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To The Student
With the hope that this work will stimulate
an interest in Structural Analysis
and provide an acceptable guide to its understanding.
your answer specific feedback
®
C o nte nts
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Classification of Structures 4 4.1 Internal Loadings at a Specified Point 139
1.3 Loads 9 4.2 Shear and Moment Functions 145
1.4 Structural Design 28 4.3 Shear and Moment Diagrams for a
Problems 29 Beam 150
Chapter Review 33 4.4 Shear and Moment Diagrams for a
Frame 160
Analysis of Statically 4.5 Moment Diagrams Constructed by the
2 Determinate Structures35
Method of Superposition 165
Preliminary Problems 172
2.1 Idealized Structure 35 Fundamental Problems 174
2.2 Load Path 48 Problems 178
2.3 Principle of Superposition 49 Project Problems 188
2.4 Equations of Equilibrium 50 Chapter Review 189
2.5 Determinacy and Stability 51
2.6 Application of the Equations
of Equilibrium 58
Fundamental Problems 68
Problems 70
Project Problem 79
5 Cables and Arches191
6.1 Influence Lines 221 8.1 External Work and Strain Energy 323
6.2 Influence Lines for Beams 229 8.2 Principle of Work and Energy 327
6.3 Qualitative Influence Lines 232 8.3 Principle of Virtual Work 328
6.4 Influence Lines for Floor Girders 240 8.4 Method of Virtual Work: Trusses 330
6.5 Influence Lines for Trusses 244 8.5 Castigliano’s Theorem 337
6.6 Maximum Influence at a Point due to a 8.6 Castigliano’s Theorem for Trusses 338
Series of Concentrated Loads 248 8.7 Method of Virtual Work: Beams
6.7 Absolute Maximum Shear and and Frames 344
Moment 258 8.8 Virtual Strain Energy Caused by Axial Load,
Fundamental Problems 263 Shear, Torsion, and Temperature 355
Problems 264 8.9 Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and
Project Problems 275 Frames 361
Chapter Review 276 Fundamental Problems 367
Problems 369
Chapter Review 376
7 Deflections279
@ Carlo Allegri/GettyImages
CHAPTER Objectives
■■ To introduce the basic types of structures.
■■ To provide a brief explanation of the various types of loads that
must be considered for an appropriate analysis and design.
1.1 Introduction
In this book we will present many of the different ways engineers model
and then determine the loadings and deflections of various types of
structures. Important examples related to civil engineering include
buildings, bridges, and towers; and in other branches of engineering,
ship and aircraft frames, mechanical systems, and electrical supporting
structures are important.
Throughout this book, a structure refers to any system of connected
parts used to support a load. When designing a structure to serve a
specified function for public use, the engineer must account for its safety,
esthetics, and serviceability, while taking into consideration economic
and environmental constraints. For any project this often requires
several independent studies, using different structural forms, before a
final judgment can be made as to which form is most appropriate. This
design process is both creative and technical and requires a fundamental
knowledge of material properties and the laws of mechanics which
govern material response. Once a preliminary design of a structure is
3
4 C h a p t e r 1 T y p e s of Structures and Loads
proposed, the structure must then be analyzed to ensure that it has its
required stiffness, strength, and stability. To do this, an idealization must
be made as to how all members are supported and connected together.
1 Then the loadings are determined from codes and local specifications.
Finally, the forces in the members and their displacements are found
using the theory of structural analysis, which is the subject matter of this
book.
1.2 Classification of Structures
It is important for a structural engineer to recognize the various types of
elements composing a structure and to be able to classify structures as
to their form and function. We will introduce some of these aspects now
and discuss others throughout the book.
rod bar
angle channel
tie rod
Tie rods are used for cross bracing to stiffen the roof of
a building to resist wind loads. Fig. 1–1
1.2 Classification of Structures 5
wide-flange beam
web
cantilevered beam
continuous beam flange
Trusses. When the span of a structure is required to be long and its depth
is not an important criterion for design, a truss may be selected. Trusses
consist of slender elements, usually arranged as a series of triangular
elements. Planar trusses are composed of members that lie in the same
plane and are frequently used for bridge and roof support, whereas space
trusses have members extending in three dimensions and are suitable for
derricks and towers.
A truss supports its load through the tension and compression of its
members, and as a result a truss uses less material than a solid beam
to support a given load, Fig. 1–5. In general it is economically feasible
to use a truss to cover spans ranging from 30 ft (9 m) to 400 ft (122 m),
although trusses have been used on occasion for spans of greater
lengths.
