Barcode

A barcode or bar code is a method of representing data in a visual, machine-readable form. Initially,
barcodes represented data by varying the widths, spacings and sizes of parallel lines. These
barcodes, now commonly referred to as linear or one-dimensional (1D), can be scanned by special
optical scanners, called barcode readers, of which there are several types.

A UPC-A barcode

Later, two-dimensional (2D) variants were developed, using rectangles, dots, hexagons and other
patterns, called 2D barcodes or matrix codes, although they do not use bars as such. Both can be
read using purpose-built 2D optical scanners, which exist in a few different forms. Matrix codes can
also be read by a digital camera connected to a microcomputer running software that takes a
photographic image of the barcode and analyzes the image to deconstruct and decode the code. A
mobile device with a built-in camera, such as a smartphone, can function as the latter type of
barcode reader using specialized application software and is suitable for both 1D and 2D codes.

Barcoded rolling stock in the UK, 1962

The barcode was invented by Norman Joseph Woodland and Bernard Silver and patented in the US
in 1952.[1] The invention was based on Morse code[2] that was extended to thin and thick bars.
However, it took over twenty years before this invention became commercially successful. UK
magazine Modern Railways December 1962 pages 387–389 record how British Railways had
already perfected a barcode-reading system capable of correctly reading rolling stock travelling at
100 mph (160 km/h) with no mistakes. An early use of one type of barcode in an industrial context
was sponsored by the Association of American Railroads in the late 1960s. Developed by General
Telephone and Electronics (GTE) and called KarTrak ACI (Automatic Car Identification), this scheme
involved placing colored stripes in various combinations on steel plates which were affixed to the
sides of railroad rolling stock. Two plates were used per car, one on each side, with the arrangement
of the colored stripes encoding information such as ownership, type of equipment, and
identification number.[3] The plates were read by a trackside scanner located, for instance, at the
entrance to a classification yard, while the car was moving past.[4] The project was abandoned after
about ten years because the system proved unreliable after long-term use.[3]

Barcodes became commercially successful when they were used to automate supermarket
checkout systems, a task for which they have become almost universal. The Uniform Grocery
Product Code Council had chosen, in 1973, the barcode design developed by George Laurer. Laurer's
barcode, with vertical bars, printed better than the circular barcode developed by Woodland and
Silver.[5] Their use has spread to many other tasks that are generically referred to as automatic
identification and data capture (AIDC). The first successful system using barcodes was in the UK
supermarket group Sainsbury's in 1972 using shelf-mounted barcodes which were developed by
Plessey.[6][7] In June 1974, Marsh supermarket in Troy, Ohio used a scanner made by Photographic
Sciences Corporation to scan the Universal Product Code (UPC) barcode on a pack of Wrigley's
chewing gum.[8][5] QR codes, a specific type of 2D barcode, rose in popularity in the second decade
of the 2000s due to the growth in smartphone ownership.[9]

Other systems have made inroads in the AIDC market, but the simplicity, universality and low cost of
barcodes has limited the role of these other systems, particularly before technologies such as radio-
frequency identification (RFID) became available after 2023.

History

In 1948, Bernard Silver, a graduate student at Drexel Institute of Technology in Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania, US overheard the president of the local food chain, Food Fair, asking one of the deans
to research a system to automatically read product information during checkout.[10] Silver told his
friend Norman Joseph Woodland about the request, and they started working on a variety of
systems. Their first working system used ultraviolet ink, but the ink faded too easily and was
expensive.[11]

Convinced that the system was workable with further development, Woodland left Drexel, moved
into his father's apartment in Florida, and continued working on the system. His next inspiration
came from Morse code, and he formed his first barcode from sand on the beach. "I just extended
the dots and dashes downwards and made narrow lines and wide lines out of them."[11] To read
them, he adapted technology from optical soundtracks in movies, using a 500-watt incandescent
light bulb shining through the paper onto an RCA935 photomultiplier tube (from a movie projector)
on the far side. He later decided that the system would work better if it were printed as a circle
instead of a line, allowing it to be scanned in any direction.

On 20 October 1949 Woodland and Silver filed a patent application for "Classifying Apparatus and
Method", in which they described both the linear and bull's eye printing patterns, as well as the
mechanical and electronic systems needed to read the code. The patent was issued on 7 October
1952 as US Patent 2,612,994.[1] In 1951, Woodland moved to IBM and continually tried to interest
IBM in developing the system. The company eventually commissioned a report on the idea, which
concluded that it was both feasible and interesting, but that processing the resulting information
would require equipment that was some time off in the future.

IBM offered to buy the patent, but the offer was not accepted. Philco purchased the patent in 1962
and then sold it to RCA sometime later.[11]

Collins at Sylvania

During his time as an undergraduate, David Jarrett Collins worked at the Pennsylvania Railroad and
became aware of the need to automatically identify railroad cars. Immediately after receiving his
master's degree from MIT in 1959, he started work at GTE Sylvania and began addressing the
problem. He developed a system called KarTrak using blue, white and red reflective stripes attached
to the side of the cars, encoding a four-digit company identifier and a six-digit car number.[11] Light
reflected off the colored stripes was read by photomultiplier vacuum tubes.[12]

The Boston and Maine Railroad tested the KarTrak system on their gravel cars in 1961. The tests
continued until 1967, when the Association of American Railroads (AAR) selected it as a standard,
automatic car identification, across the entire North American fleet. The installations began on 10
October 1967. However, the economic downturn and rash of bankruptcies in the industry in the early
1970s greatly slowed the rollout, and it was not until 1974 that 95% of the fleet was labeled. To add
to its woes, the system was found to be easily fooled by dirt in certain applications, which greatly
affected accuracy. The AAR abandoned the system in the late 1970s, and it was not until the mid-
1980s that they introduced a similar system, this time based on radio tags.[13]

The railway project had failed, but a toll bridge in New Jersey requested a similar system so that it
could quickly scan for cars that had purchased a monthly pass. Then the US Post Office requested a
system to track trucks entering and leaving their facilities. These applications required special
retroreflector labels. Finally, Kal Kan asked the Sylvania team for a simpler (and cheaper) version
which they could put on cases of pet food for inventory control.

