting area of 15
P=4.37x 10-5 N
The calculation is moreeasily handled using decibels. Noting that 10 log,,4nx 11.0 dB
 4.3 | System
Noise
FindB units = 10 logo (P,G,) - logo
Temperature and G/T Ratio 123
- 26.76 - 151.12 -20
11 (R) - 11.0
--135.3 dBW/m
P. =FdBW/m' + A, dBm'
=-135.3 + 11.76
=-123.5 dBW or -93.5 dBm
effective area into
the antenna decibels greater than 1 m'(10 m =
answerin dBW and dBmn,
alsogiventhe decibels above 1 Wand 1 mW. 10 dB greater

operates at a
in Example 4.1
power at the earth frequency
of 11 GHz. The
receiving
station in dBW and dBm. It is antenna has again of
Findthe received
wldB. indBW and received power in dBm. common practice to quote
vobrtion
.(4.10)andIworking in decibels
P.= EIRP+ G,- path loss dBW
EIRP = 27.0 dBW
G, = 52.3 dB
Path loss L, = (4rRI2) = 20 logo (4TRIN) dB
= 20 log,o[(47 x36x
10)/(0.0273)] =204.3 dB
P.= 26.76 + 54.03-204.3 =-123.5 dBW
The received power in dBm units is numerically 30 dB greater than in dBW.
Hence
P.=-123.5 + 30 =-93.5 dBm
We have the same answer as in Example 4.1 because the figure of 54.0
dB is the gain of a 10 m'
qpeture at afrequency of11 GHz.

uon (4.12) is commonly used for calculation of received power in a microwave link and is set
ol 25 alink
power budget in tabular form using decibels. This allows the system designer to adjust
arameters such as transmitter power or antenna gain and quickly recalculate the received power.
Thereceived ipower, P, calculated by Eqs. (4.6) and (4.8), is commonly referred to as carrier power, C.
Is is because
satelliteis links
auplitude of the carrier typically
not changed when
usethe
phase is modulatedforontodigital
datamodulation transmission where the
the carrier, so received carrier
Ower Cwatts is
always equal to received power P watts.
 Design
132
CHAPTER 4 I Satelite Link
The noise moiol for an
is the antenna aperture.
the atmosphere. which
shown in Figure 4,
7c, and produces a noise temperature 7m given by
7o 7,0-G)K
equivalent output
decibels) of the
than unity. not in
wherr G, is the lincar gain
temperature
(less
in degrees kelvin of the device or medium.
attenuating device or
isthe physical
For an attenuation of AdB, the value of G, is
given by
G= 10)-A10
meurn, ann
Noise
EXAMPLE4.3 System Tablaas
have a4 GHz receiver with the gains and noise temperatures in
Suunnose we mixer has a 5 dB
noise temperature assuming that the loss. What is t
Calculatethe system achieved? the
Svstem noise
temperature and how it can be
miniTmi
is given by Eq. (4.20)
Solution
noise temperature
The system
x 0.16)] = 108.75 K
T= [25 + 50 + (500/200) + (1000/200
the effect of the IF amplifier would be
mixer had a loss, as is usually the case, a ratio Thax greater. For :
If the
of 10 dB, G =-10 dB and the linear value is Gm =0.1as
mixer with aloss
(1000/20)]= 127.5 K
T.= [25 + 50 + (500/200) +
temperatures are obtained by using a high-gain LNA. Suppose we in
The lowest system noise
gain in this example toGRE = 50 dB, giving a ratio GRE = 10°. Then
the LNA
x0.16)])=75.07K
T= (25 +50 +(500/10) + (1000/10
LNA has made the system noise temperature almost as low as it can go.The
The high gain of the RF
minimum value of T, is given by T. min Where in this example
1s min = 1;, + IRE =75 K
system noise temperature. LNAS O
The mixer and IF amplifier contribute almost nothing to the
with the result that system os
use in satellite receivers usually have gains in the range 40-55 dB
temperature can be equated to T, + TRF:

TABLE 4.3Gain andnoise temperature values for 4 GHz receiver example

Tin 25 K
Tgr 50K
T 500 K
1000 K
GRF 23 dB
(ratio200)
(ratio 1000)
30 dB
 4.3 | System Noise Temperature and GIT Ratio 133

EXAMPLE4.4
in Example 4.3, Table 4.3, has an LNA with a gain of 50 dB. Asection of lossy
systemillustrated amplifier. Find the
The with an attenuation of 2 dB is inserted between the antenna and the RF
wavcguide K.
system noisc
tenmperature for a waveguide temperature of 300
new