1.2 Classification of Structures 7
Fig. 1–5
Cables and Arches. Two other forms of structures used to span long
distances are the cable and the arch. Cables are usually flexible and carry
their loads in tension, Fig. 1–6a. They are commonly used to support
bridges and building roofs. When used for these purposes, the cable has
an advantage over the beam and the truss, especially for spans that are
greater than 150 ft (46 m). Because they are always in tension, cables will
not become unstable and suddenly collapse or buckle, as may happen
with beams or trusses. The use of cables, on the other hand, is limited
only by their sag, weight, and methods of anchorage.
The arch achieves its strength in compression, since it has a reverse
curvature to that of the cable. The arch must be rigid, however, in order
to maintain its shape. Arches are frequently used in bridge structures,
Fig. 1–6b, dome roofs, and for openings in masonry walls.
Cables support their loads in tension. Arches support their loads in compression.
(a) (b)
Fig. 1–6
8 C h a p t e r 1 T y p e s of Structures and Loads
rigid pinned
1
Frame members are subjected to
internal axial, shear, and moment loadings.
rigid pinned
Fig. 1–7
Frames. Frames are often used in buildings and are composed of beams
and columns that are either pin or fixed connected, Fig. 1–7. Like trusses,
frames extend in two or three dimensions.
Surface Structures. A surface structure is made of a material having a
very small thickness compared to its other dimensions. Sometimes this
material is very flexible and can take the form of a tent or air-inflated
structure. In either case the material acts as a membrane that is subjected
to pure tension.
Surface structures may also be made of rigid material such as reinforced
Typical steel framework.
concrete. As such they may be shaped as folded plates, cylinders, or
hyperbolic paraboloids, and in any of these forms, they are referred to as
thin plates or shells. In general, these types of structures are difficult to
analyze, due to the three-dimensional geometry of their surface. Such an
analysis is beyond the scope of this book and is instead covered in books
devoted entirely to this subject.
© Bob Krist/Documentary
Value/Corbis/Alamy
1.3 Loads
Once the dimensional requirements for a structure have been defined,
it becomes necessary to determine the loads the structure must support. 1
Often, it is the anticipation of the various loads that will be imposed on
the structure that provides the basic type of structure that will be chosen
for design. For example, high-rise structures must endure large lateral
loadings caused by wind, and so shear walls and tubular frame systems
are selected, whereas buildings located in areas prone to earthquakes
must be designed having ductile frames and connections.
The actual design begins with those elements that are subjected to the
primary loads the structure is intended to carry, and proceeds in sequence
to the various supporting members until the foundation is reached. Thus,
a building floor slab would be designed first, followed by the supporting
beams, columns, and last, the foundation footings. In order to design a
structure, it is therefore necessary to first specify the loads that act on it.
The design loading for a structure is often specified in codes. In general,
the structural engineer works with two types of codes. General building
codes specify the requirements of governmental bodies or organizations
for minimum design loads, and design codes provide detailed technical
standards that are used to establish the requirements for the actual
structural design. Table 1.1 lists some of the important codes used in
practice. It should be realized, however, that codes provide only a general
guide for design. The ultimate responsibility for the design lies with the
structural engineer.
Since a structure is generally subjected to several types of loads, a brief
discussion of these loadings will now be presented to illustrate how one
must consider their effects in practice.
IV
concludendo:
. . . . . scappato d'Inghilterra
Più che di passo il re non mi contrista;
Di già gli è sulla lista
De' grandi ch'hanno a diventar piccini,
Che privati del Regno,
Se e' s'hanno a far le spese con l'ingegno,
Saranno spelacchiati cittadini,
E con tutta la loro autorità
Avran di grazia andar per Podestà; [44]
***
Ad un vecchio di salcio arido stelo
Appoggiatosi Egon, fissi tenea
Gli occhi alle stelle, e nel suo cor dicea:
Oh com'è bello il tremul'or del cielo!
V
Nel secolo successivo, rimanendo fermo lo scopo antiautoritario, la
satira piglia forme sempre più varie e moltiplici; ora grave e
allegorica negli episodi dei poemi, ora svelta e leggiadra nelle
canzonette e negli epigrammi, ora sdegnosa ed ironica nei sonetti e
nei Capitoli. Essa comincia a sentire la virtù dell'influenza popolare,
la quale, al contrario dell'influenza accademica, è appunto varia e
multiforme. Ma codesta virtù non dà subito frutti generali e adeguati.