Computer Identics Corporation

In 1967, with the railway system maturing, Collins went to management looking for funding for a
project to develop a black-and-white version of the code for other industries. They declined, saying
that the railway project was large enough, and they saw no need to branch out so quickly.

Collins then quit Sylvania and formed the Computer Identics Corporation.[11] As its first innovations,
Computer Identics moved from using incandescent light bulbs in its systems, replacing them with
helium–neon lasers, and incorporated a mirror as well, making it capable of locating a barcode up to
a meter (3 feet) in front of the scanner. This made the entire process much simpler and more
reliable, and typically enabled these devices to deal with damaged labels, as well, by recognizing
and reading the intact portions.

Computer Identics Corporation installed one of its first two scanning systems in the spring of 1969
at a General Motors (Buick) factory in Flint, Michigan.[11] The system was used to identify a dozen
types of transmissions moving on an overhead conveyor from production to shipping. The other
scanning system was installed at General Trading Company's distribution center in Carlstadt, New
Jersey to direct shipments to the proper loading bay.

Universal Product Code

In 1966 the National Association of Food Chains (NAFC) held a meeting on the idea of automated
checkout systems. RCA, which had purchased the rights to the original Woodland patent, attended
the meeting and initiated an internal project to develop a system based on the bullseye code. The
Kroger grocery chain volunteered to test it.

In the mid-1970s the NAFC established the Ad-Hoc Committee for U.S. Supermarkets on a Uniform
Grocery-Product Code to set guidelines for barcode development. In addition, it created a symbol-
selection subcommittee to help standardize the approach. In cooperation with consulting firm,
McKinsey & Co., they developed a standardized 11-digit code for identifying products. The
committee then sent out a contract tender to develop a barcode system to print and read the code.
The request went to Singer, National Cash Register (NCR), Litton Industries, RCA, Pitney-Bowes, IBM
and many others.[14] A wide variety of barcode approaches was studied, including linear codes,
RCA's bullseye concentric circle code, starburst patterns and others.

In the spring of 1971 RCA demonstrated their bullseye code at another industry meeting. IBM
executives at the meeting noticed the crowds at the RCA booth and immediately developed their
own system. IBM marketing specialist Alec Jablonover remembered that the company still
employed Woodland, and he established a new facility in Research Triangle Park to lead
development.

In July 1972 RCA began an 18-month test in a Kroger store in Cincinnati. Barcodes were printed on
small pieces of adhesive paper, and attached by hand by store employees when they were adding
price tags. The code proved to have a serious problem; the printers would sometimes smear ink,
rendering the code unreadable in most orientations. However, a linear code, like the one being
developed by Woodland at IBM, was printed in the direction of the stripes, so extra ink would simply
make the code "taller" while remaining readable. So on 3 April 1973 the IBM UPC was selected as
the NAFC standard. IBM had designed five versions of UPC symbology for future industry
requirements: UPC A, B, C, D, and E.[15]

NCR installed a testbed system at Marsh's Supermarket in Troy, Ohio, near the factory that was
producing the equipment. On 26 June 1974, a 10-pack of Wrigley's Juicy Fruit gum was scanned,
registering the first commercial use of the UPC.[16]

In 1971 an IBM team was assembled for an intensive planning session, threshing out, 12 to 18
hours a day, how the technology would be deployed and operate cohesively across the system, and
scheduling a roll-out plan. By 1973, the team were meeting with grocery manufacturers to introduce
the symbol that would need to be printed on the packaging or labels of all of their products. There
were no cost savings for a grocery to use it, unless at least 70% of the grocery's products had the
barcode printed on the product by the manufacturer. IBM projected that 75% would be needed in
1975.

Economic studies conducted for the grocery industry committee projected over $40 million in
savings to the industry from scanning by the mid-1970s. Those numbers were not achieved in that
time-frame and some predicted the demise of barcode scanning. The usefulness of the barcode
required the adoption of expensive scanners by a critical mass of retailers while manufacturers
simultaneously adopted barcode labels. Neither wanted to move first and results were not
promising for the first couple of years, with Business Week proclaiming "The Supermarket Scanner
That Failed" in a 1976 article.[16][17]

Sims Supermarkets were the first location in Australia to use barcodes, starting in 1979.[18]

Barcode system

A barcode system is a network of hardware and software, consisting primarily of mobile computers,
printers, handheld scanners, infrastructure, and supporting software. Barcode systems are used to
automate data collection where hand recording is neither timely nor cost effective. Despite often
being provided by the same company, Barcoding systems are not radio-frequency identification
(RFID) systems. Many companies use both technologies as part of larger resource management
systems.

A typical barcode system consist of some infrastructure, either wired or wireless that connects
some number of mobile computers, handheld scanners, and printers to one or many databases that
store and analyze the data collected by the system. At some level there must be some software to
manage the system. The software may be as simple as code that manages the connection between
the hardware and the database or as complex as an ERP, MRP, or some other inventory
management software.

