TITLE: GAUSS’ LAW Figures 1.1 and 2.

1 demonstrate a connection between

OBJECTIVE: Use Gauss’s law to infer electric field the sign (positive, negative, or zero) of the net charge enclosed
due to uniformly distributed charges by a closed surface and the sense (outward, inward, or none) of
on long wires, spheres, and large the net electric flux through the surface. There is also a
plates. connection between the magnitude of the net charge inside the
closed surface and the strength of the net “flow” of E over the
INTRODUCTION surface. In both Figs. 3.1a and 3.1b there is a single point charge
Gauss’s law is part of the key to using symmetry inside the box, but in Fig. 3.2b the magnitude of the charge is
considerations to simplify electric-field calculations. For twice as great, and so E is everywhere twice as great in
example, the field of a straight-line or plane-sheet charge magnitude as in Fig. 3.1a. If we keep in mind the fluid-flow
distribution, which we derived using some fairly strenuous analogy, this means that the net outward electric flux is also
integrations, can be obtained in a few lines with the help of twice as great in Fig. 3.1b as in Fig. 3.1a. This suggests that the
Gauss’s law. But Gauss’s law is more than just a way to make net electric flux through the surface of the box is directly
certain calculations easier. Indeed, it is a fundamental proportional to the magnitude of the net charge enclosed by
statement about the relationship between electric charges and the box.
electric fields. Among other things, Gauss’s law can help us Figure 2.1
understand how electric charge distributes itself over Three cases in which there is zero net charge inside a
conducting bodies. box and no net electric flux through the surface of the box. (a)
Key Concepts An empty box with E=0 (b) A box containing one positive and
 Electric Flux one equal-magnitude negative point charge. (c) An empty box
 Gauss’ Law immersed in a uniform electric field.
DISCUSSION
 Electric Flux and Enclosed Charge
Electric field vectors point out of the surface, we say
that there is an outward electric flux. (The word “flux” comes
from a Latin word meaning “flow.”) In Figs. 1.1c and 1.1d the
vectors point into the surface, and the electric flux is inward.
Figure 1.1 The electric field on the surface of boxes containing
(a) a single positive point charge, (b) two positive point charges,
(c) a single negative point charge, or (d) two negative point
charges.

Figure 3.1
(a) A box enclosing a positive point charge +q (b)
Doubling the charge causes the magnitude of E to double, and it
doubles the electric flux through the surface. (c) If the charge
stays the same but the dimensions of the box are doubled, the
flux stays the same. The magnitude of E on the surface
decreases by a factor of but the area through which E “flows”
increases by a factor of 4.

Positive charge inside the box goes with an outward

electric flux through the box’s surface, and negative charge
inside goes with an inward electric flux. What happens if there
is zero charge inside the box? In Fig. 2.1a the box is empty and
everywhere, so there is no electric flux into or out of the box. In
Fig. 2.1b, one positive and one negative point charge of equal
magnitude are enclosed within the box, so the net charge inside
the box is zero. There is an electric field, but it “flows into” the
box on half of its surface and “flows out of” the box on the
other half. Hence there is no net electric flux into or out of the
box.
 When the area is perpendicular to the flow velocity v
and the flow velocity is the same at all points in the fluid,
the volume flow rate dV/dt is the area multiplied by the
flow speed v.

dV
= vA
dt

When the rectangle is tilted at an angle so that its face

is not perpendicular to v the area that counts is the silhouette
area that we see when we look in the direction of This area,
which is outlined in red and labeled A , is the projection of the
To summarize, for the special cases of a closed surface area A onto a surface perpendicular to v Two sides of the
in the shape of a rectangular box and charge distributions made projected rectangle have the same length as the original one,
up of point charges or infinite charged sheets, we have found: but the other two are foreshortened by a factor of cosϕ so the
 Whether there is a net outward or inward electric fluxprojected area A is equal to Acosϕ . Then the volume flow rate
through a closed surface depends on the sign of the through A is,
enclosed charge.
 Charges outside the surface do not give a net electric dV
flux through the surface. = vAcosϕ
dt
 The net electric flux is directly proportional to the net
amount of charge enclosed within the surface but is If ϕ=90 °, dV /dt=¿ 0; the wire rectangle is edge-on
otherwise independent of the size of the closed surface to the flow, and no fluid passes through the rectangle.
 Activity #1 Also, vcosϕ is the component of the vector
Answer the question carefully. perpendicular to the plane of the area Calling this component v
If all of the dimensions of the box in Fig. 1.1a are increased ⊥ we can rewrite the volume flow rate as
by a factor of 3, what effect will this change have on the
electric flux through the box? dV
 Calculating Electric Flux = v⊥
dt
Flux: Fluid-Flow Analogy
Figure 4.1 shows a fluid flowing steadily from left to
right. Let’s examine the volume flow rate (in, say, cubic
meters per second) through the wire rectangle with area A.
The volume flow rate of fluid through the wire rectangle (a)
is when the area of the rectangle is perpendicular to v and
(b) is vAcosϕ when the rectangle is tilted at an angle ϕ .
 between electric charge and electric field. It was formulated
by Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855), one of the greatest
mathematicians of all time.
 Point Charge Inside a Spherical Surface
Gauss’s law states that the total electric flux through
any closed surface (a surface enclosing a definite volume)
is proportional to the total (net) electric charge inside the
surface.
The field lines radiate out equally in all directions. We
place this charge at the center of an imaginary spherical
surface with radius R. The magnitude of the electric field at
every point on the surface is given by,