Solution :
can be treated assagain, G, that is less than unity: G= 1/1.26=0.8.
waveguideloss of 1 dB (ratio 1.26) its own ohmic
The waveguide attenuates the incoming noise and adds noise generated by
The lossyequivalent noise generator placed at the output of the section of waveguide that represents the
loss. The wgs Where
generatedIby the waveguide has a noise temperature T
nOise
T,=T,(1 - G)= 300(1 -0.8) = 60 K
20 K
waveguide attenuates the nose from the antenna, so T, = 0.8 x 25 =
The referred to the input of the LNA, is
The new system nose temperature,
130.6 K
T.= 20+ 60 + 50 +(500/10') + 1000/(10*x 0.16)=
receiver
temperature is 10 logo(130.6/75) = 2.4 dB higher than the original
The system noise signal power so the
without the 1 dB waveguide loss. In addition, we have lost 1 dB of and LNA is critical
configuration Avoiding losses between the antenna
CNR is reduced by 3.4 dB. antenna feed in
receiver output mounted immediately behind the
which is why the LNA is
ina low-noise receiver, include an LNA
communication receivers. Antennas for GPS receivers typically
virtually all satellite
voltage across the conductors of the coaxial cable connecting
DC
inthe antenna base, powered by a the RF filter in a GPS receiver is typically located ahead of
However,
the antenna to the GPS receiver. saturate the amplifier. Any loss in the RF
flter and the corre
interference that could interference.
the LNA to block accepted in exchange for the reduction in
noise temperature is byG.
sponding increase in system to the antenna output port by dividing the above result
temperature
We can refer the system noise LNA input to the waveguide input.
the noise source from the
This transfers
T= 130.6/0.8 = 163.2 K
without the lossy
temperature is 3.4 dB higher than the system noise temperature
The new system noise so we have the same result for the reduction in CNR.
of signal,
waveguide, but there is no longer a losstemperature is low, each 0.1 dB of attenuation ahead of the RF
Note that when the system
noise formula (4.21) with
K tothe system noise temperature. Using the
amplifier will add approximately 6.6 gives
I,=290 K,G = -0.1dB =0.977 as a ratio
T=290 x 0.023 =6.6 K
Waveguide
end of the receiver at the output oftheantenna feed. low-noise
the front of
Inis is the reason for placing disastrous effect on the system noise
temperature
losses ahead of the LNA can have a
Teceiving systems.
corresponds to an atmospheric
path
to 25 K. This nearest
The value of T, in Examples 4.3 and 4.4 was setusing the above formula androundingtothe results
dB, systems,
attenuation of approximately 0.1 x 25/6.6=0.4 that in the analysis of communication
place implies
tenth of adB. assuming a noiseless antenna. Note ofadB. Including an additional decimal made at
in decibels are usually quotedto the nearest tenth case because ofthe assumptions
never the
that all calculations are correct to 0.01 dB, which is
the beginning of the calculation.
 4.4 | Design of Downlinks 135
134 CHAPTER 4 | Satellite Link Design
gain. For a circular aperture
TABLE 4.4 Comparison of noise temperature and noise figure Solution the antenna

60
80 100 120 150
200
calculate
G,= n4TA/2? = na(DI)
Noise temperature (K) 0 20 40
1.29 1.50 1.81 29
First

0.56 0.82 1.06

2.28 MHZ,,l=0.0723 m. Then
Noise figure (dB) 0 0.29
1500 2000 3000 5000
800
1000
10000 At4150 G== 0.6 x(r25/0.075) =8.27 x10 or 69.17 dB
Noise temperature (K) 400 600
79 9.0 10.5 12.6
3.8 4.9 5.8 6.5 15.5
Noise figure (dB) dBK
into
Converting7, T.= 10 log, 55 = 17.4 dBK
Noise Temperature
4.3.3 Noise Figure and within a device. The GIT =69.17 - 17.4= 51.77 dB/K
noise generated
specify the
Noise figure is frequently used toformula (Krauss et al. 1980, p. 26)
following
operational
ngure is defined bythe NF (SNR). heavyrain
in
fT=85K =69.17 - 19.29 = 49.9 dB/K
(SNR),
the SNR at the output of the
(423) T