Hardware

A wide range of hardware is manufactured for use in barcode systems by such manufacturers as
Datalogic, Intermec, HHP (Hand Held Products), Microscan Systems, Unitech, Metrologic, PSC, and
PANMOBIL, with the best known brand of handheld scanners and mobile computers being produced
by Symbol, a division of Motorola.

Software

Some ERP, MRP, and other inventory management software have built in support for barcode
reading. Alternatively, custom interfaces can be created using a language such as C++, C#, Java,
Visual Basic.NET, and many others. In addition, software development kits are produced to aid the
process.
Industrial adoption

In 1981 the United States Department of Defense adopted the use of Code 39 for marking all
products sold to the United States military. This system, Logistics Applications of Automated
Marking and Reading Symbols (LOGMARS), is still used by DoD and is widely viewed as the catalyst
for widespread adoption of barcoding in industrial uses.[19]

Use

Snack vendor on the Shinkansen train

scans a barcode.

EAN-13 ISBN barcode

Barcode on a patient identification

wristband
 Barcoded parcel

Barcodes are widely used around the world in many contexts. In stores, UPC barcodes are pre-
printed on most items other than fresh produce from a grocery store. This speeds up processing at
check-outs and helps track items and also reduces instances of shoplifting involving price tag
swapping, although shoplifters can now print their own barcodes.[20] Barcodes that encode a book's
ISBN are also widely pre-printed on books, journals and other printed materials. In addition, retail
chain membership cards use barcodes to identify customers, allowing for customized marketing
and greater understanding of individual consumer shopping patterns. At the point of sale, shoppers
can get product discounts or special marketing offers through the address or e-mail address
provided at registration.

Barcodes are widely used in healthcare and hospital settings, ranging from patient identification (to
access patient data, including medical history, drug allergies, etc.) to creating SOAP notes[21] with
barcodes to medication management. They are also used to facilitate the separation and indexing
of documents that have been imaged in batch scanning applications, track the organization of
species in biology,[22] and integrate with in-motion checkweighers to identify the item being weighed
in a conveyor line for data collection.

They can also be used to keep track of objects and people; they are used to keep track of rental
cars, airline luggage, nuclear waste, express mail, and parcels. Barcoded tickets (which may be
printed by the customer on their home printer, or stored on their mobile device) allow the holder to
enter sports arenas, cinemas, theatres, fairgrounds, and transportation, and are used to record the
arrival and departure of vehicles from rental facilities etc. This can allow proprietors to identify
duplicate or fraudulent tickets more easily. Barcodes are widely used in shop floor control
applications software where employees can scan work orders and track the time spent on a job.

Barcodes are also used in some kinds of non-contact 1D and 2D position sensors. A series of
barcodes are used in some kinds of absolute 1D linear encoder. The barcodes are packed close
enough together that the reader always has one or two barcodes in its field of view. As a kind of
fiducial marker, the relative position of the barcode in the field of view of the reader gives
incremental precise positioning, in some cases with sub-pixel resolution. The data decoded from
the barcode gives the absolute coarse position. An "address carpet", used in digital paper, such as
Howell's binary pattern and the Anoto dot pattern, is a 2D barcode designed so that a reader, even
though only a tiny portion of the complete carpet is in the field of view of the reader, can find its
absolute X, Y position and rotation in the carpet.[23][24]

Matrix codes can embed a hyperlink to a web page. A mobile device with a built-in camera might be
used to read the pattern and browse the linked website, which can help a shopper find the best price
for an item in the vicinity. Since 2005, airlines use an IATA-standard 2D barcode on boarding passes
(Bar Coded Boarding Pass (BCBP)), and since 2008 2D barcodes sent to mobile phones enable
electronic boarding passes.[25]

Some applications for barcodes have fallen out of use. In the 1970s and 1980s, software source
code was occasionally encoded in a barcode and printed on paper (Cauzin Softstrip and
Paperbyte[26] are barcode symbologies specifically designed for this application), and the 1991
Barcode Battler computer game system used any standard barcode to generate combat statistics.

Artists have used barcodes in art, such as Scott Blake's Barcode Jesus, as part of the post-
modernism movement.

Symbologies

The mapping between messages and barcodes is called a symbology. The specification of a
symbology includes the encoding of the message into bars and spaces, any required start and stop
markers, the size of the quiet zone required to be before and after the barcode, and the computation
of a checksum.

Linear symbologies can be classified mainly by two properties:

Continuous vs. discrete

Characters in discrete symbologies are composed of n bars and n − 1 spaces. There is an

additional space between characters, but it does not convey information, and may have any width
as long as it is not confused with the end of the code.

Characters in continuous symbologies are composed of n bars and n spaces, and usually abut,
with one character ending with a space and the next beginning with a bar, or vice versa. A special
end pattern that has bars on both ends is required to end the code.

Two-width vs. many-width

A two-width, also called a binary bar code, contains bars and spaces of two widths, "wide" and
"narrow". The precise width of the wide bars and spaces is not critical; typically, it is permitted to
be anywhere between 2 and 3 times the width of the narrow equivalents.
 Some other symbologies use bars of two different heights (POSTNET), or the presence or
absence of bars (CPC Binary Barcode). These are normally also considered binary bar codes.

Bars and spaces in many-width symbologies are all multiples of a basic width called the module;
most such codes use four widths of 1, 2, 3 and 4 modules.

Some symbologies use interleaving. The first character is encoded using black bars of varying
width. The second character is then encoded by varying the width of the white spaces between
these bars. Thus, characters are encoded in pairs over the same section of the barcode. Interleaved
2 of 5 is an example of this.

Stacked symbologies repeat a given linear symbology vertically.

