MATH 1100

Department of Mathematics and Physics

1st sem SY 2020-2021

MODULE 31

Reasoning and problem solving

Objectives:
Upon completion of this module, you are expected to:
1. Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made
about mathematics and mathematical concepts.
2. Write clear and logical proofs.
3. Solve problems involving patterns and recreational problems following Polya’s
four steps.
4. Organize one’s methods and approaches for proving and solving problems.

1. Reasoning
Today, developing higher-order thinking skills or reasoning and positive attitude toward
mathematics is also given importance. This development is believed to be achieved if
students do not simply wait for the teacher to give directions and information. Students
have to be active problem solvers with a persevering attitude until a reasonable solution
is attained. Students should be encouraged to explore, reason out, and take the initiative
to investigate mathematical principles and create new ideas.

Reasoning requires a logical frame of mind. It is related to cognitive skills such as

discovering patterns, establishing and verifying tentative conclusions, and making
generalizations. Such skills can be best developed through problem solving activities and
investigation in a setting that is characterized by hands-on, minds-on, as well as
cooperative learning.

Reasoning starts with building an argument which is a series of statements typically

used to persuade someone into accepting a conclusion. We discuss two types of
reasoning used to construct effective mathematical reasoning. These are inductive
reasoning and deductive reasoning.

Inductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning is characterized by coming up with a conjecture. A conjecture is
generally an educated guess concluded from repeated observations of specific situations.
We say that a conjecture is valid if the conjecture always holds. We say that it is invalid
if we can find a specific situation that disproves the conjecture. To debunk its validity, it
only takes one counterexample. A counterexample to a conjecture is a situation or a
specific case which shows that the conjecture is false.

1This module is based from the book “Mathematics in the Modern World” by the Department of Mathematics and
Physics, CS, CLSU.
 MATH 1100
Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021

Example 1. Consider the numbers 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, … .

What can you say about them? These numbers are both odd and prime numbers.

Recall: A prime number is a counting number whose only factors are the number itself
and 1. Odd numbers are those integers which when divided by 2 the remainder is 1.

A student makes the following conjecture.

(i) Conjecture 1: “An odd number is a prime number.”
Is Conjecture 1 valid? No.
Counterexample : 9 is odd but not prime.

(ii) Conjecture 2: “Every prime number is an odd number.”

Is Conjecture 2 valid? No.
Counterexample : 2 is prime but not odd.

Words of caution:
Inductive reasoning nevertheless, usually leads to a valid conjecture if done carefully and
systematically. However, it may need to be proven by other means such as deductive
reasoning.

Example 2. Given the number pattern, what is the missing number 𝒚?

Order 1 2 3 4 ... 7 ... 19
Number 0 4 8 12 ... 24 ... 𝒚
Solution
Order Number Pattern
1 0 4 × (1 – 1)
2 4 4 × (2 – 1)
3 8 4 × (3 – 1)
4 12 4 × (4 – 1)
… … …
7 24 4 × (7 – 1)
… … …
19 𝒚 4 × (19 – 1)

Conjecture: The missing number 𝒚 is 𝟕𝟐.

SAQ1: Follow-up questions: Give the 41st and the 401st numbers. 2

2 The 41st number is 160; the 401st number is 1600.

 MATH 1100
Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021

Example 3. Find the sum of the first 50 positive odd numbers.

Solution. First, find a few sums.
Number of terms Sum Pattern
1 1 1 1!
1+3 2 4 2!
1+3+5 3 9 3!
1+3+5+7 4 16 4!

Conjecture: The sum of the first 𝑛 positive odd numbers is 𝑛!.

Reasoning inductively, you would expect that the sum of the first 50 odd numbers is 50!
or 2500.

Example 4.Consider the 8 × 8 chessboard in Figure 1. How many squares are there in
the 8 × 8 chessboard?

