Fundamental of Fluid Mechanics GET 205

Lagos State University of Science and Technology

Introduction

Fluid Mechanics is concerned with the study of fluids and the ways in which they
interact with forces. Both liquids and gases are considered to fluids for the purpose of
this field of study

Text Book

 Fluid Mechanics - OLU OGBOJA

 An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics by G.IC Batchelor
 Fluid Mechanics by L.O Laundev and E.M Lifstiz
 Fluid Mechanics by Yunus Gengel and Jhlou Gimbala
 Fluid Mechanics by R.I Gorde and A.J Murajgaoiut

Fluid Mechanism deals with three aspects of Static, Kinematic and Dynamics.

* Fluid Statics - Study of fluid at rest

* Fluid Kinematic- study of fluid in motion without considering the effect of external
pressures.

* Fluid Dynamics- study the effect of all pressures including the external pressures on
the moving fluid

FLUID DYNAMICS

Fluid dynamics is a branch of Fluid Mechanics that studies the behavior of fluids
(liquids and gases) in motion. It focuses on understanding how forces affect the flow
and movement of fluids and how fluids interact with surfaces and each other. Fluid
dynamics is used in a wide variety of fields, from engineering to environmental
science, because it helps predict and control the behavior of fluids in natural and
human-made systems.
Key concepts in fluid dynamics include:

1. Flow Types: Fluids can flow in different ways, often categorized as laminar
(smooth, orderly) or turbulent (chaotic, irregular). Understanding these types of flow
is crucial for applications like designing aircraft wings or pipelines.
2. Conservation Laws: Three main principles guide fluid dynamics:

 Conservation of Mass: The mass of fluid in a closed system remains constant

over time.
 Conservation of Momentum: The forces on a fluid element cause it to
accelerate, as governed by Newton's second law.
 Conservation of Energy: The total energy (kinetic, potential, and internal) of a
fluid remains constant, subject to the influence of work done by or on the fluid.

3. Equations of Motion: These include the Navier-Stokes equations, which describe

how the velocity field of a fluid changes over time. The equation account for factors
like viscosity, pressure, and external forces.

Applications: Fluid dynamics is essential in many fields, such as:

 Aerodynamics (for designing cars, airplanes, and wind turbines)

 Hydraulics (for managing water resources, like in dams and irrigation)
 Meteorology (for understanding weather patterns and climate)
 Oceanography (for studying ocean currents and tides)
 Medicine (for understanding blood flow and respiratory systems)

Overall, fluid dynamics is fundamental to predicting and manipulating the behavior of

fluids in various applications.

The principles of mass, momentum, and energy conservation are foundational tools in
fluid dynamics, and they can be applied to analyze and solve problems involving fluid
flow.
 1. TYPES OF FLOW IN FLUID MECHANICS

In fluid mechanics, flow types are classified based on various characteristics such as

 flow speed
 flow direction,
 and nature of motion. Here are some primary types of flow:

1. Steady Flow and Unsteady Flow

Steady Flow

 Description: In steady flow, the fluid properties (velocity, pressure, density) at

a given point do not change with time.
 Examples: Water flowing at a constant rate from a tap, or air moving steadily
over an airfoil in stable conditions.
 Applications: Assumed in many engineering calculations for simplicity, such
as in pipeline flow analysis.

Unsteady Flow

 Description: In unsteady flow, fluid properties at any given point change with
time.
 Examples: Surge waves in oceans, startup of a pump in a pipeline, or blood
flow in arteries during the cardiac cycle.
 Applications: Important in cases where rapid fluctuations occur, such as in
engine combustion chambers or during turbulent weather events.

2. Compressible Flow and Incompressible Flow

Compressible Flow

 Description: In compressible flow, fluid density changes significantly in

response to pressure changes, usually due to high velocities.
 Characteristics: Common in gases, especially when velocities approach or
exceed the speed of sound (Mach number ≥ 1).
 Examples: Airflow in jet engines, shock waves in supersonic aircraft.
  Applications: Used in the design of high-speed aircraft, rocket nozzles, and
other aerospace applications.

Incompressible Flow

 Description: In incompressible flow, fluid density is considered constant,

which is a reasonable assumption for most liquids and low-speed gas flows.
 Examples: Water flow in rivers, oil flow in pipelines.
 Applications: Assumed in most hydraulic systems and in many liquid flow
applications.