The most common among the many 2D symbologies are matrix codes, which feature square or dot-
shaped modules arranged on a grid pattern. 2D symbologies also come in circular and other
patterns and may employ steganography, hiding modules within an image (for example,
DataGlyphs).

Linear symbologies are optimized for laser scanners, which sweep a light beam across the barcode
in a straight line, reading a slice of the barcode light-dark patterns. Scanning at an angle makes the
modules appear wider, but does not change the width ratios. Stacked symbologies are also
optimized for laser scanning, with the laser making multiple passes across the barcode.

In the 1990s development of charge-coupled device (CCD) imagers to read barcodes was pioneered
by Welch Allyn. Imaging does not require moving parts, as a laser scanner does. In 2007, linear
imaging had begun to supplant laser scanning as the preferred scan engine for its performance and
durability.

2D symbologies cannot be read by a laser, as there is typically no sweep pattern that can
encompass the entire symbol. They must be scanned by an image-based scanner employing a CCD
or other digital camera sensor technology.
Barcode readers

GTIN barcodes on Coca-Cola bottles.

The images at right show how the
laser of barcode readers "see" the
images behind a red filter.

The earliest, and still the cheapest, barcode scanners are built from a fixed light and a single
photosensor that is manually moved across the barcode. Barcode scanners can be classified into
three categories based on their connection to the computer. The older type is the RS-232 barcode
scanner. This type requires special programming for transferring the input data to the application
program. Keyboard interface scanners connect to a computer using a PS/2 or AT keyboard–
compatible adaptor cable (a "keyboard wedge"). The barcode's data is sent to the computer as if it
had been typed on the keyboard.

Like the keyboard interface scanner, USB scanners do not need custom code for transferring input
data to the application program. On PCs running Windows the human interface device emulates the
data merging action of a hardware "keyboard wedge", and the scanner automatically behaves like an
additional keyboard.

Most modern smartphones are able to decode barcode using their built-in camera. Google's mobile
Android operating system can use their own Google Lens application to scan QR codes, or third-
party apps like Barcode Scanner to read both one-dimensional barcodes and QR codes. Google's
Pixel devices can natively read QR codes inside the default Pixel Camera app. Nokia's Symbian
operating system featured a barcode scanner,[27] while mbarcode[28] is a QR code reader for the
Maemo operating system. In Apple iOS 11, the native camera app can decode QR codes and can
link to URLs, join wireless networks, or perform other operations depending on the QR Code
contents.[29] Other paid and free apps are available with scanning capabilities for other symbologies
or for earlier iOS versions.[30] With BlackBerry devices, the App World application can natively scan
barcodes and load any recognized Web URLs on the device's Web browser. Windows Phone 7.5 is
able to scan barcodes through the Bing search app. However, these devices are not designed
specifically for the capturing of barcodes. As a result, they do not decode nearly as quickly or
accurately as a dedicated barcode scanner or portable data terminal.

Quality control and verification

It is common for producers and users of bar codes to have a quality management system which
includes verification and validation of bar codes.[31] Barcode verification examines scanability and
the quality of the barcode in comparison to industry standards and specifications.[32] Barcode
verifiers are primarily used by businesses that print and use barcodes. Any trading partner in the
supply chain can test barcode quality. It is important to verify a barcode to ensure that any reader in
the supply chain can successfully interpret a barcode with a low error rate. Retailers levy large
penalties for non-compliant barcodes. These chargebacks can reduce a manufacturer's revenue by
2% to 10%.[33]

A barcode verifier works the way a reader does, but instead of simply decoding a barcode, a verifier
performs a series of tests. For linear barcodes these tests are:

Edge contrast (EC)[34]

The difference between the space reflectance (Rs) and adjoining bar reflectance (Rb). EC=Rs-
Rb

Minimum bar reflectance (Rb)[34]

The smallest reflectance value in a bar.

Minimum space reflectance (Rs)[34]

The smallest reflectance value in a space.

Symbol contrast (SC)[34]

Symbol contrast is the difference in reflectance values of the lightest space (including the
quiet zone) and the darkest bar of the symbol. The greater the difference, the higher the
grade. The parameter is graded as either A, B, C, D, or F. SC=Rmax-Rmin

Minimum edge contrast (ECmin)[34]

The difference between the space reflectance (Rs) and adjoining bar reflectance (Rb). EC=Rs-
Rb

Modulation (MOD)[34]
The parameter is graded either A, B, C, D, or F. This grade is based on the relationship
between minimum edge contrast (ECmin) and symbol contrast (SC). MOD=ECmin/SC The
greater the difference between minimum edge contrast and symbol contrast, the lower the
grade. Scanners and verifiers perceive the narrower bars and spaces to have less intensity
 than wider bars and spaces; the comparison of the lesser intensity of narrow elements to the
wide elements is called modulation. This condition is affected by aperture size.

Inter-character gap[34]
In discrete barcodes, the space that disconnects the two contiguous characters. When
present, inter-character gaps are considered spaces (elements) for purposes of edge
determination and reflectance parameter grades.

Defects

Decode[34]
Extracting the information which has been encoded in a bar code symbol.

Decodability[34]
Can be graded as A, B, C, D, or F. The Decodability grade indicates the amount of error in the
width of the most deviant element in the symbol. The less deviation in the symbology, the
higher the grade. Decodability is a measure of print accuracy using the symbology reference
decode algorithm.