device and (SNR), is

SNR at the input to the satellite communication systems, it is best to convert nojse
where (SNR).
Because noise
is the
temperature is more useful in
device
relationship is
T,. The Downlinks
figure to noise temperature, T,= T,NF- 1)K Design of
(4.24) 44 |
and where T, is the reference satellite communication is based on two objectives: meeting a minimum CNR for a
where the noise figure is
a linear ratio, not in decibels,
frequently given in decibels temperature used ofany
percentage offtime, and carrying the maximum revenue earningtraffic at minimum cost. There
Thedesign
- usually 290 K. NF is and mustbe
to calculate the standard noise figure specified a person who can do forra dollar what any fool can do for one hundred
being used in Eq. (4.24). sayingthat "an engineer iscommunication systems. Any satellite link can be
converted to a ratio before temperature over the range isanold
between noise figure and noise encountered to satellite designed with very
Table 4.4 gives a comparison dollars." This applies
achieve high CNRs under all conditions, but the cost will be very high. The art of good
in typical systems. antennas to
to reach the best compromise of system parameters that meets the specification at the
large
system design is
For example, if a satellite link designed with sufficient margin to overcome a 20 dB rain
Stations Jowest cost.
4.3.4 G/T Ratio for Earth than a 3 dB fade, an earth station antenna with seven times the diameter is required.
fade rather attenuation. In the 6/4 GHz band the effect of
rewritten in terms of CNR at the
earth station Al satellite communication links are affected by rain
The link equation can be small. In the 14/11 GHz Ku-band, and even more so in the 30/20 GHz Ka-band and
rain on the link is
2
links are typically designed to
C_PGG, (4.25) higher freguency bands, rain attenuation becomes all important. Satellite typically a year. That means
N kT,B, 4nR kB, achieve reliabilities of 99.5-99.99%, averaged over a long period of time,
value for proper operation of the link
brackets are all constants for a given satellite system. the CNR in the receiver will fall below the minimum permissible
Thus CNR oc G,/T, and the terms in the square 0.5% and 0.01% of the specified time; the link is then said to suffer an outage. The time
G/T in decibels with units dB/K, can be used
to for between sometimes the worst month in
The ratio G,/T, which usually quoted as simply period over which the percentage of time is measured can be a month,
system, since increasing GT,
receiving variable phenomenon, both with time and
specify the quality of a receiving earth station or a satellite attenuation terms, or a year. Attenuation due to heavy rain is a
provides ways to estimate the likely
place. Chapter 7 discusses the prediction of path attenuation and
increases the received CNR.
which is below 0 dB/K. This simply
Satellite terminals may be quoted as having a negative G/T, 0ccurrence of outages on a given link. In this chapter we will
simply assume certain rain attenuation
means that the numerical value of G, is smaller than the numerical value of T,.
statistics to use in examples of link design. reliability because the rain attenuation rarely exceeds
Oald inks can be designed to achieve 99. 99%
to 0.01% of a vear is 52 minutes; at this level of probability the rain
EXAMPLE4.5 Earth Station GIT Ratio atahe ume corresponding fluctuations occur from year to year. Outages ceur
useditoreceive stable and wide
Anearth station antenna has a diameter of 25 mwith an aperture efficiency of 60% and is in hsiausucs are usuallynot thunderstorm occurrence varies widely from year to yea. a
lnl3 n , usually in thunderstorms and
points several hours one
asignal at 4000 MHz. At this frequency, the system noise temperature is 55 K when the antenna have outages of
conditions link designed to have outages totaling 52 minutes each year may well toleratedin Ku-band
at the satellite at an elevation angle of 28°, What is the earth station GIT ratio under these year and none the 40 hours) are often
f heavy rain causes the sky temperature to increase so that the system noise temperature risesto
85K,
next. Outage times of 0. 1-0.5% of a year(8- depends in part on the
trathc carried.
what is the new GIT value? links used for DTH-TV. The allowable outage time for a link
 The
calcul
receiver noise power
that
presented in Sections 4.1 andtWo4.2.equations for received signal power
were
and power dB
watts as
Equation (4.12) gives the received
caTier P.= EIRP + G, - L, -
L,- L-L, dBW
(4.13),areceiving terminal with a (4.26)
FromEq. power P, watts system noise temperature T, Kand a
referred to the input
a
has
ndoise of the LNA where noise bandwidth B,
Hz P,= kT, B, watts
Thereceivingsystem noise power is usually written in decibel units as
(4.27)
N=k+T, +B,ABW
Boltzmann's constant (-228.6 (4.28)
&is
wher the
noise bandwidth of the dBW/K/Hz), T, is the
receiver in dBHz. Note that system noise
andB,
is
all decibel conversions are made as 10 because we temperature
are
log, (T) or 10 log, (B,). The working in units of
in dBK.,
thecalulationof path lOss results from the use of
powe,

Communications the squared power in the 20 log, factor used in

quation. engincering students typically first meet
(4rRIay term in the path
loss gain, as G= 20 logo(V,/V,),
amplier which is strictly a misuse of decibels in the
calculation of
apower ratio: using 20log,o (
(...) for decibels,
amplifier gain assumes that the input and A number in decibels is
squared, when communications,
the same. In output
are
amyplifier to impedances
we can write 20 conversions decibels are always 10 log,,
of the
ouantiyis logo (..) rather than 10 logio (...) unless the
(..'.
EXAMPLE 4.6 Link Budget for C-Band Downlink With Earth
satellite usedinthis example is in GEO and Coverage Beam
The carries 24 C-band
of 36 MHZ. The downlink band is 3.7-4.2 GHz and transponders,
the satellite uses dual
each with a bandwidth
tionsto double the
number
GEO
of available channels, thus providing an effectiveorthogonal
RF
circular polariza-
Figure 4.8 illustrates a satellite located at 30° Wlongitude
serving the
bandwidth of 864 MHz.
The satellite provides coverage of the visible earth,
which Atlantic Ocean region.
fromasatellite in geostationary orbit, by using a global beam subtends an angle of approximately 17°
inked together by the relationship antenna. Antenna beamwidth and gain are