«Nella prima metà di questo secolo (osserva uno scrittore moderno)
[48] agitata da tante guerre e mutazioni politiche alle quali i popoli
soggiacquero senza prendervi parte, mal potevano trovar luogo le
lettere; giacchè mancavano per dar loro vita e vigore, gli agi della
pace e le passioni dei tempi burrascosi.» Ma se dopo la pace di
Aquisgrana i nuovi dominatori, vista la necessità di sottrarre il nostro
paese ai pregiudizi, agli errori, alle ingiuste disuguaglianze introdotte
dal Governo spagnolo, poterono efficacemente favorire gli studi della
giurisprudenza e della pubblica economia, e riformare gli stati, non
fu certamente senza influenza della scuola satirica, specialmente in
Toscana. «Può la satira (dice il Giusti) quando ha cessato di essere
uno specchio delle cose che sono, rimanere a documento di quelle
che furono, e in certo modo supplire alla storia.» [49]
Abbiamo veduto nei Capitoli la satira del Forteguerri; vediamo ora
brevemente quella del Gigli, del Carli e del Crudeli, che furono,
insieme al nostro, gl'immediati precursori del Gozzi, del Baretti e del
Parini.
Girolamo Gigli (1660-1722) ha con la schietta favella tutta l'ingenua
franchezza, gl'impeti passionati, le bizzarre fantasìe del suo popolo,
più quello che non poteva mancare a un buon senese di quel tempo,
un po' d'odio contro Firenze. I suoi scritti satirici sono molti e vari, in
prosa e in versi, commedie e racconti, storie e aneddoti, ritratti e
caricature. Notabile per bizzarria fra tutti questi scritti è il
Gazzettino [50], e nel Gazzettino la diciottesima Spedizione,
contenente La finta conversione di Madama Adelaide, scrittura che
compendia tutto il veleno della satira del Gigli. Laico e ricco, egli non
ha i ritegni del Forteguerri a pubblicare i suoi scritti, e l'ingegno
seconda mirabilmente la libertà dell'animo. Egli si ricongiunge per
molte parti al Tassoni, da cui ha pure imprestato un nome, quello del
Conte di Culagna per appiccicarlo al Conte Fede [51], gran
bacchettone e amministratore di Cosimo III in Roma. Anche il Gigli
ha il suo aristotelismo da combattere ed è la Crusca; il suo
spagnolismo ed è la Compagnìa. E tutto ei fa servire da arnese di
guerra, anche le opere filologiche, come il Vocabolario Cateriniano,
contro di cui tanto si accesero le ire cruschevoli del Granduca da
ordinarne un bel falò. [52]
L'ipocrisìa era per il Gigli la pestilenzia toscana, [53] e in Toscana era
quello il secol d'oro della ipocrisìa; contro di essa dunque bisognava
volgere tutte le ire. Nè con questo egli circoscrive troppo il campo
delle sue pugne, perchè tutti gli altri vizi non sono per lui che una
brutta famiglia di codesto mostro.
VII
non avrebbe mai pensato il povero Poeta che proprio a lui si sarebbe
cangiata in istoria un'altra sua favola, quella della Corte del Re
Leone, dove l'orso,
VIII
Nei veri artisti l'influenza popolare spesso più che formale ed esterna
è intima e sostanziale, resultante cioè da quel complesso di
sentimenti e d'immagini, di costumanze e di tradizioni che disegnano
la fisonomia d'un paese. Ho già accennato che la parte formale di
codesta influenza fu sentita massimamente dal Gigli e dal Carli, in
minor grado dal Crudeli, e men che tutti dal Forteguerri. La pratica
degli affari e la lunga dimora in Roma han dato allo stile del prelato
pistoiese maggior severità e comprensione, e alla sua lingua una più
larga italianità. A conferma di ciò sarebbe superfluo ripetere citazioni
già fatte dei Capitoli; ma perchè si potrebbe obiettare che in codesta
satira fiera e sdegnosa anche lo stile è naturalmente grave e
concitato, ricorriamo pure al Poema, e particolarmente a quel luogo
del Canto XII dove Ciapino e Lisa improvvisano alcune ottave
villesche. Leggiamo soltanto le prime due:
Salute e felicità