2D matrix symbols look at the parameters:

Symbol contrast[34]

Modulation[34]

Decode[34]

Unused error correction

Fixed (finder) pattern damage

Grid non-uniformity

Axial non-uniformity[35]

Depending on the parameter, each ANSI test is graded from 0.0 to 4.0 (F to A), or given a pass or fail
mark. Each grade is determined by analyzing the scan reflectance profile (SRP), an analog graph of
a single scan line across the entire symbol. The lowest of the 8 grades is the scan grade, and the
overall ISO symbol grade is the average of the individual scan grades. For most applications a 2.5
(C) is the minimal acceptable symbol grade.[36]

Compared with a reader, a verifier measures a barcode's optical characteristics to international and
industry standards. The measurement must be repeatable and consistent. Doing so requires
constant conditions such as distance, illumination angle, sensor angle and verifier aperture. Based
on the verification results, the production process can be adjusted to print higher quality barcodes
that will scan down the supply chain.

Bar code validation may include evaluations after use (and abuse) testing such as sunlight,
abrasion, impact, moisture, etc.[37]

Barcode verifier standards

Barcode verifier standards are defined by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), in
ISO/IEC 15426-1 (linear) or ISO/IEC 15426-2 (2D). The current international barcode quality
specification is ISO/IEC 15416 (linear) and ISO/IEC 15415 (2D). The European Standard EN 1635
has been withdrawn and replaced by ISO/IEC 15416. The original U.S. barcode quality specification
was ANSI X3.182. (UPCs used in the US – ANSI/UCC5). As of 2011 the ISO workgroup JTC1 SC31
was developing a Direct Part Marking (DPM) quality standard: ISO/IEC TR 29158.[38]

Benefits

In point-of-sale management, barcode systems can provide detailed up-to-date information on the
business, accelerating decisions and with more confidence. For example:

Fast-selling items can be identified quickly and automatically reordered.

Slow-selling items can be identified, preventing inventory build-up.

The effects of merchandising changes can be monitored, allowing fast-moving, more profitable
items to occupy the best space.

Historical data can be used to predict seasonal fluctuations very accurately.

Items may be repriced on the shelf to reflect both sale prices and price increases.

This technology also enables the profiling of individual consumers, typically through a voluntary
registration of discount cards. While pitched as a benefit to the consumer, this practice is
considered to be potentially dangerous by privacy advocates.

Besides sales and inventory tracking, barcodes are very useful in logistics and supply chain
management.

When a manufacturer packs a box for shipment, a unique identifying number (UID) can be
assigned to the box.

A database can link the UID to relevant information about the box; such as order number, items
packed, quantity packed, destination, etc.
 The information can be transmitted through a communication system such as electronic data
interchange (EDI) so the retailer has the information about a shipment before it arrives.

Shipments that are sent to a distribution center (DC) are tracked before forwarding. When the
shipment reaches its final destination, the UID gets scanned, so the store knows the shipment's
source, contents, and cost.

Barcode scanners are relatively low cost and extremely accurate compared to key-entry, with only
about 1 substitution error in 15,000 to 36 trillion characters entered.[39] The exact error rate depends
on the type of barcode.

Types of barcodes

Linear barcodes

A first generation, "one dimensional" barcode that is made up of lines and spaces of various widths
or sizes that create specific patterns.
 Continuous
Example Symbology Bar type Uses
or discrete

Old format used in libraries and blood banks and

Codabar Discrete Two on airbills (out of date, but still widely used in
libraries)

Code 25 – Non-interleaved 2
Continuous Two Industrial
of 5

Wholesale, libraries International standard

Code 25 – Interleaved 2 of 5 Continuous Two
ISO/IEC 16390

Code 11 Discrete Two Telephones (out of date)

Italian pharmacode – use Code 39 (no

Farmacode or Code 32 Discrete Two
international standard available)

Code 39 Discrete Two Various – international standard ISO/IEC 16388

Code 93 Continuous Many Various

Code 128 Continuous Many Various – International Standard ISO/IEC 15417

CPC Binary Discrete Two

Datalogic 2 of 5 can encode digits 0–9 and was

Data Logic 2 of 5 Discrete Two
used mostly in Chinese Postal Services.

Addon code (magazines), GS1-approved – not an

EAN 2 Continuous Many own symbology – to be used only with an
EAN/UPC according to ISO/IEC 15420

Addon code (books), GS1-approved – not an own

EAN 5 Continuous Many symbology – to be used only with an EAN/UPC
according to ISO/IEC 15420

Worldwide retail, GS1-approved – International

EAN-8, EAN-13 Continuous Many
Standard ISO/IEC 15420

|| |
Facing Identification Mark Discrete Two USPS business reply mail
||
GS1-128 (formerly named Various, GS1-approved – just an application of
UCC/EAN-128), incorrectly the Code 128 (ISO/IEC 15417) using the ANS
Continuous Many
referenced as EAN 128 and MH10.8.2 AI Datastructures. It is not a separate
UCC 128 symbology.

GS1 DataBar, formerly

Reduced Space Symbology Continuous Many Various, GS1-approved
(RSS)
 IATA 2 of 5 version of Industrial 2 of 5 is used by
International Air Transport Association had fixed
IATA 2 of 5 Discrete Two
17 digits length with 16 valuable package
identification digit and 17-th check digit.

Industrial 2 of 5 can encode only digits 0–9 and

Industrial 2 of 5 Discrete Two
at this time has only historical value.

Non-retail packaging levels, GS1-approved – is

just an Interleaved 2/5 Code (ISO/IEC 16390)
ITF-14 Continuous Two
with a few additional specifications, according to
the GS1 General Specifications

Interleaved 2 of 5 barcode to encode an addon to

ITF-14 and ITF-16 barcodes. The code is used to
ITF-6 Continuous Two
encode additional data such as items quantity or
container weight

Used in Japan, similar to and compatible with

JAN Continuous Many
EAN-13 (ISO/IEC 15420)

4 bar
Japan Post barcode Discrete Japan Post
heights

Matrix 2 of 5 can encode digits 0–9 and was

Matrix 2 of 5 Discrete Two uses for warehouse sorting, photo finishing, and
airline ticket marking.

