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Edexcel GCSE Physics Your notes

Cosmology
Contents
Theories of the Universe
The Doppler Effect
Galactic Red-shift
The Cosmic Microwave Background
Observing the Universe

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Theories of the Universe

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Big Bang & Steady State Theories
The Big Bang Theory
Around 14 billion years ago, the Universe began from a very small region that was extremely hot and
dense
Then there was a giant explosion, which is known as the Big Bang
This caused the universe to expand from a single point, cooling as it does so, to form the universe
today
Each point expands away from the others
This is seen from galaxies moving away from each other, and the further away they are the faster
they move
As a result of the initial explosion, the Universe continues to expand

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All galaxies are moving away from each other, indicating that the universe is expanding
An analogy of this is points drawn on a balloon where the balloon represents space and the points as Your notes
galaxies
When the balloon is deflated, all the points are close together and an equal distance apart
As the balloon expands, all the points become further apart by the same amount
This is because the space itself has expanded between the galaxies
Therefore, the density of galaxies falls as the Universe expands

A balloon inflating is similar to the stretching of the space between galaxies

Steady State Theory
The Steady State theory was the main rival to the Big Bang theory up until the mid-1960s
The main idea behind the Steady State theory was that the Universe has always existed more or less as
it is seen now

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The theory accounted for the expansion of the Universe by suggesting that as galaxies move apart,
new ones will be formed in the gaps in between them
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This implies the density of galaxies remains the same as the universe expands
Whilst the Steady State theory could explain the expansion of the Universe it could not explain some of
the other evidence that emerged in favour of the Big Bang and hence is not an accepted theory today

The Steady State Theory vs the Big Bang Theory

Evidence for the Big Bang

Since there is more evidence supporting the Big Bang theory than the Steady State theory, it is the
currently accepted model for the origin of the Universe
The main pieces of evidence for the Big Bang are
Galactic red-shift

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Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation

Evidence from Galactic Red-Shift
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By observing the light spectrums from supernovae in other galaxies there is evidence to suggest that
distant galaxies are receding (moving further apart) even faster than nearby galaxies
These observations were first made in 1998
The light spectrums show that light from distant galaxies is redshifted, which is evidence that the
universe is expanding
As a result, astronomers have concluded that:
All galaxies are moving away from the Earth
Galaxies are moving away from each other
This is what is expected after an explosion
Matter is first densely packed and as it explodes it, it moves out in all directions getting further and
further from the source of the explosion
Some matter will be lighter and travel at a greater speed, further from the source of the explosion
Some matter will be heavier and travel at a slower speed, closer to the source of the explosion
If someone were to travel back in time and compare the separation distance of the galaxies:
It would be seen that galaxies would become closer and closer together until the entire universe
was a single point
If the galaxies were originally all grouped together at a single point and were then exploded a similar
effect would be observed
The galaxies that are the furthest are moving the fastest - their distance is proportional to their
speed
The galaxies that are closer are moving slower

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Tracing the expansion of the universe back to the beginning of time leads to the idea the universe began
with a “big bang”
Evidence from CMB Radiation
According to the Big Bang theory, the early Universe was extremely hot and extremely dense
As a result of this, it must have emitted thermal radiation
Astronomers discovered radiation in the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum which
comes from all directions and has a temperature of 2.73 K
This is known as the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation
This radiation is thought to be the remains of the thermal energy from the Big Bang, spread across the
whole Universe
The radiation is in the microwave region because over the past 14 billion years or so, that radiation
initially from the Big Bang has become redshifted as the Universe has expanded

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The CMB radiation is very uniform and has the exact profile expected to be emitted from a hot body
that has cooled down over a very long time
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This phenomenon is something that other theories (such as the Steady State Theory) cannot
explain

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The Doppler Effect

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The Doppler Effect
Usually, when an object emits waves, the wavefronts spread out symmetrically
If the wave source moves, the waves can become squashed together or stretched out
Therefore, when a wave source moves relative to an observer there will be a change in the
observed frequency and wavelength