Figure 1. 8 × 8 chessboard
If your answer is 64, you might want to think it over again.
First let us, find the pattern from boards with smaller number of divisions.
Board Pattern Number of squares
1 (1 × 1 square)

1 × 1 board
1 (2 × 2 square)
4 (1 × 1 square)
1 + 2! = 5

2 × 2 board 1+4
1 (3 × 3 square)
4 (2 × 2 square)
9 (1 × 1 square) 1 + 2! + 3! = 14

3 × 3 board 1+4+9
 MATH 1100
Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021

Board Pattern Sum

1 (4 × 4 square)
4 (3 × 3 square)
9 (2 × 2 square) 1 + 2! + 3! + 4! = 14
16 (1 × 1 square)
4 × 4 board 1+4+9+16

⋮ ⋮ ⋮

1+4+9+16+25+36+49+64
1 + 2! + 3! + 4! +
5! + 6! + 7! + 8! = 𝟐𝟎𝟒

The number of squares in an 8 × 8 chessboard is 204.

Example 5. This year, Jeanelle’s birthday is on a Wednesday. She observes that next
year it will be on a Thursday, and in two years it will be on a Friday. So she claims,
“My birthday will be on a Wednesday again in seven years.”

Did she use inductive reasoning? Explain.

Solution. Yes, she used inductive reasoning. She made a conjecture by generalizing some
specific observations about the days of her birthday. But her conjecture is incorrect or
invalid; a leap year occurs every four years, thus the pattern she considered does not
hold.

Inductive reasoning is a powerful method of drawing a conclusion, but it is

important to realize that there is no assurance that the observed conjecture is true;
inductive reasoning is rather probabilistic. For this reason, mathematicians are reluctant
to accept a conjecture as an absolute truth until it is formally proven using other methods
such as deductive reasoning.
 MATH 1100
Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021

Deductive Reasoning
Deductive reasoning is the process of reasoning logically from an established
generalization into making a conclusion. It is characterized by applying general principles
to specific situations; and for as long as the general principle being used is true for all
cases and the arguments are valid, then it is guaranteed that the conclusion is also true.

Example 1. For example, consider a very popular generalization in mathematics known

as the Pythagorean Theorem. It states that:
“In any right triangle, the sum of the squares of the legs (shorter
sides) is equal to the square of the hypotenuse (longest side).”

If we know that the lengths of the shorter sides are 8 cm and 15 cm, then we can deduce
the length of the longest side c to be
c2 = 82 + 152
c2 = 64 + 225
c2 = 289
c = 17.
Observe that we used the general rule (Pythagorean Theorem) and applied it to the
specific situation. Thus, the result must be true.

Example 2. Consider the following arguments.

“All CLSU students are bright. Edwin is a CLSU student.
Therefore, Edwin is bright.”

The claim that “Edwin is bright” using deductive reasoning based on the premises or
assumptions that “All CLSU students are bright” and “Edwin is a CLSU student”.

Note that in the assumption, we have the word “All” which pertains to any student of
CLSU. Since Edwin is one of the students of CLSU, as stated in the second statement; the
our claim is valid.

Example 3. The angles 𝛼 and 𝛽 are complementary angles with 𝛽 = 35°. Use deductive
reasoning to find 𝛼.
Solution. It is a fact that two angles are complementary if and only their sum is 900.
That is, 𝛼 + 𝛽 = 90°
𝛼 + 35° = 90°
𝛼 = 90° − 35°
𝛼 = 55°
 MATH 1100
Department of Mathematics and Physics
1st sem SY 2020-2021

Example 4. Use deductive reasoning to find the sum of the 1st 50 positive odd numbers.

Solution. The positive odd numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, . . . form an arithmetic sequence, where

it has been established that
𝑎" = 𝑎# + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 (1 ) and
𝑛
𝑆" = (𝑎# + 𝑎") (2 )
2
where 𝑎" ≔ 𝑛th term
𝑎# ≔ 1st term
𝑛 ≔ number of terms
𝑑 ≔ common difference
𝑆" ≔ sum of the 1st 𝑛 terms

So from (2), 50
𝑆!$ = (1 + 𝑎%$) (3)
2

From (1), 𝑎%$ = 1 + ( 50 − 1)(2) = 99

Substituting 99 to 𝑎%$ in (3), 50

𝑆!$ = (1 + 99)
2
𝑆!$ = 400(1 + 99)