MSI Continuous Two Used for warehouse shelves and inventory

Pharmaceutical packaging (no international

Pharmacode Discrete Two
standard available)

United States Postal Service (no international

PLANET Continuous Tall/short
standard available)

Catalogs, store shelves, inventory (no

Plessey Continuous Two
international standard available)

Telepen Continuous Two Libraries (UK)

Universal Product Code Worldwide retail, GS1-approved – International

Continuous Many
(UPC-A and UPC-E) Standard ISO/IEC 15420

2D barcodes

2D barcodes consist of bars, but use both dimensions for encoding.

 Continuous
Example Symbology Bar type Uses
or discrete

Australia An Australia Post 4-state barcode as used on a business reply paid

4 bar
Post Discrete envelope and applied by automated sorting machines to other mail
heights
barcode when initially processed in fluorescent ink.[40]

Codablock is a family of stacked 1D barcodes (in some cases

Codablock Continuous Many counted as stacked 2D barcodes) which are used in health care
industry (HIBC).

Code 49 Continuous Many Various

The Code 16K (1988) is a multi-row bar code developed by Ted

Williams at Laserlight Systems (USA) in 1992. In the US and France,
the code is used in the electronics industry to identify chips and
printed circuit boards. Medical applications in the USA are well
known. Williams also developed Code 128, and the structure of 16K
Code 16K
is based on Code 128. Not coincidentally, 128 squared happened to
equal 16,384 or 16K for short. Code 16K resolved an inherent
problem with Code 49. Code 49's structure requires a large amount of
memory for encoding and decoding tables and algorithms. 16K is a
stacked symbology.[41][42]

DX film
edge Neither Tall/short Color print film
barcode

Intelligent
4 bar United States Postal Service, replaces both POSTNET and PLANET
Mail Discrete
heights symbols (formerly named OneCode)
barcode

Coloured
KarTrak ACI Discrete Used in North America on railroad rolling equipment
bars

4 bar
PostBar Discrete Canadian Post office
heights

POSTNET Discrete Tall/short United States Postal Service (no international standard available)

RM4SCC / 4 bar
Discrete Royal Mail / PostNL
KIX heights

RM 4 bar
Discrete Royal Mail
Mailmark C heights
 RM 4 bar
Discrete Royal Mail
Mailmark L heights

Spotify codes point to artists, songs, podcasts, playlists, and albums.

Spotify 23 bar The information is encoded in the height of the bars;[43] so as long as
Discrete
codes heights the bar heights are maintained, the code can be handwritten and can
vary in color.[44] Patented under EP3444755.

Matrix (2D) codes

A matrix code or simply a 2D code, is a two-dimensional way to represent information. It can

represent more data per unit area. Apart from dots various other patterns can be used.
Example Name Notes

Apple-proprietary code for launching "App Clips", a type of applet. 5 concentric rings of
App Clip Code
three colors (light, dark, middle).[45]

aruco
aruco code https://docs.opencv.org/4.x/d5/dae/tutorial_aruco_detection.html
code

A type of marker used for placing content inside augmented reality applications. Some AR
AR Code Codes can contain QR codes inside, so that AR content can be linked to.[46] See also
ARTag.

Designed by Andrew Longacre at Welch Allyn (now Honeywell Scanning and Mobility).
Aztec Code
Public domain. – International Standard: ISO/IEC 24778

A matrix designed for the study of insect behavior.[47] Encodes an 11 bit identifier and 16
bCode bits of read error detection and error correction information. Predominantly used for
marking honey bees, but can also be applied to other animals.

A 25 bit (5x5) code matrix of black and white pixels that is unique to each tag surrounded
by a white pixel border and a black pixel border. The 25-bit matrix consists of a 15-bit
BEEtag
identity code, and a 10-bit error check.[48] It is designed to be a low-cost, image-based
tracking system for the study of animal behavior and locomotion.

A 2D code with honeycomb structures suitable for mobile tagging and was developed by
BeeTagg
the Swiss company connvision AG.

A type of data tag which holds much more information than a barcode over the same area.
Bokode They were developed by a team led by Ramesh Raskar at the MIT Media Lab. The bokode
pattern is a tiled series of Data Matrix codes.

Boxing A high-capacity 2D code is used on piqlFilm by Piql AS[49]

Softstrip code was used in the 1980s to encode software, which could be transferred by
Cauzin Softstrip
special scanners from printed journals into computer hardware.

Public domain. Code 1 is currently used in the health care industry for medicine labels and
Code 1
the recycling industry to encode container content for sorting.[50]

ColorZip[51] developed colour barcodes that can be read by camera phones from TV
ColorCode
screens; mainly used in Korea.[52]

Color Construct Color Construct Code is one of the few code symbologies designed to take advantage of
Code multiple colors.[53][54]

The Cronto Visual Cryptogram (also called photoTAN) is a specialized color barcode, spun
out from research at the University of Cambridge by Igor Drokov, Steven Murdoch, and
Cronto Visual
Elena Punskaya.[55] It is used for transaction signing in e-banking; the barcode contains
Cryptogram
encrypted transaction data which is then used as a challenge to compute a transaction
authentication number using a security token.[56]
CyberCode From Sony.

d-touch readable when printed on deformable gloves and stretched and distorted[57][58]

From Palo Alto Research Center (also termed Xerox PARC).[59]

Patented.[60] DataGlyphs can be embedded into a half-tone image or

DataGlyphs
background shading pattern in a way that is almost perceptually invisible,
similar to steganography.[61][62]

From Microscan Systems, formerly RVSI Acuity CiMatrix/Siemens. Public domain.