3. Viscous Flow and Non-Viscous (Ideal) Flow

Viscous Flow

 Description: Viscous flow considers the effects of fluid viscosity, causing

resistance and energy loss.
 Examples: Flow of honey or glycerin, where viscosity plays a significant role.
 Applications: Viscous effects are crucial in lubrication, pipelines, and design
of fluid systems involving thicker fluids.

Non-Viscous (Ideal) Flow

 Description: Ideal or non-viscous flow ignores the effects of viscosity,

assuming no internal friction.
 Examples: Hypothetical flow used in theoretical calculations and simplified
analyses.
 Applications: Simplifies equations, such as the Bernoulli equation, for ideal
fluids without frictional losses.

4. Rotational and Irrotational Flow

 Rotational Flow: Fluid particles have rotational motion about their own axes.
Example: swirling motion in a vortex.
 Irrotational Flow: No rotation of fluid particles around their own axes,
common in idealized potential flow.
  Applications: Used in the analysis of vortices and complex flow fields in
aerodynamics.

5. Uniform and Non-Uniform Flow

 Uniform Flow: Fluid properties like velocity are the same at every point in a
given section.
 Non-Uniform Flow: Fluid properties vary at different points within a given
section.
 Examples: Uniform flow occurs in a straight pipe with constant diameter and
flow rate; non-uniform flow occurs near pipe inlets or outlets where conditions
are changing.

6. One-Dimensional, Two-Dimensional, and Three-Dimensional Flow

 One-Dimensional Flow: Properties vary along one spatial dimension only

(ideal for pipe flow).
 Two-Dimensional Flow: Properties vary along two dimensions, often applied
to flow over wings.
 Three-Dimensional Flow: Properties vary along all three dimensions, used in
complex, real-world fluid systems.

7. Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow

Laminar Flow

 Description: Laminar flow is smooth and orderly, with fluid particles moving
in parallel layers without crossing each other.
 Characteristics: It occurs at low velocities and is characterized by low
Reynolds numbers (Re < 2000).
 Examples: Flow of oil through a pipe, blood flow in small vessels.
 Applications: Often observed in controlled laboratory settings, precise
instrumentation, and cases where fluid motion needs to be predictable.
Turbulent Flow

 Description: Turbulent flow is chaotic, with fluid particles moving irregularly,

causing eddies and vortices.
 Characteristics: It occurs at high velocities and high Reynolds numbers (Re >
4000).
 Examples: River flow during heavy rain, airflow around a moving vehicle, and
mixing in stirred tanks.
 Applications: Used in industrial mixing and combustion processes where
enhanced mixing and rapid heat transfer are beneficial.

Transitional Flow

 Description: Transitional flow occurs between laminar and turbulent flow and
is marked by intermittency between smooth and chaotic patterns.
 Characteristics: Transitional flow generally has Reynolds numbers between
2000 and 4000.
 Examples: Water flow in pipelines where velocity is gradually increasing,
airflow in boundary layers around wings as speed increases.

Understanding these types of flow helps engineers and scientists design and optimize
systems for fluid handling, transport, and control in various applications, from
pipelines and hydraulic systems to aircraft and environmental fluid dynamics.

REYNOLD NUMBERS
The Reynolds number (Re) is a dimensionless quantity in fluid mechanics that helps
predict the flow regime in a fluid system, distinguishing between laminar and
turbulent flow. It represents the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces within a fluid
and provides insight into whether the fluid will flow smoothly or with chaotic
fluctuations.

Definition of Reynolds Number

The Reynolds number is defined as:

Re=ρVD/μ​
 =VD/ν​
where:

 ρ = fluid density (kg/m³),

 V = characteristic velocity of the fluid (m/s),
 D= characteristic length or hydraulic diameter (m),
 μ\m = dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pa·s or N·s/m²),
 ν=μ/ρ= kinematic viscosity of the fluid (m²/s).

The Reynolds number has no units since it’s a ratio of forces.

Physical Interpretation

The Reynolds number compares two types of forces:

 Inertial forces: Associated with the motion of the fluid; they push the fluid to
continue moving in a given direction.
 Viscous forces: Associated with the internal friction of the fluid; they resist
motion and tend to smooth out any velocity differences within the fluid

Flow Regimes Based on Reynolds Number

The Reynolds number determines different flow regimes, especially in a pipe or duct:

Laminar Flow: Re<2000\text{Re} < 2000Re<2000

 Fluid flows in parallel layers with minimal mixing and smooth, orderly
movement.
 Each fluid layer moves with a constant velocity profile relative to its position.
 Viscous forces dominate, and there is little energy loss due to turbulence.