G30 000/(beamwidth in degrees)

Cisa ratio (not in decibels). The on-axis
mAR However, we must make a gain of the global beam antenna is
worst-case approximately
pnth station at the edge of the coverage zone assumption
in the link budget calculation, which is for an
of the satellite where the effective gain of
3dB Jower. at 17 dB. The edge of the the antenna is
cover-age zone does not necessarily have to be at the -3 dB
Contour of the satellite antenna footprint. Coverage extends
of the satellite antenna pattern. A larger beyond the -3 dB contour into the sidelobes
receiving antenna can be used to compensate for the loss of
signal power when operating outside the -3 dB contour.
The CNR for the downlink is calculated in clear air
can connect earth stations in North and South conditions and also in heavy rain. The satellite
America to earth stations in Europe and Africa using
aglobal beam that covers the visible earth as seen
from the satellite.
Talated by the satellite ends up in the ocean and only a small part is However, most of the signal
cIWeen continents. A satellite antenna with a gain of 20 dB has available for communications
S6 wavelengths an effective aperture diameter of
given by
 GEO satellite
GHOG
at 30°W 4.4 | Design of
Downlinks 139

station
earth 4.00 GHz
C,hand
Downlink
frequency
Rrrenin¹ G, 49.7 dB
GH.
axis,4 B, 30 MHz
on
gain,
Receiver
I Fbandwidth T. 45 K
Antenna temperature
noise
system
Dwnlink power
Receiving budeer P 19.0 dBW
Global beam power, 80 W
output Bout -2.0 dB
covering visible earth transpoonder
Transponder
outputbackoff
G, 20.0 dB
Satellite axis
G
FGURE 4.8 GEO satellite at 30°W longitude with global beam gain,on 49.7 dB
regjon. Note that most of the energy transmitted by the satellite falls antenna serving the
into the
antenna
Cotellite
gain
antenna GH, -196.5 dB
reaches populated areas. ocean: onyAlanatic Caan Earth
station
path
lOSSat
4
satellite
antenna Lant -3.0 dB

smal tac space lossfor

Eree fbeam
of
Edge
atmospheric
loss
L
Lisc
-0.2 dB
-0.5 dB
other
Clearlosses(margin)
sky
station
P. -113.5 aBW