Data Matrix Increasingly used throughout the United States. Single segment Data Matrix is also termed
Semacode. – International Standard: ISO/IEC 16022.

Datastrip Code From Datastrip, Inc.

The Digimarc Code is a unique identifier, or code, based on imperceptible patterns that can
Digimarc code be applied to marketing materials, including packaging, displays, ads in magazines,
circulars, radio and television[63]

patterned paper used in conjunction with a digital pen to create handwritten digital
digital paper documents. The printed dot pattern uniquely identifies the position coordinates on the
paper.

Dolby Digital Digital sound code for printing on cinematic film between the threading holes

Standardized as ISS DotCode Symbology Specification 4.0. Public domain. Extended 2D

DotCode replacement of Code 128 barcode. At this time is used to track individual cigarette and
pharmaceutical packages.

Dot Code A Also known as Philips Dot Code.[64] Patented in 1988.[65]

DWCode (http
s://web.archive.
org/web/20170
Introduced by GS1 US and GS1 Germany, the DWCode is a unique, imperceptible data
216045744/http
carrier that is repeated across the entire graphics design of a package[66]
s://sites.gs1us.
org/mobilesca
n/home)

EZcode Designed for decoding by cameraphones;[67] from ScanLife.[68]

Code designed to encode Chinese characters, invented in 2007 by Chinese company The
Han Xin code Article Numbering Center of China, introduced by Association for Automatic Identification
and Mobility in 2011 and published as ISO/IEC 20830:2021 in 2021.

High Capacity
HCCB was developed by Microsoft; licensed by ISAN-IA.
Color Barcode

HueCode From Robot Design Associates. Uses greyscale or colour.[69]

 From Iconlab, Inc. The standard 2D Code in South Korea. All 3 South Korean mobile
InterCode carriers put the scanner program of this code into their handsets to access mobile
internet, as a default embedded program.

JAB Code Just Another Bar Code is a colored 2D Code. Square or rectangle. License free

MaxiCode Used by United Parcel Service. Now public domain.

Designed by NextCode Corporation, specifically to work with mobile phones and mobile
services.[70] It is implementing an independent error detection technique preventing false
mCode
decoding, it uses a variable-size error correction polynomial, which depends on the exact
size of the code.[71]

Messenger Proprietary ring-shaped code for Facebook Messenger. Defunct as of 2019, replaced by
Codes standard QR codes.

Micro QR code is a smaller version of the QR code standard for applications where symbol
Micro QR code
size is limited.

MicroPDF417 is a restricted size barcode, similar to PDF417, which is used to add

Micro PDF417
additional data to linear barcodes.

Designed to disseminate high capacity mobile phone content via existing colour print and
MMCC
electronic media, without the need for network connectivity

NexCode NexCode is developed and patented by S5 Systems.

Nintendo Dot Developed by Olympus Corporation to store songs, images, and mini-games for Game Boy
code Advance on Pokémon trading cards.

Originated by Symbol Technologies. Public domain. – International standard: ISO/IEC

PDF417
15438

Ocode A proprietary matrix code in hexagonal shape.[72]

Qode American proprietary and patented 2D Code from NeoMedia Technologies, Inc.[68]

Initially developed, patented and owned by Denso Wave for automotive components
management; they have chosen not to exercise their patent rights. Can encode Latin and
Japanese Kanji and Kana characters, music, images, URLs, emails. De facto standard for
QR code most modern smartphones. Used with BlackBerry Messenger to pick up contacts rather
than using a PIN code. The most frequently used type of code to scan with smartphones,
and one of the most widely used 2D Codes.[73] Public domain. – International standard:
ISO/IEC 18004
 Rectangular
Rectangular extension of QR Code Originated by Denso Wave. Public domain. –
Micro QR Code
International standard: ISO/IEC 23941
(rMQR Code)

Developed and patented[74][75] by Hewlett-Packard Labs. A time-varying 2D pattern using to

encode data via brightness fluctuations in an image, for the purpose of high bandwidth
Screencode data transfer from computer displays to smartphones via smartphone camera input.
Inventors Timothy Kindberg and John Collomosse, publicly disclosed at ACM HotMobile
2008.[76]

Circular pattern codes for camera phones. Originally from High Energy Magic Ltd in name
ShotCode
Spotcode. Before that most likely termed TRIPCode.

Snapcode, also
called Boo-R Used by Snapchat, Spectacles, etc. US9111164B1[77][78][79]
code

A proprietary code developed by Electronic Automation Ltd. in 1981. It is possible to

encode more than 100 numeric digits in a space of only 5mm x 5mm. User selectable error
correction allows up to 40% of the code to be destroyed and still remain readable. The
Snowflake Code
code is used in the pharmaceutical industry and has an advantage that it can be applied to
products and materials in a wide variety of ways, including printed labels, ink-jet printing,
laser-etching, indenting or hole punching.[41][80][81]

SPARQCode QR code encoding standard from MSKYNET, Inc.

This is a combination of the two barcodes Code 39 and MicroPDF417, forming a 2D

TLC39 pattern. It is also known as Telecommunications Industry Forum (TCIF) Code 39 or TCIF
Linked Code 39.[82]

Designed for mobile phone scanning.[83] Developed by Lark Computer, a Romanian

Trillcode
company.[71]

Developed and patented by VOICEYE, Inc. in South Korea, it aims to allow blind and visually
VOICEYE impaired people to access printed information. It also claims to be the 2D Code that has
the world's largest storage capacity.