Transitional Flow: 2000<Re<40002000 < \text{Re} < 40002000<Re<4000

 This regime represents an unstable region where the flow can shift between
laminar and turbulent.
 Flow can fluctuate, with small disturbances potentially leading to turbulent
behavior.
 Often challenging to analyze due to its variability.
Turbulent Flow: Re>4000\text{Re} > 4000Re>4000

 Fluid motion is chaotic, with swirling eddies and vortices that mix the fluid
significantly.
 Inertial forces dominate, and energy is dissipated due to turbulence.
 The velocity profile is flatter, with more uniform speed across the cross-section.

These threshold values can vary depending on the type of flow (pipe flow, open
channel flow, boundary layer flow, etc.) and geometry.

Applications of Reynolds Number

Reynolds number is crucial for predicting and controlling flow types in various
engineering applications:

Pipe Flow: Engineers use Reynolds number to determine if flow will be laminar or
turbulent in piping systems, influencing pipe sizing, pumping requirements, and
energy loss calculations.

Aerodynamics and Hydrodynamics: In designing aircraft wings, car bodies, or

underwater vessels, Reynolds number helps predict boundary layer behavior and drag
forces, impacting fuel efficiency and stability.

Heat Transfer: Heat exchangers rely on fluid dynamics for efficiency. Turbulent
flow enhances heat transfer rates due to mixing but can increase pumping power
requirements.

Environmental Engineering: Rivers, air flows, and pollutant dispersion are affected
by the Reynolds number. Laminar flow keeps pollutants in discrete layers, while
turbulent flow promotes mixing.

In Laminar Flow: The velocity profile is parabolic. The maximum velocity occurs at
the center of the pipe, with a steep decrease toward the walls due to viscous drag.

In Turbulent Flow: The profile is flatter in the central region and rapidly decreases
near the walls, creating a boundary layer where the effects of viscosity are significant.
Outside the boundary layer, fluid motion is dominated by inertial forces.
The Reynolds number is a powerful tool for anticipating flow patterns and behaviors
in fluids, making it foundational in fluid mechanics, engineering, and various physical
sciences.

Flow Descriptions

1. Lagrangian (following the particle)

In rigid body mechanics the motion of a body is described in terms of the body’s
position in time. This body can be translating and possibly rotating, but not
deforming. This description, following a particle in time, is a Lagrangian description,
with velocity vector

Using the Lagrangian approach, we can describe a particle located at point x = ( x0, y0 ,
z0 ) for some time t = to, such that the particle velocity is

V = ∂x /∂t and a = ∂v /∂t

We can use Newton’s Law of motion (F=ma) on the body to determine the
acceleration and thus, the velocity and position. However, in fluid mechanics, it is
difficult to track a single fluid particle. But in the lab we can observe many particles
passing by one single
location
2. Eulerian (observing at one location):
In the lab, we can easily observe many particles passing a single location, and we can
make measurements such as drag on a stationary model as fluid flows past. Thus it is
useful to use the Eulerian description, or control volume approach, and describe the
flow at every fixed point in space (x, , y z) as a function of time.
 2. Conservation Laws in Fluid Dynamics

In fluid dynamics, conservation laws play a fundamental role in describing how

physical quantities such as mass, momentum, and energy behave within a fluid flow.
These laws are derived from general principles and can be applied to any fluid
element, which is a small volume within the fluid. Here’s a breakdown of the main
conservation laws in fluid dynamics, along with explanations and calculations for
each.
Conservation of Mass (Continuity Equation)
The conservation of mass in fluid dynamics is expressed by the continuity equation,
which states that mass cannot be created or destroyed within a closed system. This
means that the rate of mass entering a volume is equal to the rate of mass exiting that
volume if the mass within the volume remains constant over time. The conservation
of mass principle states that the mass of fluid in a closed system must remain constant
over time. In a flow system, this is often expressed by the continuity equation, which
is especially useful in analyzing incompressible flows, like water in pipes.

For steady, incompressible flow:

A1V1=A2V2----------------------------------------(1)​

where:

 A is the cross-sectional area of the flow.

 V is the fluid velocity.

This equation means that if a fluid is flowing through a pipe that changes in diameter,
the velocity of the fluid will adjust accordingly to maintain a constant flow rate.

How to use it:

 In pipe flow analysis, use the continuity equation to determine how velocity
changes with changes in pipe diameter.
 In open channels or ducts, apply this principle to check for mass balance
when the flow rate is known at different points.
Mathematical Formulation:

Let’s now consider a general control volume immersed in a fluid:

We can write a 2D mass balance equation for the fluid entering and exiting the control
volume.