G=1 powerat
Received
earth
powerbudget in clear
air
k -228.6 dBW /K/Hz.
wtich gives D=0.42 mat a frequency of 4 GHz. If the satellite Downlinknoise 17.6 dBK
the phvsical diameter is 0.52 m. The calculation of CNR is antenna's aperture Roltzmann'sconstant
temperature,58K
Appendix Bexplains the properties of antennas.
The saturated output power of the
made at a midband is ef iciency
of 4659,Gh
frequency Svstemnoise
bandwidth,30
MHZ
B,
N
74.8 dBHz.
-136.2 dBW
transponder is 80 W= 19 dBW. Reducing
amplifier from its maximum value helps to linearize the the Noise
Receivernoisepower
2 dB. whih means the power channel, so we will assume an outrutpoweroutput
betof a temperature is 58
Kbecause the clear air attenuation of 0.2 dB creates an antenna
transmitted
Hence the on-axis EIRP of the
by the transponder is now 17
dBW. system
noise
which adds to the LNA noise temnperature of 45 K. Hence the
CNR in the
transponder and antenna is The 13 K
temperature of
P.G, =17+ 20=37 dBW poise clearairis -(-136.2 dBW) =22.7dB
The transmited signal isa singie 30 raceiverin CNR= P.- N=-113.5 dBW
MHz bandwidth 49.7 dB at 4 GHz, and a receiving system noise temperature
The maxmum path
gives apath ioss of 196.5length for a GEO satelite link channel carrying adigital signal in this example.
at the edge of station has a gain of
receiving earth for this earth station is
0.075 m). We must make ancoverage is 40 00O km, which
dB a 4 GHz (2= The conditions. The GIT ratio
tor some 0osses that will clear sky
Slant path through the inevitabiy occur on the link At Chand nronagation allowance in ue hk vug of58 Kin G
= 49.7 - 10logio 58 =32.0dB/K
0.5 dB atmosphere will suffer a typical
attenuation of 0.
losses are smal, Dut ut T
Ispointing margin the link design to
in 2 dB in clear air. We will alow clear sky conditions, with
no rain the slant
.polarization
Tabie 4.5a mismach, and antenna account forto miscellaneous losses, such as antenna The earth station receiver CNR is first calculated for
account of the effects of rain. The minimum permitted overall
the sateliite to summarizes th
parameers degradation, taking keying(OPSK)
and presentsensure
of the link that the link budget is realistc. recalculated shift
a
receiving earth station. a link budget for the downlink from oth The CNR is then with quadrature phase
a maximum BERof 10° QPSK modulation gives aBER well below
TARL E A5a CNR for this link is 14.0 dB giving
Exampie tor a 22.7 dB in clear air with
Chand sasellu paramiers Cband GEO satelite downlink
time
nodulation and no FEC. A CNR of of 60 Mbps the theoretical
budget in clear air shows how this calculation is made). At a bit rate to be essentially error
TranspoBder saluraied outpul power 80 W I06 (Chapter 5 The link is said
× 10 seconds or 9.5 years.
between bit errors is longer than 3 geographical locations for more than 97% of
Pa 4 GHz prevail in most
Transponder bandwidth ree. Since clear sky conditions at
G. 19 dBW
operates error free for most of the year.
Downk frequency band y given year, the link
Digital signal noise Byansp 20 dB
bandwidth 36 MHZ
Minimum permitled overall CNR in B EXAMPLE 4.7 C-Band Link CNR in Heavy Rain
recCiver 3.7-4.2 GHZ point for the calcu-
(CNR), às as the starting
30 MHZ The results for the receiving terminal CNR in clear air are used 4.5a shows that we have a downlink
14.0 dB lation of CNR with rain in the slant path to the terminal. Table over the minimum CNR allowed
CNR of 22.7 dB in clear air, giving a link margin of 8.7 dB
 4.4 |
Design of Downlinks 141
140 CHAPTER 4 | Satellite Link Design Downlink With Regional Beam
be reduess 48 4
GHz
clear air conditions, but will
of 14.0 dB. This link margin is available in EXAMPLE
Clobalbeamatennasare not widely used, although most satellites with international coverage carry
rain in the slant path. dBof attenuation at 4 GHz
when the when here i earth stations that are not within the coverage of
receivedsatelpower
ite hasby llàoy regional beams. The low gain
Heavy rain in the slant path can cause up to 1 which reduces the
outlying global
beam results in poor utilization of
elevation angle and the slant path through the rain is long,
of the receiving system. Using tne
output noise mod
a serve of a
dhemto coverage lost over the oceans, as
seen in
Figure 4.8, andtransponder
global power, since most of the
distribution is much morebeams
broad
transmitted
power is
and increases the noise temperature temperature of 273 K, and a total path loss for
clear airdiplus
scusse d Regional TV signal have been referred
medium fish warmers.
he prevIous section witha noise temperature in rain is
1.2 dB (ratio of 1.32). the sky
derisivelyas
4.5a and
4 45b is more likely to use a regional antenna, servingcommon,
a
so the C-band
1/1.32) 66 K in
Tables
The United States, for example, can be covered with a 6° by 3° beam,continent or a group
T... = 273 x (1 - ink needed to cover Alaska and as
approximately 13 K, the result of
0.2 IB 4.9.Additionalbeams may be
countries.
Figure
used Hawaii, more
or a illustrated in
noise temperature is
of clear air of
canbe complex antenna
In clear air the skv temperature with rain in the downlink path is T. min where shapedbean
ation. The svstem nojse
T ain = 45 + 66 =
l11K
atte th a
of
Thegainaxis
a
typical satellite antenna providing coverage of the 48
(calculated from G= 30 000/[0, x ,]), which is 12.2
dB contiguous
states (CONUS)
is
122dBonbeam. Using the link
budget in Tables 45a and 4.5b, we can higher than the on-axis
gain
increase in system noise trade the extra 12.2
The clear air svstem noise
temperature is 58 K. The
power given by AN where
temperature rreesuls ts in a global
ofa 16.7)ofa regional
coverage satellite antenna for a reduction
in earth station
antenna
dB gain
coTesponding increase in receiver noise (ratio example of a 9.0 mearth station antenna in Example 4.7, we could reduce the dimensions.
AN= 10 log,,(111/58) = 2.8
dB Forthe of/16.7 s 4.1 m toa
diameter of 2.2 m
7 ft 3in.). The antenna
(approximately diameter
cost of antennas
factor
increasesapproximately as the diameter of the antenna to the power 2.7 for
affected much more by the a
Reducing the diameter of the earth station antennas larger than 2 m
by
C-band earth station receiver is calculation.
Note that the CNR in the
rain attenuation. Inmaking this it is important
noise temperature than by the in this case, is always present and must be added to the
incrtoeaserememberin sky (See
Appendix B for details.)
cost by a factor of
approximately 45, a very antenna from 9.0 to 2.2 m
significant cost saving.
in rain.rain attenuation In theits
dB.
that clear air attenuation. 0.2 calculating the system noisetemperature reduces 1970s and 1980s, television programming was distributed to cable TV head ends by C-band
to give the total path attenuation before (You still Ku-band satellites. The C-band signals were
later by
when it rains.) regionalsatellites, and transmitted as one video
to be Weable breathe
cantonow adjust the link budget very easily to account for heavy rain in the slant path without channelper 36 MHz
transponder using frequency modulation (FM) and at first were not encrypted. An
having to recalculate the CNR from the beginning. The received carrier power is reduced by I dB supplying 8 and 10ft diameter dishes to home owners, equipped with receivers with
grew upallowing
by industry
a100 KKLNA, reception of cable TV channels without payment. The threshold for successful
system noise temperature is increased 2.8 dB. Table
because of the rain attenuation and the 11 dB. Comparing these parameters to the example in
demodulation of the FM video signal was
shows the new downlink budget in rain.
CNR inthe receiver in heavy rain is
dBW) = 18,2 dB
CNR =P, min -Noin =-114.5 dBW - (-132.7 Elliptical beam
footprint over
minimum permissible CNR of 140 an
The CNR in rain has a downlink margin of 4.2 dB over the continental USA
into lower BER, and can be traded off against eartk
The excess CNR margin will translate
antenna. We will examine how ths
antenna gain to allow the use of smaller (and therefore lower cost)
of link margin can be traded against other parameters in the system.
4.2 dB
gain value, as a ratio, of263
A reduction in earth station antenna gain of 4.2 dB is a reduction in the
Antenna gain is proportional to diameter squared, so the diameter of the earth station antenna can be
reduced by afactor of y2.63 = 1.62. from 9 to 5.6 m to lower the cost of the earth station.

