Madanapalle Institute

MADANAPALLE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDof Technology

SCIENCE, MADANAPALLE & Science
Angallu, Madanapalle-517325
Chittoor District, Andhra Pradesh

Course Code - 23EEE101

Course: Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering

Dr. T. S. Balaji Damodhar

Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical And Electronics Engineering
MITS, Madanapalle (A.P.)
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 Syllabus:
Unit-I
DC & AC CIRCUITS

DC Circuits: Electrical circuit elements (R, L and C), Ohm’s Law and its limitations, KCL & KVL, series,
parallel, series-parallel circuits, Super Position theorem, Simple numerical problems

AC Circuits: A.C. Fundamentals: Equation of AC Voltage and current, waveform, time period,
frequency, amplitude, phase, phase difference, average value, RMS value, form factor, peak factor,
Voltage and current relationship with phasor diagrams in R, L, and C circuits, Concept of Impedance,
Active power, reactive power and apparent power, Concept of power factor (Simple Numerical
problems).
•

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 Electrical Materials:
When the number of valence electrons of an atom is less than 4 (i.e. half of the
maximum eight electrons), the material is usually a metal and a conductor.
Examples are sodium, magnesium and aluminium which have 1, 2 and 3
valence electrons respectively.

When the number of valence electrons of an atom is more than 4, the material
is usually a non-metal and an insulator. Examples are nitrogen, Sulphur and
neon which have 5, 6 and 8 valence electrons respectively.

When the number of valence electrons of an atom is 4 (i.e. exactly one-half of

the maximum8 electrons), the material has both metal and non-metal
properties and is usually a semi-conductor. Examples are carbon, silicon and
germanium.
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 Electrical Materials:
On the basis of electrical conductivity, materials are generally classified into
conductors, insulators and semi-conductors. As a rough rule, one can
determine the electrical behavior of a material from the number of valence
electrons.

Conductor:

A substance which has a large number of free electrons at room

temperature is called a conductor of electricity. e.g. all metals.

If a voltage source (e.g. a cell) is applied across the wire of a conductor material,
free electrons readily flow through the wire, thus constituting electric current.

The best conductors are silver, copper and gold in that order. Since copper is
the least expensive out of these materials, it is widely used in electrical and
electronic industries.
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 Insulator:

• A substance which has very few free electrons is called an Insulator of

electricity.

• If a voltage source is applied across the wire of insulator material,

practically no current flows through the wire.

• Most substances including plastics, ceramics, rubber, paper and most

liquids and gases fall in this category.

• Of course, there are many practical uses for insulators in the electrical and
electronic industries including wire coatings, safety enclosures and power-
line insulators.

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 Semiconductor:
• The third class of substances is called Semi-conductors. As their name
implies, they are neither conductors nor insulators. These substances
have crystalline structure and contain very few free electrons at room
temperature.
• Therefore, at room temperature, a semiconductor practically behaves as
an insulator. However, if suitable controlled impurity is imparted to a
semi-conductor, it is possible to provide controlled conductivity.
• Most common semi-conductors are silicon, germanium, carbon etc.
However, silicon is the principal material and is widely used in the
manufacture of electronic devices (e.g. crystal diodes, transistors etc.)
and integrated circuits.
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 Electric Current

The directed flow of free electrons (or

charge) is called electric current. The
flow of electric current can be
beautifully explained by referring to
Figure. The copper strip has a large
number of free electrons.

 When electric pressure or voltage is applied, then free electrons, being negatively
charged, will start moving towards the positive terminal around the circuit as
shown in Figure. The rate of flow of electrons is called electric current.
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The symbol for current is I.

 The strength of electric current I is the rate of flow of electrons i.e.

charge flowing per second.

 The charge Q is measured in coulombs and time t in seconds.

Therefore, the unit of electric current will be coulombs/sec or ampere.

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 Electric Potential
The ability of the charged body to do work is called electric potential. The
capacity of a charged body to do work is called its electric potential.

The work done is measured in joules and charge in coulombs. Therefore, the
unit of electric potential will be joules/coulomb or volt.

If W = 1 joule, Q = 1 coulomb, then V = 1/1 = 1 volt. Hence a body is said to

have an electric potential of 1 volt if 1 joule of work is done to give it a charge of
1 coulomb.

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 Potential Difference
If two bodies have different electric potentials, a potential difference exists
between the bodies.