Wavefronts are even in a stationary object but are squashed in the direction of the moving wave source
A moving object will cause the wavelength, λ, (and frequency) of the waves to change:
The wavelength of the waves in front of the source decreases (λ – Δλ) and the frequency
increases
The wavelength behind the source increases (λ + Δλ) and the frequency decreases
This effect is known as the Doppler effect
Note: Δλ means 'change in wavelength'

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Examiner Tips and Tricks Your notes

Although you will not be expected to do any calculations with the Doppler effect, it is important you
remember the relationship between wavelength and frequency (wavelength increases, frequency
decreases and vice versa)

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Galactic Red-shift
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Galactic Red-shift
The Doppler effect affects all types of waves, including light
Light emitted from stars and galaxies will be at a certain wavelength in the visible part of the
electromagnetic spectrum
If an object moves away from an observer the wavelength of light increases
This is known as redshift as the light moves towards the red end of the spectrum
If an object moves towards an observer the wavelength of light decreases
This is known as blueshift as the light moves towards the blue end of the spectrum

Light from a star that is moving towards an observer will be blue shifted and light from a star moving
away from an observer will be red shifted
An increase in wavelength is a decrease in frequency and vice versa

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The observer in front observes a blue shift, the observer behind observes a redshift

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Examiner Tips and Tricks

You need to know that in the visible light spectrum red light has the longest wavelength and the Your notes
smallest frequency compared to blue light which has a shorter wavelength and higher frequency

To help you to remember what happens to the wavelength and the frequency of an object as it
moves further away, it is useful to think about how the sound of a motorbike would change as it
travels away from you. As the motorbike travels away from you the pitch of the sound will become
lower. This means the frequency of the sound is decreasing. If the frequency has decreased, the
wavelength must also have increased.

The Expanding Universe

Galactic redshift provides evidence for the Big Bang Theory and the expansion of the universe
The diagram below shows the light coming to the Earth from a close object, such as the Sun, and the
light coming to the Earth from a distant galaxy

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Comparing the light spectrum produced from the Sun and a distant galaxy
Red-shift provides evidence that the Universe is expanding because:
Red-shift is observed when the spectral lines from the distant galaxy move closer to the red end of the
spectrum
This is because light waves are stretched by the expansion of the universe so the wavelength
increases (or frequency decreases)
This indicates that the galaxies are moving away from us
Light spectrums produced from distant galaxies are red-shifted more than nearby galaxies
This shows that the greater the distance to the galaxy, the greater the redshift
This means that the further away a galaxy is, the faster it is moving away from the Earth
These observations imply that the universe is expanding and therefore support the Big Bang Theory

Red-shift & the Origin of the Universe

Both the Big Bang and Steady State theories of the origin of the Universe account for the red-shift of
galaxies
The fact that light from distant galaxies is redshifted shows that the galaxies are:
Moving away from the Earth
Moving away from each other
This is a predicted consequence of the universe expanding from some initial point (as implied in the Big
Bang Theory):

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Suppose the galaxies were originally all grouped together and then started to spread out at
different speeds
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The galaxies that are moving fastest would move the furthest – the distance they move would be
proportional to their speed - exactly the sort of relationship shown in the following graph

Graph showing the greater the distance to a galaxy, the greater the redshift
The Steady State Theory, however, does also account for the redshift of galaxies
It suggested that as galaxies moved apart, new ones were created in the space in between, resulting in
a universe that remains the same over time
This means that more distant galaxies are still seen to have a greater redshift
However, the Steady State Theory does not support the evidence from the Cosmic Microwave
Background radiation, and hence is no longer a supported theory

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The Cosmic Microwave Background

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The Cosmic Microwave Background
The discovery of the CMB (Cosmic Microwave Background) led to the Big Bang theory becoming the
currently accepted model since it is not supported by the Steady State theory
The CMB is a type of electromagnetic radiation which is a remnant from the early stages of the
Universe
It has a wavelength of around 1 mm making it a microwave, hence the name Cosmic Microwave
Background
In 1964, Astronomers discovered radiation in the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum
coming from all directions and at a generally uniform temperature of 2.73 K
They were unable to do this any earlier since microwaves are absorbed by the atmosphere
Around this time, space flight was developed which enabled astronomers to send telescopes into
orbit above the atmosphere
According to the Big Bang theory, the early Universe was an extremely hot and dense environment
As a result of this, it must have emitted thermal radiation
The radiation is in the microwave region
This is because over the past 14 billion years or so, the radiation initially from the Big Bang has
become redshifted as the Universe has expanded
Initially, this would have been high energy radiation, towards the gamma end of the spectrum
As the Universe expanded, the wavelength of the radiation increased
Over time, it has increased so much that it is now in the microwave region of the spectrum