TABLE 4.5b C-band downlink budget in rain

rca -113.5 dBW
Received power at earth station in clear air
Rain attenuation A 1.0 dB
-114.5 dBW
Received power at earth station in rain Pr rain GEO satellite at
-135.5dBW
Receiver noise power in clear air Nea 100°W longitude
2.8dB
Increase in noise power due to rain AN fain FIGURE 4.9 GEO antenna serving the
at 100°Wlongitude wth elliptical regional beam
continental United Ssatellite
-132.7dBW
Receiver noise power in rain
Nrain States.
 (CNR),.cannot be measured at Vatts) dB
the
Notethat
Wellas signal,
so a CNR
measurement receiving
at the earth station. The (4.37)
as
noLSe transponder and earth station CNRs. satellite
receiver will always yield always transmits
nationof the performance
calculate
of a satellite link we must (CNR),, the combj-
To
ransponder
thedownlink (CNR), in the
and
interferencepresent, either inthe satellite
earth station determine
receiver. We
the uplink
(CNR). ratio in the
receiver or the earth must also consider
jsany Where the transponder is operated in an FDMA
mode
whether
station receiver. One case of
there
9DCCIS snon-linear input-output and IM impor-
ransponders
canbe found and
included characteristic.
in the
If the IM products
power level in the are
generated by the
wheneversmall receiving calculation (CNR), ratio. of transponder known,
is
#Cl value
CAtellites likely
is
Chapter6 for more
details on antennas
intermodulation FDMA.
in
are used, as with VSATs Interference
and
from adjacent
DBS-TV receivers.
See CNR values are usually calculated1
Since from power and noise budgets, their
There are some 1seful rules of thumb for
useful
davibels. estimating values are typically in
(CNR), from two CNR values:
. ItheCNR values are equal, (CNR),: is 3 dB lower than either value.
Ifone CNRvalue is 10dB smaller than the other
CNR values. value, (CNR),
is 0.4 dB lower
than the smaller
ofthe
CNR value is 20 dB or more greater than the
Ifone other CNR value, the
smaller of the two CNR values within the overall (CNR), is equal to
accuracy decibel calculations (+0.1 dB).
of

EKAMPLE 4.9 CNR Calculation

Thormal noise in an earth station receiver resultS in a (CNR), ratio of 20.0 dR
AGienal is received from a bent pipe transponder with
(CNR),= 20.0 dB.
al What is the value of overall (CNR), at the earth station?
If the transponder introduces IM products with a
the overall (CNR), at the receiving earth station? carrier-to-interference ratioCII- 24 dB, what is
Solution
la) Using Eq. (4.35) and noting that (CNR)D= 20.0dB
up corresponds to a CNR ratio of 100
11 1
(CNR), = = 50 or 17.0 dB
1/(CNR), +1/(CNR),0.01 +0.01
148 CHAPTER 4 | Satellite Link Design

(b) The intermodulation (C/D value of 24.0 dB corresponds to a ratio of 250. Theeoverall (CNR).
with interference present is then
1
(CNR), = = 41.7 or 16.2 dB
(0.01+0.01+ 0.004)

4.6.2 Overall (CNR), With Uplink and Downlink Attenuation

Most satellite linksare designed with link margins to allow for
attenuation that may in
 Exercises 151