Consider two bodies A and B having potentials of 5 volts and 3 volts

respectively as shown in Figure (i). Each coulomb of charge on body A has an
energy of 5 joules while each coulomb of charge on body B has an energy of 3
joules. Clearly, body A is at higher potential than the body B.

If the two bodies are joined through a conductor as shown in figure (ii), then
electrons will flow from body B to body A. When the two bodies attain the same
potential, the flow of current stops. 10
 Potential Difference

Therefore, we arrive at a very important conclusion that current will flow in a

circuit if potential difference exists.

No potential difference, no current flow. It may be noted that potential

difference is sometimes called voltage.

Unit: Since the unit of electric potential is volt, one can expect that unit of
potential difference will also be volt.

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 Resistance

The opposition offered by a substance to the flow of electric current is

called its resistance. Since current is the flow of free electrons, resistance is
the opposition offered by the substance to the flow of free electrons.

The unit of electric resistance is the ohm (Ω) where one ohm is one volt per
ampere.

This opposition occurs because atoms and molecules of the substance obstruct
the flow of these electrons. Certain substances (e.g. metals such as silver,
copper, aluminium etc.) offer very little opposition to the flow of electric current
and are called conductors.

 12
Conductance

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 Factors Upon Which Resistance Depends

The resistance R of a conductor

(i) is directly proportional to its length i.e
(ii) is inversely proportional to its area of X-section i.e.
(iii) depends upon the nature of material.
(iv) depends upon temperature.
(i) From the first three points (leaving temperature for the time being), we
have,

(ii) where ρ (Greek letter ‘Rho’) is a constant and is known as resistivity or

specific resistance of the material. Its value depends upon the nature of the
material.
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 Types of Electric Current

The electric current may be classified into three main classes:

(i) steady current
(ii) varying current and
(iii) alternating current.

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 Types of Electric Current

 Steady current: When the magnitude of current does not change with time,
it is called a steady current. Figure shows the graph between steady current
and time. Note that value of current remains the same as the time changes.
The current provided by a battery is almost a steady current (d.c.).
 Varying current: When the magnitude of current changes with time, it is
called a varying current. Figure (ii) shows the graph between varying current
and time. Note that value of current varies with time.

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 Types of Electric Current

 Alternating current: An alternating current is one whose magnitude changes

continuously with time and direction changes periodically.
 Due to technical and economical reasons, we produce alternating currents
that have sine waveform (or cosine waveform) as shown in Figure (iii).
 It is called alternating current because current flows in alternate directions in
the circuit, i.e., from 0 to T/2 second (T is the time period of the wave) in one
direction and from T/2 to T second in the opposite direction.
 The current provided by an a.c. generator is alternating current that has sine
(or cosine) waveform.

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 Power
 Power is defined as the rate of doing work or transferring energy.

 When voltage is applied to a circuit, it causes current (i.e. electrons) to flow

through it. Clearly, work is being done in moving the electrons in the circuit.
This work done in moving the electrons in a unit time is called the electric
power. Thus referring to the part AB of the circuit.

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 Power

 V = P.D. across AB in volts

 I = Current in amperes
 R = Resistance of AB in Ω
 t = Time in sec. for which current flows
 The total charge that flows in t seconds is Q = I × t coulombs and by definition

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 Power
Unit of electric power:
 The basic unit of electric power is joules/sec or watt.
 The power consumed in a circuit is 1 watt if a p.d. of 1 V causes 1
A current to flow through the circuit.

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 Ohm’s Law

 The relationship between voltage (V), the current (I) and resistance (R) in a
d.c. circuit was first discovered by German scientist George Simon *Ohm.
 This relationship is called Ohm’s law and may be stated as under :
 The ratio of potential difference (V) between the ends of a conductor to
the current (I) flowing between them is constant, provided the physical
conditions (e.g. temperature etc.) do not change.
 i.e. where R is the resistance of the conductor between the two points
considered.

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 Electrical Energy

The total work done in an electric circuit is called electrical energy

or capacity for doing work.
i.e. Electrical energy = Electrical power × Time

The unit of electrical energy will depend upon the units of electric power
and time.
(i) If power is taken in watts and time in seconds, then the unit of
electrical energy will be watt-sec.
i.e. Energy in watt-sec. = Power in watts × Time in sec.
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 Electrical Energy

 If power is expressed in watts and time in hours, then unit of electrical

energy will be watt-hour
i.e. Energy in watt-hours = Power in watts × Time in hours
 If power is expressed in kilowatts and time in hours, then unit of
electrical energy will be kilowatt-hour (kWh)
i.e. Energy in kWh = Power in kW × Time in hours
 It may be pointed out here that in practice, electrical energy is measured
in kilowatt-hours (kWh).