WeChat Mini
A circular code with outward-projecting lines.[84]
Program code

Example images

First, second and third generation barcodes

GTIN-12 number EAN-13 (GTIN-13) "Wikipedia" encoded "*WIKI39*" encoded
encoded in UPC-A number encoded in in Code 93 in Code 39
barcode symbol. First EAN-13 barcode
and last digit are symbol. First digit is
always placed always placed
outside the symbol to outside the symbol,
indicate Quiet Zones additionally right
that are necessary for quiet zone indicator
barcode scanners to (>) is used to indicate
work properly Quiet Zones that are
necessary for
barcode scanners to
work properly

'Wikipedia" encoded An example of a PDF417 sample Lorem ipsum

in Code 128 stacked barcode. boilerplate text as
Specifically a four segment Data
"Codablock" barcode. Matrix 2D
"This is an example Text 'EZcode' High Capacity Color "Wikipedia, The Free
Aztec symbol for Barcode of the URL Encyclopedia" in
Wikipedia" encoded in for Wikipedia's article several languages
Aztec Code on High Capacity encoded in
Color Barcode DataGlyphs

Two different 2D The QR code for the MaxiCode example. ShotCode sample
barcodes used in film: Wikipedia URL. "Quick This encodes the
Dolby Digital between Response", the most string "Wikipedia, The
the sprocket holes popular 2D barcode. Free Encyclopedia"
with the "Double-D" It is open in that the
logo in the middle, specification is
and Sony Dynamic disclosed and the
Digital Sound in the patent is not
blue area to the left of exercised.[85]
the sprocket holes
 detail of Twibright A KarTrak railroad
Optar scan from laser Automatic Equipment
printed paper, Identification label on
carrying 32 kbit/s a caboose in Florida
Ogg Vorbis digital
music (48 seconds
per A4 page)

In popular culture

In architecture, a building in Lingang New City by German architects Gerkan, Marg and Partners
incorporates a barcode design,[86] as does a shopping mall called Shtrikh-kod (Russian for barcode)
in Narodnaya ulitsa ("People's Street") in the Nevskiy district of St. Petersburg, Russia.[87]

In media, in 2011, the National Film Board of Canada and ARTE France launched a web
documentary entitled Barcode.tv, which allows users to view films about everyday objects by
scanning the product's barcode with their iPhone camera.[88][89]

In professional wrestling, the WWE stable D-Generation X incorporated a barcode into their entrance
video, as well as on a T-shirt.[90][91]

In video games, the protagonist of the Hitman video game series has a barcode tattoo on the back
of his head; QR codes can also be scanned in a side mission in Watch Dogs. The 2018 videogame
Judgment features QR Codes that protagonist Takayuki Yagami can photograph with his phone
camera. These are mostly to unlock parts for Yagami's Drone.[92]

Interactive Textbooks were first published by Harcourt College Publishers to Expand Education
Technology with Interactive Textbooks.[93]
Designed barcodes

Some companies integrate custom designs into barcodes on their consumer products without
impairing their readability.

Opposition

Some have regarded barcodes to be an intrusive surveillance technology. Some Christians,

pioneered by a 1982 book The New Money System 666 by Mary Stewart Relfe, believe the codes hide
the number 666, representing the "Number of the beast".[94] Old Believers, a separation of the
Russian Orthodox Church, believe barcodes are the stamp of the Antichrist.[95] Television host Phil
Donahue described barcodes as a "corporate plot against consumers".[96]

See also

Automated identification and data capture (AIDC)

Barcode printer

Campus card

European Article Numbering-Uniform Code Council

Global Trade Item Number

 Identifier

Inventory control system

Object hyperlinking

Semacode

SPARQCode (QR code)

List of GS1 country codes

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Further reading

Automating Management Information Systems: Barcode Engineering and Implementation – Harry E.

Burke, Thomson Learning, ISBN 0-442-20712-3

Automating Management Information Systems: Principles of Barcode Applications – Harry E. Burke,

Thomson Learning, ISBN 0-442-20667-4

The Bar Code Book – Roger C. Palmer, Helmers Publishing, ISBN 0-911261-09-5, 386 pages

The Bar Code Manual – Eugene F. Brighan, Thompson Learning, ISBN 0-03-016173-8

Handbook of Bar Coding Systems – Harry E. Burke, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, ISBN 978-0-
442-21430-2, 219 pages

Information Technology for Retail:Automatic Identification & Data Capture Systems – Girdhar Joshi,
Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-569796-0, 416 pages

Lines of Communication – Craig K. Harmon, Helmers Publishing, ISBN 0-911261-07-9, 425 pages

Punched Cards to Bar Codes – Benjamin Nelson, Helmers Publishing, ISBN 0-911261-12-5, 434
pages

Revolution at the Checkout Counter: The Explosion of the Bar Code – Stephen A. Brown, Harvard
University Press, ISBN 0-674-76720-9

Reading Between The Lines – Craig K. Harmon and Russ Adams, Helmers Publishing, ISBN 0-
911261-00-1, 297 pages

The Black and White Solution: Bar Code and the IBM PC – Russ Adams and Joyce Lane, Helmers
Publishing, ISBN 0-911261-01-X, 169 pages

Sourcebook of Automatic Identification and Data Collection – Russ Adams, Van Nostrand Reinhold,
ISBN 0-442-31850-2, 298 pages

Inside Out: The Wonders of Modern Technology – Carol J. Amato, Smithmark Pub,
ISBN 0831746572, 1993
External links

Free Online Barcode Generator (http://barcode.wiki/) .

128 Barcode generator (https://zaavia.net/products/isbt-128-labeling-system)