Exercises
lossfor a satellite to earth
Calculatethe path
(a) Calculate the gain of the
41downlink with a
distance of 36000 km antenna at 12.5 GHZ with anreceiving
aperture
4.0 GHz. What is the efficiency of 70%.
frequency of
at a loss if the earth station trans- (b) Calculate the received
uplinkpath satellite at a frequency of power and
the same downlink CNR for this station in
mitsto
60GHz? clear sky conditions.
at 11.7 GHz has a (c) Calculate the downlink CNR with 2 dB
LEOsatellite operating
42 A receiving terminal of 550km. rain attenuation on the path.
distancetoa
satelliteradiates a power of 1.0 W from
The
beam antenna with a gain of 30 dB in TABLE 4.7 Link budget for Ku-band DBS-TV
a spot receiver with regional beam and DVB-S signals
direction ofthe terminal. Find the flux
densityat the receiving
terminal, and the Transponder saturated output Pa 22.0 dBW
re I with atracking antenna with
powerreceived power, 160 W
25dB.
againof Transponder output backoff B, -1.5 dB
tubesare inherently noise devices Transponder operating P, 20.5 dBW
13 Vacuum
hecause they rely on the random emission output power
ofelectrons from a heated hlament to create Transponder bandwidth B 30 MHz
9curent between the cathode and anode. Satellite antenna beam, G, 34.3 dB
The noise figure of a typical vacuum tube is on-axis gain
16 dB. Calculate its noise temperature. Path loss at 125 GHz. -206.0 dB
4 A
GEO satellite carries a transponder with 38000 mpath
18 W
trans1mitter operating at 4.1 GHz. The Recciving antena gain, on axis G, 33.8 dB
transmitter output power is 12 W and drives Edge of bçarn loss L -3.0 dB
an antennaof 32 dB. Earth station is at the Clcat sày attnospheric loss
center of the coverage zone of the satcll1te -0.4 dB
at a range of 38 500 km. Find Miscellancous losscs L 0,4 dB
(a) Flux density at the carth station. Receved poacr, C P, -121.2 dBW
(b) Power received by antenna with a gain Boltzmann's constant k -228,6 dBW/K/HZ
of 40 dB.
LNADosc ternpetature TiNa 86 K
45 Avery low carth ortbit satellite is operatung System noLNC Lcmperature, T, 20.4 dBK
at an altitude of 550 km. Calculate path clear sky, I10K
losses for the following frequency bands: Rovener Dotse bandwidth, B, 73.0 dBHz
(a) 18 GHz, 12 GHz 20 MH2
(b) 26.5 GHz, 40 GHz
(c) 71GHz, 76 GHz Receiver DOISC poaer N -135.2 dBW
Clear sky CNR in receiver 14.0 dB
t0 A DBS-TV
receiver is located on the Link marginover 8.3 dB 5.7 dB
-I dB contour of a
DBS-TV
slem parameters are the samesaellite. The threshold

Table 4.7 eAcept that the as those in Modulabon and FEC coding QPSK rate 12
duameier is increased toreceiving antenna Bit rate on downink 20Mbps
numum perrmitted CNR on0.9themdownlink
and the Link availability throughout
the USA
Better than 99.7%
 Multiple Choice Questions 153
152 CHAPTER 4 Satellite Link Design
oys spacecraft points of 60% and maximum data rate for the
60% on the link. Which combination would you
gain of 1s5 AB, and noise efficiency whenever the receiving
earth recommend for this project?
4.7 An earth station equipped with UPC 450 K. visible. Areceiving
transmits at 17.0 GHz to a DBS-TV satellite
with a beacon transmitter at l12.7 GHZ.
(a) Calculate the ratio of uplink attenua
(a) Calculate the path loss
(b) Calculate the
satellite. power received
temperature nf
toward
terminalon
earth is
earth with a
system noise
antenna on 25 Kis used to) receive
temperature of
transmissions. Turbo coding of
the
(b) Repeat the exercise for a spacecraft
on the surface of Mars, using a dis
tance of 100 million km. The distance
tion to downlink attenuation for these (c) Calculate the al he spacecraftt
transmitted from
the spacecraft between the earth and Mars varies
frequencies, using a value a = 2.4 in sponder input.
noise power at the data I CNR to be 3.0 dB. between its closest approach of 57
the threshold antenna million km and its most distant point
Eq. (4.4). (d) Calculate the CNR in allowsthe of receiving
300 W.
(b) Inclear air, the transmitpoweris of the
the a table aperture efficiency at 100 million km.