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The CMB is a result of high energy radiation being redshifted over billions of years
The CMB radiation is very uniform and has the exact profile expected to be emitted from a hot body
that has cooled down over a very long time
This phenomenon is something that other theories (such as the Steady State Theory) cannot
explain
The CMB is represented by the following map:

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The CMB map with areas of higher and lower temperature. Places with higher temperature have a higher
concentration of galaxies, Suns and planets
This is the closest image to a map of the Universe
The different colours represent different temperatures
The red / orange / brown regions represent warmer temperature indicating a higher density of
galaxies
The blue / green regions represents cooler temperature indicating a lower density of galaxies
The temperature of the CMB is mostly uniform, however, there are minuscule temperature fluctuations
(on the order of 0.00001 K)
This implies that all objects in the Universe are more or less uniformly spread out

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Observing the Universe

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A Short History of Astronomy
Methods of observing the Universe have changed drastically over time
Throughout history, astronomy has played an important role in human society
Not just because of mankind’s fascination with the heavens but also in navigation and agriculture
Ancient astronomers split the night sky into constellations to help them remember the stars
They knew that some constellations only ever appeared in the northern skies, whilst others lay to
the south
They also aligned monuments with the position of certain stars or the position of the Sun on certain
days of the year, and these helped them to keep track of the seasons
One example is the Callanish Stones in the Isle of Lewis and Harris, Scotland
These are an arrangement of standing stones placed in a cruciform pattern with a central stone
circle 13 metres (43 feet) in diameter
They were constructed specifically in line with the movements of the Sun and Moon, 5000 years
ago

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The Callanish stones were used to track the movements of the Sun and the Moon
Modern Telescopes
The most important development in astronomy was the invention of the astronomical telescope in the
early 17th century
Early telescopes allowed astronomers to:
Observe the features of planets and moons for the first time
Develop more accurate models of the solar system, for example, the heliocentric model of the
Solar System
Modern telescopes provide much more data than the telescopes used hundreds of years ago, this is
because:
They can detect more wavelengths/frequencies in the EM spectrum than just visible light
They can be positioned above the Earth’s atmosphere where less radiation is absorbed

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They can detect weaker signals

They have a much greater magnification Your notes
They are much more powerful
Technology has improved so computers can process and improve the data
Modern telescopes come in several shapes and sizes
These can range from smaller telescopes found in a classroom to giant radio telescopes, such as
the Lovell Telescope based at the Jodrell Bank Observatory in Cheshire

Modern telescopes are a range of different sizes and can be on Earth on in space, depending on their
use
Telescopes in Space
The atmosphere can substantially restrict the quality of astronomical observations, such as:
Reflection of light from moisture in the atmosphere causing light pollution

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Air currents distorting the path of starlight

As well as this, not all electromagnetic radiation coming from space reaches the Earth’s surface
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The atmosphere absorbs certain wavelengths of electromagnetic waves restricting observations from
astronomical objects that produce these, such as:
Near (short-wavelength) microwaves
Far (long-wavelength) infrared
Near (short-wavelength) ultraviolet
X-rays
Gamma rays

Some wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere
To get around these problems, telescopes are often launched into space
The most famous of these is the Hubble Space Telescope (this detects UV, optical, and near-
infrared)
Others include the Chandra X-ray telescope and the Spitzer infrared telescope

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The benefits of space telescopes are:

They lead to the discovery of objects not detectable by visible light Your notes
More information and data can be collected
Different EM waves can give different types of information about astronomical objects
They can produce much more detailed and magnified images
They produce clearer images which are unaffected by Earth’s atmosphere and light pollution
The downsides of space telescopes are:
The telescopes are much harder to repair
They cannot be made too large since they need to fit into a rocket to be launched
They are much more expensive

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