1 q
E=
4 π ϵ 0 R2

At each point on the surface, E is perpendicular to the

surface, and its magnitude is the same at every point. The
total electric flux is the product of the field magnitude E and
the total area A= 4π R2 of the sphere:

***The flux is independent of the radius R of the

sphere. It depends only on the charge q enclosed by the
sphere.
 Sample Problem
Electric flux through a disk
 General Form of Gauss’s Law
Problem: A disk of radius 0.10 m is oriented with its normal
unit vector n at 30° to a uniform electric field of magnitude
2.0 x 103 N /C . (Since this isn’t a closed surface, it has no
“inside” or “outside.” That’s why we have to specify the
direction of n in the figure.) (a) What is the electric flux
through the disk? (b) What is the flux through the disk if it is ***The total electric flux through a closed surface is
turned so that is perpendicular to E (c) What is the flux equal to the total (net) electric charge inside the surface,
through the disk if n is parallel to E ?
divided by ϵ 0 .
SOLUTION
 Activity #3
This problem is about a flat surface in a uniform electric
A charged paint is spread in a very thin uniform layer
field, so we can apply the ideas of this section. We calculate the
over the surface of a plastic sphere of diameter 12.0 cm,
electric flux using,
giving it a charge of -35μC. Find the electric field (a) just
inside the paint layer; (b) just outside the paint layer; (c)
5.00 cm outside the surface of the paint layer.

 Applications of Gauss’ Law

Gauss’s law is valid for any distribution of charges and
for any closed surface. Gauss’s law can be used in two ways.
If we know the charge distribution, and if it has enough
symmetry to let us evaluate the integral in Gauss’s law, we
can find the field. Or if we know the field, we can use
Gauss’s law to find the charge distribution, such as charges
on conducting surfaces.
In practical problems we often encounter situations in
which we want to know the electric field caused by a charge
distribution on a conductor. These calculations are aided by
the following remarkable fact: When excess charge is
placed on a solid conductor and is at rest, it resides entirely
 Activity #2 on the surface, not in the interior of the material.
Problem: A point charge q= +3.0 μC is surrounded by an
imaginary sphere of radius r= 0.20 m centered on the  Assessment
charge. Find the resulting electric flux through the sphere. Read and analyze the problem carefully.

 Gauss’ Law 1. A flat sheet of paper of area 0.250 m 2 is oriented so that

Gauss’s law is an alternative to Coulomb’s law. While the normal to the sheet is at an angle of 60° to a uniform
completely equivalent to Coulomb’s law, Gauss’s law electric field of magnitude 14 N/C (a) Find the magnitude of
provides a different way to express the relationship the electric flux through the sheet. (b) Does the answer to
 part (a) depend on the shape of the sheet? Why or why
not? (c) For what angle between the normal to the sheet
and the electric field is the magnitude of the flux through
the sheet (i) largest and (ii) smallest? Explain your answers

2. You measure an electric field of 1.25 x 106 N /C at a

distance of 0.150 m from a point charge. There is no other
source of electric field in the region other than this point
charge. (a) What is the electric flux through the surface of a
sphere that has this charge at its center and that has radius
0.150 m? (b) What is the magnitude of this charge?

3. A point charge q1= 4.00 nC is located on the x-axis at x=

2.00 m and a second point charge q2= -6.00 nC is on the y-
axis at 1.0 m What is the total electric flux due to these two
point charges through a spherical surface centered at the
origin and with radius (a) 0.500 m, (b) 1.50 m, (c) 2.50 m?

References

Shipman, J. Wilson J., & Higgins, C. (2013). An Introduction to

Physical Science (13th ed). 20 Channel Center Street,
Boston, MA 02210 USA.

Tillery, B. W. (2009). Physical Sciences (9th ed.) Arizona State

University. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of
the Americas, New York, NY 100020.