The saturated output power

transmitter is 3kW and 3 dB
backoff
(e) Calculate the
carrier power:
sponder output. at the transpondterarn: Create
diameters with an

to the transmitter 4.11 Calculate the power received Multiple Choice Questions
is always applied dynamic range of station when the satellite in by the erth
output. What is the
the UPC? has a regional beam with a
(a) What is the diameter
Example
gain of 26 dB,41
of a satellite
transmits signals
4.1 A GHz to a user40000
km
at a frequency
away. The free
4.6 During power measurement the output
power was measured at 90 dBm. What is
operating at an altitude of
4.8 A satellite is output power is
aperture antenna with again ofci2rcular of6 bythe signal is
lossincured
nearly measured power in watts?
(a) 1mW (b) lpW
38500 km and transponder
transponder antenna is
at 11GHz? 26dB spacepathh
(a) 100dB
(b) 150 dB
(c) 1W (d) 10 W
100 W and gain of (b) What is the effective (d) 300 dB
30 dB and uplink
CNR is 30 dB.
Calculate receiving
the earth station antenna with a area si (c) 200dB
4.7 In atypical satellite communication system,
antenna diameter gain af communication link between
receiving earth station 52.3 dB? satelite which of the following could be the uplink
70% aperture 4.2 The established with uplink CNR
operating at 11.5 GHZ with of (C) What is the diameter offthe earth two points is downlink CNR of 14 dB. The and downlink frequencies, respectively?
efhciency provide an overall CNR antenna ifits aperture efficiency issta65g4
tion
36 MHZ bandwidth. The
antenna of 20 dB and close to (a) 40 GHZ and 60 GHZ
17 dB (a) Ifwe increase the earth station antenna overallCNR is (b) 60 GHz and 40GHZ
and LNA noise (b) 6 dB
noise temperature is 50 K miscellaneous diameter by 200, What 1s its new gain (a) 34 dB (c) 6GHz and 4 GHZ
temperature is 100 K. Allow (d) 13.5 dB
and the new received power in dBw (c) 13dB (d) 4 GHz and 6 GHz
Josses of l dB. and dBm? transmitter input power
multibeam antenna 43 For an earth station 4.8 Which among the following does a link
4.9 A LEO satellite has a with a backoff loss
in each beam. A 4.12 Design a transmitting earth station to of 40 dBW (10 000 W) loss of budget for satellite communications include?
gain of 20 dB and feeder
with a
at provide a CNR of 25 dB a Ku-band of 3 dB, a total branching (a) total cost of satellite
transponder with output power of 1W transponder in a satellite at 38500 km transmit antenna gain of 40 dB,
3GHz is connected to one
antenna beam. 3 dB,and a (b) cost of satellite plus launch vehicle
a distance of and operating at a frequency of 14 GH. determine the EIRP.
signal and noise levels in dB
An earth station is located at (b) 74 dBW (c)
If the uplink antenna diameter is 4 mand (a) 40 dBW
(d) margins of error permitted
3000 km and receives power 4 dB below (d) 80 dBW
that at the center of the beam. Calculate
aperture efficiency 65%, find the uplink (c) 34 dBW
receiver of transponder
transmitter power required to achieve 4.9 A waveguide used in
(a) Power received by antennas with a 4.4 A satellite communication link has both temperature
the required CNR. The
transponder has a in satellite has loss of 2 dB and tempera
gain of 5 dB. uplink and downlink (CNR), of 50 dB-Hz. noise
bandwidth of 30 MHz, gain of 30 dB, and What would be the overall link (CNR),? of 290 K. The equivalent
(b) Noise power of earth station receiver K. Allow 0.5 dB
for noise temperature of 250 K and noise temperature of 450 (a) 25 dB-Hz (b) 47 dB-Hz ture is (b) 107 K
miscellaneous losses. (d) 100 dB-Hz (a) 115 K
bandwidth 20 kHz. (c) 53 dB-Hz (d) 140 K
(c) 130 K
(c) CNR for LEO signal at receiver distance from the moon to the
4.13 (a) The average 4.5 An amplifier has a gain of 50 dB and a density for a
transmitter with
output. earth is 384400 km. A spacecraft witi a noise figure of 10 dB. Assuming an ambient 4.10 The flux driving a lossless
and
transmitter is located on the moon output power 100
W
an at
4.10 An earth station has an antenna operating at S-band frequency temperature of 300 K, what will be total dB on a satellite
at 2295 MHZ, a space antenna with gain 20
6GHz with again of 50 dB. The transmitter and operatesspace-to-earth links for equivalent noise temperature at the input of altitude of 3000 km is
aSSigned to the amplifier? (b) 70 pW
output poweris 120 W. The signal is received transmitter output poWd (a) 88.4 pW
by a satellite at a distance of 38 500 km research. The (a) 760 K (b) 360K (d) 100pW
steerable reflector antena (c) 75 pW
by an antenna with a gain of 25 dB. The 10W and a apertue (c) 2700K (d) 3000K
1.0 m and
transponder has a bandwidth of 36 MHz, with a diameter of

SJ•AE