Mass Flow In - Mass Flow Out= Mass accumulated

ṁin - ṁout = ṁacc

Which simplifies to,

In three dimensions, the derivation is the same, and we have:

or in vector notation, recalling the gradient operator,

We have
Equation of flow for incompressible flows, where ρ is constant, the equation
simplifies to:

Calculation:

1. The stream function for two separate flow are:

U= xy
V= ln(X2+Y2)
Derive the expression for the velocity components of each flow and the combined
flow. Check if the flow field satisfies the conditions for steady incompressible flow.

For the individual flow, the flow profile is in two dimensions ( X, Y).

U= xy

The velocity component for flow in U field is given by

∂U/∂x + ∂U/∂y

∂U/∂x= y

∂U/∂y = x

The velocity component for flow in U field is

∂U/∂x + ∂U/∂y= (y+x)

For V= ln(X2+Y2)

The velocity component for flow in V field is given by

∂V/∂x + ∂V/∂y

∂V/∂x = 2X /X2+Y2

∂V/∂y = 2Y /X2+Y2
Refer to your mathematical lesson on partial integration

∂V/∂x + ∂V/∂y = 2X /X2+Y2 + 2Y /X2+Y2

=2 /X2+Y * (X+Y)

The velocity function for the combine flow is given by

(∂U/∂x + ∂U/∂y) + (∂V/∂x + ∂V/∂y)

= (y+x) + 2 /X2+Y * (X+Y)

For the flow to be steady incompressible (∂U/∂x + ∂U/∂y) + (∂V/∂x + ∂V/∂y) =0

The flow did not satisfy the conditions for steady incompressible flow because the
combine velocity flow field is not equal to zero.

If the equation of flow is given with respect to the time profile as in Lagrangian
approach then the velocity of flow will be given by V = ∂x /∂t. related example will
be demonstrated in the class during the lecture .

3. Conservation of Momentum (Navier-Stokes Equation)

The conservation of momentum in fluid dynamics is governed by the Navier-Stokes

equations. These equations describe how the momentum of fluid particles changes
due to forces acting on them, including pressure, viscosity, and external forces like
gravity. The conservation of momentum principle states that the rate of change of
momentum in a system is equal to the sum of external forces acting on the fluid. In
fluid dynamics, this is often expressed by the Navier-Stokes equations, which
govern how fluid velocities change over time due to pressure, viscous forces, and
external forces.

For a simple control volume, this is often expressed as:

Force=d/dt (mass×velocity)------------------(2)

FD= Cf * (ρAV) * V/2

Where Cf is the coefficient of skin friction . Cf= 1.328(ReL)1/2 for the laminar flow, and
Cf = 0.074(ReT)0.2, for turbulent flow condition.

In steady flow, the momentum equation can be simplified and applied to calculate
the effects of pressure, gravity, and friction on the fluid’s velocity and direction.

How to use it:

 In designing pipe systems, calculate pressure drops and flow velocity changes
due to friction and turns in the pipe.
 In aerodynamics, apply momentum conservation to study forces on objects
like wings, where the change in air momentum creates lift.
 In hydraulics, use it to analyze force exerted by flowing water on structures
like dams or channels.

3. Conservation of Energy (Bernoulli’s Equation)

The conservation of energy principle states that the total energy in a steady, ideal fluid
flow (ignoring friction) remains constant along a streamline. This is expressed by
Bernoulli’s equation:

P+ ρV2+ ρgh=constant--------------(3)

Or

P/ρg + V2/g + h= constant

where:

 P is the pressure energy per unit volume.

 ρ is the fluid density.
 V is the fluid velocity.
 g is the acceleration due to gravity.
 h is the height above a reference level.

How to use it:

 In pressure measurement: Use Bernoulli’s equation to relate pressure

differences with fluid velocity, as seen in devices like Pitot tubes.
  In pipe and channel flow analysis, apply it to determine how pressure
changes with elevation and velocity, such as calculating head losses in pipe
systems.
 In hydraulic machines like pumps and turbines, use energy conservation to
relate input and output energy, evaluating efficiency.

By using these principles in combination, you can solve complex fluid problems by
analyzing how mass, momentum, and energy are balanced and transferred through a
system.