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 Electrical Energy

The total work done in an electric circuit is called electrical energy

or capacity for doing work.
i.e. Electrical energy = Electrical power × Time

The unit of electrical energy will depend upon the units of electric power
and time.
(i) If power is taken in watts and time in seconds, then the unit of
electrical energy will be watt-sec.
i.e. Energy in watt-sec. = Power in watts × Time in sec.
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 Electrical Energy

 The electricity bills are made on the basis of total electrical

energy consumed by the consumer.
 The unit for charge of electricity is 1 kWh.
 One kWh is also called Board of Trade (B.O.T.) unit or
simply unit.
 Thus when we say that a consumer has consumed 100
units of electricity, it means that electrical energy
consumption is 100 kWh.
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 Use of Power and Energy Formulas
 While using these formulas, the following points may be kept in mind:

The above formulas apply only to resistors and to devices (e.g. electric bulb, heater,
electric kettle etc) where all electrical energy consumed is converted into heat.

These formulas apply to any type of load including the one mentioned in point (i).

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 D.C. Circuit

 The closed path followed by direct current (d.c.) is called a d.c. circuit.

 A d.c. circuit essentially consists of a source

of d.c. power (e.g. battery, d.c. generator etc.),
the conductors used to carry current and the
load.
 D.C. circuits can be classified as :
(i) Series circuits
(ii) Parallel circuits
(iii) Series-parallel circuits.

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 D.C. Series Circuit

 The d.c. circuit in which resistances are connected end to end so that
there is only one path for current to flow is called a d.c. series circuit.

 Consider three resistances R1, R2 and R3 ohms connected in series

across a battery of V volts as shown in Figure.

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 D.C. Series Circuit

 Obviously, there is only one path for current I i.e. current is same
throughout the circuit.
 By Ohm’s law, voltage across the various resistances is

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 D.C. Series Circuit

 But V/I is the total resistance RS between points A and B. Note that RS is
called the total or equivalent resistance of the three resistances.

 Hence, when a number of resistances are

connected in series, the total resistance is
equal to the sum of the individual resistances.

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 D.C. Series Circuit

The main characteristics of a series circuit are :

(i) The current in each resistor is the same.
(ii) The total resistance in the circuit is equal to the sum of individual resistances.
(iii) The total power dissipated in the circuit is equal to the sum of powers
dissipated in individual resistances.

Thus total power dissipated in a series circuit is equal to the sum of powers dissipated
in individual resistances.
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 D.C. Parallel Circuit

 When one end of each resistance is joined to a common point and the other end
of each resistance is joined to another common point, so that there are as many
paths for current flow as the number of resistances, it is called a parallel
circuit.

 Consider three resistances R1, R2 and R3 ohms connected in parallel across a

battery of V volts as shown in Figure.
 The total current I divides into three parts : I1 flowing through R1, I2 flowing
through R2 and I3 flowing through R3.
 Obviously, the voltage across each resistance is the same (i.e. V volts in this
case ) and there are as many current paths as the number of resistances.

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 D.C. Parallel Circuit

 By Ohm’s law, current through each resistance is

But V/I is equivalent resistance RP of the parallel resistances. so that I/V = 1/RP.
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 D.C. Parallel Circuit

 But V/I is equivalent resistance RP of the parallel resistances. so that I/V =

1/RP.

 Hence when a number of resistances are

connected in parallel, the reciprocal of
total resistance is equal to the sum of
the reciprocals of the individual
resistances.

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 Main Features of Parallel Circuits
The following are the characteristics of a parallel circuit :
 The voltage across each resistor is the same.
 The current through any resistor is inversely proportional to its
resistance.
 The total current in the circuit is equal to the sum of currents in its
parallel branches.
 The reciprocal of the total resistance is equal to the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual resistances. As the number of parallel
branches is increased, the total resistance of the circuit is decreased.
 The total resistance of the circuit is always less than the smallest of the
resistances. 35
 Main Features of Parallel Circuits

 If n resistors, each of resistance R, are connected in parallel, then total

resistance RP = R/n.
 The conductances are additive.
 The total power dissipated in the circuit is equal to the sum of powers
dissipated in the individual resistances.

 Like a series circuit, the total power dissipated in a parallel circuit is equal
to the sum of powers dissipated in the individual resistances. 36