Mathematical Formulation:

For an incompressible and Newtonian fluid, the Navier-Stokes equation in vector

form is:

ρ(∂t/∂V+(V.∇)V) = −∇p+μ∇2V+F

where:

 ∂t/∂V​ is the local acceleration of the fluid,

 (V.∇)V is the convective acceleration (nonlinear term representing the
momentum change due to fluid motion),
 ∇p represents the pressure gradient,
 μ∇2V represents the viscous force,
 F⃗ is the external force per unit volume, often due to gravity.

Calculation: In practical applications, this equation is solved along with the

continuity and momentum equations to obtain temperature fields and to study heat
transfer within the fluid.

Worked examples.

1. The inlet velocity of a gas flowing through a converging-diverging nozzle is

100m/s and the cross-sectional area at the inlet and at the throat are 0.05m2 and
0.02m2 respectively. If the flow is incompressible calculate the velocity at the throat
using the momentum equation.
Solution

For incompressible flow, the mass flow rate is conserved:

Since density ρ constant:

ṁin = ṁt

A1* v1= At * vt​

Vt = A1* v1/At

vt​ = (0.02 / 0.05)*100

= 250m/s.

2. A flow in a pipe is at Mach 0.85. Determine whether the flow is compressible or

incompressible, and calculate the speed of sound in the fluid if the flow velocity is
200 m/s.

Solution:

Given:

Mach number, M=0.85

Flow velocity, V=200 m/s

To find the speed of sound:

M= V/ a

Where a is the velocity of sound.

Rearrange to solve for a:

a=V/ M​

Substitute the values

a= 0.85/200m/s

a=235.29m/s
Compressibility Effect: When the flow of a fluid reaches high speeds, the density of

the fluid changes significantly, and the fluid becomes compressible. The Mach

number, which is the ratio of the flow velocity to the speed of sound in the fluid, is

used to characterize this behavior. For subsonic flows, where the Mach number is less

than 1, the fluid is generally treated as incompressible. For supersonic flows, where

the Mach number exceeds 1, compressibility effects become significant

Conclusion:
Since the Mach number is less than 1 (M=0.85M ), the flow is incompressible. The
speed of sound is 235.29 m/s.

3. A water jet of density 1000kg/m3 exits from a nozzle of diameter 0.05m at a

velocity of 20m/s and strikes a flat plate at an angle θ to the plate's surface (measured
from the normal). The plate is stationary, and the flow is fully deflected parallel to the
plate. The impact angle is θ=450. Calculate. The force exerted by the fluid on the plate
in both the normal and tangential directions and the magnitude of the resultant force.

Solution:

The mass flow rate is:

ṁ = ρAv

The cross-sectional area of the jet:

A=πD2/4

=π(0.05)2/4

=1.963×10−3 m2

Thus:

ṁ = (1000)(1.963×10−3)(20)
=39.26 kg/s.

The jet velocity components relative to the plate are:

Normal component: vn = vcosθ,

Tangential component: vt=vsinθ.

At the plate:

The normal velocity is reduced to 0 (complete stop).

The tangential velocity remains unchanged (fluid slides along the plate).

The momentum changes are:

Normal Direction:

Δvn= vcosθ-0 = vcosθ

Tangential Direction:

Δvt = 0 (no change, as the flow is deflected parallel)

The force components are derived from the momentum flux:

Normal Force:

Fn= ṁ Δvn

=ṁ vcosθ

Substituting:

Fn=(39.26)(20cos450).

cos450=0.707

Fn=(39.26)(20* 0.707)

= 554.8N

Since the tangential force is zero, the resultant force is equal to the normal force:
 Fresultant = Fn = 554.8 N.

This calculation assumes ideal flow conditions with no losses

ASSIGNMENT

1. The free stream velocity of the flow over a flat plate is 7m/s, and the kinematic
viscosity of the fluid is 2.37 x 10-6 m2/s, while its specific gravity is 1.26. The plate is
3m long and 1m wide. Calculate the coefficient of skin friction and the force required
to hold the plate stationary. (Hints: FD= Cf * ρAV2 /2 )

2. A water jet strikes a stationary flat plate inclined at an angle 450 to the jet's
direction The jet has a diameter of 0.05m and has a velocity of 20m/s. If the density of
the water jet is 1000kg/m3 calculate the normal and the tangential forces acting on
the plate and the resultant force on the plate.
3. The stream function for two separate flow are:
U= x2y
V= X2+Y2
Derive the expression for the velocity components of each flow and the combined
flow. Check if the flow field satisfies the conditions for steady incompressible flow.